Entomology

The study of insects 4. Grow by molting.

5. Bilateral symmetry of body.
6. Body cavity filled with blood and called as
haemocoel.
7. Tubular alimentary canal with mouth and
anus at anterior and posterior ends.
8. Dorsal heart with valve like ostia.
9. Dorsal brain with ventral nerve cord.
Figure 1. Entomology 10. Striated muscles (with dark and light
bands).
11. No cilia (hair like vibratile structure on the
 The term entomology is derived from two surface of the cell).
Greek words. Entomon means “an insect” 12. Paired, segmented appendages. jointed
and logos means “to study”. appendages that assist with walking and
 The term ‘insect’ is derived from the Latin feeding; the name ‘Arthropoda ’ is derived from
word insectum which means ‘cut into’. Greek words “arthro,” meaning joint, and “pod,”
 Insects are harmful to man as pests of meaning foot.
cultivated crops, animals, stored products, 13. Open Circulatory System - an arthropod’s
carries of human diseases and pests of blood is pumped through open spaces called
household and industrial articles. They are sinuses in order to reach tissues.
also helpful as producers of honey, lac, silk,
dyes, etc., pollinators of crops and as
natural enemies of crop pests. They also
serve as important link in the food-web of
biological cycle in ecosystem.
 Insects are grouped with other animals with
similar characteristics in the Phyllum
Arthropoda.

NAMING OF TAXA
The principal taxa, in descending (most
inclusive to least) order, are:

Kingdom

Phylum

Class 1. Trilobita – trilobites (these are extinct)

-- - oldest of known arthropods

Order 2. Chelicerata - They have no antennae, but

have six pairs of appendages.
Family
Class Merostomata – horseshoe crabs
Genus
Class Arachnida – arachnids
Species (scorpions, spiders, ticks, mites, etc.)
Figure 1. Phylum Arthropoda Mind Map
Class Pycnogonida – sea spiders
ARTHOPODA 3. Myriapoda- termed the Myriapoda because
Characters of phylum Arthropoda: of their large number of legs as compared with
the insects.
1. Segmented body - bodies that are internally
and externally segmented. true centipedes with one pair of legs on each
2. Segments grouped into 2 or 3 regions body segment.
(tagma) known as Tagmosis. 4. Crustacea - Crustacea contains mostly
3. Renewable chitinous exoskeleton - marine arthropods.
- crayfish, amphipods, isopods, shrimp, crabs, Insects minimise the water loss from their body
etc. surface through prevention of water loss (wax
layer of epicuticle, closable spiracles, egg
5. Haxapoda – means six feet shell) conservation of water (capable of
utilizing metabolic water, resorption of water
- includes winged insects(class insect) and
from fecal matter, use less quantity of water to
wingless insect (Entognatha).
remove the nitrogenous waste)
6. Tracheal system of respiration:
Insects
 Insects belong to the largest group of the This ensures direct transfer of adequate
phylum arthropoda in the animal kingdom oxygen to actively breathing tissues. Spiracles
containing up to 75% of the known species through their closing mechanism admit air and
of the animals. Insects are by far the largest restrict water loss.
group of arthropods, whether measured in
7. Higher reproductive potential
terms of numbers of species or number of
individuals. COMPARISON BETWEEN INSECT AND
 An insect can be defined simply as a small, MITE
six-legged animal.
Insect Spider/Mite Spider/Mite
 Insect usually refers to familiar pests or
Insects are hexapoda Mites are octapoda
disease carriers, such as bedbugs,
(i.e. six legs) (i.e. eight legs)
houseflies, clothes moths, Japanese
beetles, aphids, mosquitoes, fleas, Body is divided into Body is divided into
horseflies, and hornets, or to conspicuous head, thorax and cephalothorax and
groups, such as butterflies, moths, and abdomen; where head abdomen; head and
beetles. and thorax are thorax combined to
 Many insects, however, are beneficial from separated. form a cephalothorax.
a human viewpoint; they pollinate plants, Antennae present Antennae absent
produce useful substances, control pest Both simple and All eyes are simple
insects, act as scavengers, and serve as compound eyes
food for other animals. present
Wings may be present Always wingless
or not
Characteristics of an Insect Size: small to large. Size:minute.
1. An insect is a small animal without a
backbone that has the following external
characteristics as an adult: CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS
2. A hardened external skeleton
3. Three distinct body regions: head, thorax, Coleoptera
and abdomen Greek coleos (sheath) + pteron (wing) – the
4. One pair of segmented antennae beetles
5. Three pairs of segmented legs on the
thorax segment Sheath - A protective outer structure that
6. One pair of compound eyes (Some insects encloses another structure.
have no eyes.)
7. One or two pairs of wings (Some adults are Greek origin of the name
wingless.)
8. External mouthparts that include mandibles. Coleoptera, derived from the Greek words
“koleos” meaning sheath and “ptera” meaning
Reasons for dominance
wings, refers to the modified front wings which
1. Capacity for flight
serve as protective covers for the membranous
2. More adaptability or universality hind wings.

