Types of Solutions

We learned that matter can be classified as pure

Section Objectives:
substance or mixture according to its composition and
properties. Solution is one of the types of mixtures. At the end of this
section, you should be able to:

1. Describe the different

types of solution; and
Activity: Which is Which? 2. Differentiate
electrolyte solutions
from non-electrolyte
solutions.
Objective:
To identify the types of mixture by visible examination
Materials:
3 clear glasses, water, sand and salt
Procedure:
1. In each glass, pour the same amount of water.
2. In one glass, add the sand. In the other glass, mix the salt in the water.
3. Leave the third glass with only water in it.
4. Let one of your groupmates shuffle the three glasses.

Figure 5.1. Salt water, Pure water, and water with sand

By just looking at the contents of the glasses, can you identify which is salt water, pure
water, and water with sand? Explain your answers.
Which was easier to identify-the glass with water and sand or the glass with salt water?
Why? How about between the glass with pure water and the glass with salt water?
The glass with water and sand was easier to identify because there were two phases inside
the glass. However, there was no visible distinction between that of the glass with pure water and
the glass with salt water, so it was difficult to identify which liquid was in each glass by just
looking at them.

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Salt water and the water with sand are clearly mixtures as they both have two components.
However, it is impossible to distinguish the components of water from each other, unlike that of
water with sand. Mixtures such as salt water in which the components are indistinguishable from
each other and whose properties are the same all