3. Smaller size: Common Name: Beetles / Weevils

Majority of insects are small in their size Key Characters:
conferring the following physiological and
ecological advantages. 1. Hardened front wings (elytra) meet in a
straight line down the center of the back.
4. Presence of exoskeleton:
Elytra (sing. elytron) are the hardened,
Insect body is covered with an outer cuticle heavily sclerotized forewings of beetles
called exoskeleton which is made up of a (Order Coleoptera) and are modified to
cuticular protein called Chitin. This is light in protect the hind wings when at rest.
weight and gives strength, rigidity and flexibility
to the insect body.
5. Resistance to desiccation:
The colors of their wings are produced by
minute scales which cover the wing surface.

Scales - On moths and butterflies, scales are

modified setae (hairs) that are
flattened. Scales have pigment as well as
ridges and grooves that reflect and refract light
to produce the varying colours on the wings.

3. Coiled proboscis.

Figure 3. Ladybug Wings Proboscis - Mouthparts that are modified and

elongated.
2. Mandibulate mouthparts. They have
chewing mouthparts.
Mandibles are jaw - like structures that are
good for grasping, holding, and masticating
food.
Mandibulate - feeding mainly on solid food.

Figure 2. siphoning type proboscis

When a butterfly or moth is not drinking, its

"tongue" is wound into a tight coil.  The tongue
is actually a tube, and it is able to extend and
Figure 4. Chewing mouthparts on a scarab beetle siphon water and nectar.  This type of
mouthpart, called "siphoning," is unique to
3.Undergoes complete metamorphosis.
moths and butterflies.
Economic Importance
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BUTTERFLIES
Many beetles are regarded as major pests of
AND MOTHS
agricultural plants and stored products. They
attack all parts of living plants as well as
processed fibers, grains, and wood products.
Scavengers and wood boring beetles are
useful as decomposers and recyclers of
organic nutrients. Predatory species, such as
lady beetles, are important biological control
agents of aphids and scale insects.

Lepidoptera
Greek lepido (scale) + pteron (wing) – the
butterflies and moths
Figure 3. Butterfly antennae are always Capitate
Greek Origins of Name: Lepidoptera, derived
from the Greek words “lepido” for scale and Economic Importance
“ptera” for wings, refers to the flattened hairs
(scales) that cover the body and wings of most Although many Lepidoptera are valued for their
adults. beauty, and a few are useful in commerce
(e.g., the silkworm, Bombyx mori), the larvae of
Common Name:  Butterflies / Moths these insects are probably more destructive to
agricultural crops and forest trees than any
Key Characters:
other group of insects.
1. Front and hind wings with large surface
area Hymenoptera
Greek hymen (membrane) + pteron (wing) –
2. Body and wings mostly covered with tiny the wasps, ants, bees, and sawflies
colored scales.
Greek Origins of Name 5. Antennae are long, prominent and usually
composed of short, straight segments (filiform).
Hymenoptera is derived from the Greek words
“hymen” meaning membrane and “ptera” Filiform - A filiform antenna is thread-like with
meaning wings. long cylindrical segments that are similar in
diameter.
It is also a reference to Hymeno, the Greek
god of marriage. Economic importance

The name is appropriate not only for the Although some species are regarded as pests
membranous nature of the wings, but also for (e.g., sawflies, gall wasps, and some ants),
the manner in which they are “joined together most members of the Hymenoptera are
as one” by the hamuli. extremely beneficial — either as natural
enemies of insect pests (parasitic wasps) or as
Key Characters: pollinators of flowering plants (bees and
1. Wasp-waist present in ants, bees, and
wasps).
wasps
Diptera
Greek di (two) + pteron (wing) – true flies

Greek Origins of Name

Diptera, derived from the Greek words “di”

meaning two and “ptera” meaning wings, refers
to the fact that true flies have only a single pair
of wings.

Figure 4. Wasp-waste in Order Hymenoptera

Common Name: True Flies / Mosquitoes /
Gnats / Midges
2. Mandibulate mouthparts
3. Triangular stigma in front wing of sawflies, Key Characteristics
horntails, and some wasps
1. Front wings membranous; hind wings
modified as small halteres.

Halteres - are an extreme modification among

the order Diptera (true flies), in which the hind
wings are reduced to mere nubs used for
balance and direction during flight.

Figure 5. The purpose of the Stigma (pigmented patch), being a

heavier section of the wing in comparison to nearby sections, is to
assist in gliding.

4. Hamuli (tiny hooks on costa of hind wing)

hold front and hind wings together.
Hamuli - A row of hooks along the margin of
the hind wing that couples the hind
Figure 7. Hover flies/ flowe flies mimic the appearance of bees and
wings and forewings together for flight. wasps to reduce the likelihood of predation; it's easy to diffrentiate
bees versus flies becaus all flies have halteres.

2. Haustellate mouthparts

haustellate - feeding mainly on liquid food.

Economic Importance

The Diptera probably have a greater economic

impact on humans than any other group of
insects. Some flies are pests of agricultural
Figure 6. Hamuli--hooks that hold front and hind wings together.
plants, others transmit diseases to humans and
domestic animals. On the other hand, many
flies are beneficial — particularly those that
pollinate flowering plants, assist in the
decomposition of organic matter, or serve as
biocontrol agents of insect pests.

Hemiptera
Order Hemiptera: Greek hemi (half) + pteron
(wing) – true bugs

Common Name: bugs, leafhoppers, cicadas,

aphids, scale insects.

Key Characteristics ` Figure 9. Saltatorial legs are specialized for jumping.

1. Hemipterans have piercing-and-sucking

mouthparts, which work like a straw. 3. Front wings thickened and parallel-
sided (tegmina).
2. True bugs also have "hemielytra."

Hemielytra are similar to the hard wings

(called "elytra") found on beetles, but on
hemielytra only half of the wing (the half
closest to the body) is hardened, while the
other half is clear and membranous.

Figure 10. Straight tegmina wings of Order Orthoptera.

Tegmina (singular tegmen) are the leathery

forewings of insects in the orders Orthoptera,
Dictyoptera.

Economic Importance

 Grasshoppers and katydids are more of a

Figure 8. Hemelytra hemielytra nuisance than damaging pests in
household gardens.
Economic Importance
 Huge locust swarms can totally destroy
Hemiptera are among the most abundant cereal crops and have contributed to famine
herbivores found in terrestrial habitats. Many in Africa and Asia.
species are pests of cultivated plants. Aphids
and leafhoppers are important carriers of plant Odonata
diseases. Greek Origins of Name:  Odonata, derived
from the Greek “odonto-“, meaning tooth,
Orthoptera refers to the strong teeth found on the
Greek orthos (straight) + pteron (wing) – the mandibles of most adults.
grasshoppers, katydids, and crickets.
Common Name: Dragonflies and Damselflies
Greek Origins of Name:  Orthoptera, derived
from the Greek “ortho” meaning straight and ID Key Characters:
“ptera” meaning wing, refers to the parallel- 1. Rectangular stigma (pigmented patch) near
sided structure of the front wings (tegmina). tip of each wing
Key Characters:

1. Filiform antennae
2. Hind legs modified for jumping
Figure 11. Rectangular stigma (pigmented patch) near tip of each Figure 13. Wide linkage between thorax and abdomen
wing of dragonflies and damselflies assisst in gliding.
2. Workers are cream-colored with beaded
antenna and oval heads
2. Large compound eyes

3. Short, bristle-like antennae

4. In DAMSELFLIES, front and hind wings

are stalked (narrow at the base) and similar
in size and shape

Figure 14. Moniliform (beaded) antennae on termites.

3. Soldiers have larger heads with prominent

mandibles

Figure 12. Damselfly and dragonfly difference.

5. In DRAGONFLIES, hind wings have an

enlarged anal region (broader toward the
base than front wings)

6. Membranous Wings - wings are thin and

more or less transparent. This type of wings is
found among the Odonata and Neuroptera.

Isoptera
Greek iso (equal) + pteron (wing) – the termites
Figure 15. Appearance of immature termites.
Common Name:  Termites / White Ants
Economic Importance
Greek Origins of Name:  Isoptera, derived
from the Greek “iso” meaning equal and “ptera”  Termites are an important part of the
meaning wings, refers to the similar size, community of decomposers.
shape, and venation of the four wings.  They help break down and recycle up to
one third of the annual production of dead
1. Wide junction between thorax and wood.
abdomen  Termites become economic pests when
their appetite for wood and wood products
extends to human homes, building
materials, forests, and other commercial
products.
Blattodea and may carry a variety of human pathogens
on their bodies.
Greek, blatta = an insect that shuns light
Thysanoptera
Common Name:  Cockroaches / Waterbugs Greek thysanos (fringed) + pteron (wing) – the
ID Key Characters: thrips

1. Body elongate oval in shape Common Name:  Thrips

Greek Origins of Name:  Thysanoptera,

derived from the Greek “thysanos” meaning
fringe and “ptera” meaning wings, refers to the
slender wings that bear a dense fringe of long
hairs.

Key Characters:

1. Tiny, tapered body (spindle-shaped –

widest in middle)

2. Fringe of long hairs on each slender wing

Figure 16

2. Pronotum forms transverse oval just behind

head

Figure 18. Fringed wings are slender front and hind wings with long
fringes of hair

3. Mouthparts concealed within head capsule

4. The mandibles and mouthparts are highly
modified for rasping and sucking.
Figure 17. Much of the head and thorax is covered and protected
dorsally by a large plate of exoskeleton (the pronotum).
Economic Importance

3. Short, multi-segmented cerci  Many thrips are destructive pests of plants,

especially grain crops, fruits and
4. Long. filiform antennae vegetables, and ornamentals. Feeding
activities result in plant deformities,
 Wings may or may not be present - many
scarring, loss of yield, and in some cases,
Australian native species of cockroach
transmission of plant pathogens.
are wingless.
 When present, the forewings are often  Predatory thrips are beneficial species that
partially hardened into protective covers may control mites and other small insects.
(tegmina) to prevent damage to the hind Sources:
wings which are used for flying.
https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-
Tegmina (singular tegmen) - are the leathery identification/order-thysanoptera/
forewings of insects in the orders
https://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/key-
Economic Importance server/data/05060b08-0f0e-4d04-8c01-
Cockroaches are among the most 070203010505/media/Html/Thysanoptera.htm
cosmopolitan of all insect pests. They are http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CritterFiles/casefile/inse
usually associated with unsanitary conditions cts/insectfile.htm

Insect Morphology It is first basal segment of antenna by which the
antennae is attached to the head.
 often distinctly larger than the other succeeding
Insect Morphology is the study and
joints. It articulates with the antennal ridge.
description of the physical form of insects.
B). Pedicel
Exoskeleton
 The joint immediately followed the scape is
 the hard outer covering made mostly of a pedicel.
substance called chitin.  It is usually small and contains a special
 provides insects with adequate protection sensory structure known as Johnston’s organ.
against mechanical injuries, enemies,
C). Flagellum
infections and water loss.
 a.k.a clavola
The exoskeleton together with the epidermis
 Flagellum segments (flagellomeres) increase in
and basement membrane form the insect body
number in certain insects.
wall also known as the Integument.
 It is modified according to the surroundings and
The insect’s body is divided into three habits of the insects.
functional regions (tagmata):  head  Flagellum is subdivided into ring segments,
funicle and club.

Forms of Antennae
1. Head
1. Filiform = thread-like

2. Moniliform = beaded

3. Serrate = sawtoothed

4. Setaceous = bristle-like

5. Lamellate = nested plates

6. Pectinate = comb-like

7. Plumose = long hairs

- is composed of a series of segments, which 8. Clavate = gradually clubbed

are specialized for food gathering and
9. Capitate = abruptly clubbed
manipulation, sensory perception, and neural
integration. 10. Aristate = pouch-like with one lateral bristle

- the insect's feeding and sensory center. 11. Geniculate = elbowed

The head bears the: eyes (compound eyes 1. Filiform (= thread-like)

and ocelli), antennae, mouthparts.
- individual segments are similar in size.
2. Antennae
 are the insect’s primary, non-visual, sense
organs.
 often called 'feelers' because the insect waves
them around.
 the insects 'nose' - they are used for the sense
of smell.
consist of three parts: a) scape, b) pedicel and
c) flagellum.

2. Moniliform = beaded

- The round segments make the antenna look

like a string of beads.

A). Scape
3. Serrate = sawtoothed

- the segments are angled on one side giving the

appearance of a saw edge.
7. Plumose = long hairs

- feather-like shape

- the segments each have a number of fine

thread-like branches. This gives the
appearance of a feather.

4. Setaceous = bristle-like

There are many joints. The antenna tapers

gradually from the base to the tip

8. Clavate = gradually clubbed

- the segments become GRADUALLY wider

5. Lamellate = nested plates towards the tip of the antenna, giving the
appearance of a club.
- the segments towards the end are flattened
and plate-like.

- clubbed antennae end in nested plates.

9. Capitate = abruptly clubbed

6. Pectinate = comb-like - the segments become ABRUPTLY wider

towards the tip of the antenna, giving the
- The segments are longer on one side. This appearance of a club.
gives the appearance of a comb
10. Aristate = pouch-like with one lateral bristle  Hinged to the clypeus.
 Serves as the front lip
 a simple plate-like sclerite that serves as a front
lip to help contain the food.

11. Geniculate = elbowed

antennae are hinged or bent like an elbow.

2. Mouth parts: Feeding organs

The two major insect mouth types:

1. Mandibulate

 Feeding mainly on solid food. 3. Mandibles

2. Haustelate  Anterior jaws

 Used for chewing, biting and severing/cutting
 Feeding mainly on liquid food.
food.
Primary Mouth Parts  a pair of jaws for crushing or grinding the food.

1. Clypeus

 Facial sclerite; the juncture of the labrum with

the head structure.

4. Maxillae

 accessory jaws
 paired structures that can move at right
angles to the body and possess segmented
palps.
 They are used for holding and sending food
into mouth.

2. Labrum (=Upper lip)

 The most anterior of the insect’s mouth parts.

o Cardo — basal sclerite that articulates with
the head capsule

o Stipes — medial sclerite that supports a

sensory palp

o Galea and Lacinia — distal sclerites that

act as fork and spoon to manipulate the
food.

4. Labium

Lower lip

fused structure that moves longitudinally and

possesses a pair of segmented palps.

2. Sponging type

 The proboscis is fleshy, elbowed, retractile

and projects downwards from head.

Insect Mouth types

1. Siphoning type

 Mouth parts consists of elongate sucking tube

or proboscis.
 Mandibulate-lapping mouthparts
 Linked to a liquid-based diet (e.g. nectar),
even though in some cases they conserve
the chewing function.
 Example: Hymenopterans

3. Rasping and sucking

Mouth cone consists of labrum, labium and

maxillae.

5. Piercing and sucking / dipterous /

mosquito

 The stylets are composed of labrum -

epipharynx (enclosing the food canal), the
hyphophrynx (containing the salivary
Thrips scratch the plant surface and then pierce it canal), two maxillae and two mandibles.
by their stylets, through which they suck plant
fluids.

6. Chewing type

 Chewing insects feed by biting, ripping or

e.g. thrips
tearing plant tissue
4. Chewing and lapping type

 Labrum and mandibles are as in biting and

chewing type of mouth parts.
 Meso – middle
 Meta – last

Each of the three thoracic segments contains

one pair of legs.

Wings are found only on the meso- and

metathoracic segments

1. Legs
 fore-legs — prothorax
 mid-legs — mesothorax
 hind legs — metathorax.

Leg Major Components

3. Insect eyes

1. Coxa

- articulates with the thorax.

- basal segment

2. Trochanter

- articulates to the coxa, rigidly fixed to the femur.

Compound eye – is made up of multiple 3. Femur
ommatidia and each one is capable of picking up
visual information. - forms the largest and strongest part of the leg and
especially conspicuous in most insect which have
Ocelli: The Simple Eye – contain only a single power of leaping.
structure instead of multiple ones
4. Tibia

2. thorax - almost always slender and frequently equal or

 This region is almost exclusively adapted for exceeds the femur in length. Near its distal
locomotion.  (Terminal) extremity it carries one or more tibial
spurs.
 The second (middle) tagma of an insect's body.
5. Tarsus

- last segment of the leg.

Leg types and function

1. Cursorial

 walking and running.

 e.g. ground beetles and cockroaches.

It consists of three segments (prothorax,

mesothorax, and metathorax), each of which
usually bear a pair of articulated legs.

 Pro – first
2. Raptorial

 Modified for grasping/ catching/ holding prey. 2. Wings

 e.g. praying mantids Insects have evolved many variations of the wing.
Wing venation is a commonly used taxonomic
character, especially at the family and species
level.

1. Membranous wings

 thin and more or less transparent.

 Found in odonatan and neuropteran.

3. Fossorial

 adapted for digging in soil

 e.g. mole crickets

4. Saltatorial

 adapted for jumping.

 Characterized by elongated femur and tibia.
 e.g. grasshoppers

2. Halteres

An extreme modification among the order Diptera

(true flies).

The hind wings are reduced to mere nubs used for

balance and direction during flight.

5. Natatorial

 Adapted for swimming.

 Characterized by elongated setae on tarsi.
 E.g. Diving bugs and Water beetles.
3. Elytra (sing. elytron)

Are the hardened, heavily sclerotized forewings of

beetles (Order Coleoptera) and are modified to
protect the hind wings when at rest.

6. Scaly wings

thin and membranous front and hind wings covered

over surface with flattened unicellular setae
(scales).
4. Hemelytra
Scale — a flattened seta (hair); often pigmented.
The hardened throughout the proximal two-thirds
Characteristically found covering the body and
(approximately), while the distal portion is
wings of Lepidoptera.
membranous.

5. Tegmina (singular tegmen)

Are the leathery forewings of insects in the orders

Orthoptera, Dictyoptera. 7. Fringed wings

slender front and hind wings with long fringes of

marginal hairs, giving a feather like appearance.
2.) ventral sclerite —sternum (sterna)

Sternum and tergum are joined to one another

laterally by a pleural membrane.

3. Abdomen

Spiracle – opening to the respiratory system.

– Breathing pores.

An insect’s abdomen is the third functional region

(tagma) of its body; the abdomen is located just
behind the thorax. 

At the very back of the abdomen, the anus (rear

opening of the digestive system) is nestled between
three protective sclerites: a

1. dorsal epiproct

Each segment of the abdomen consists of a:

1.) dorsal sclerite — tergum (pl: terga)

and a pair of lateral paraprocts.

A pair of sensory organs, the cerci, may be located
near the anterior margin of the paraprocts. These
structures are tactile (touch) receptors. 

In females, paired appendages of the eighth and

ninth abdominal segment fit together to form an
egg-laying mechanism called the ovipositor.

In males, the genital opening is usually enclosed in

a tube-like aedeagus which enters the female’s
body during copulation (like a penis).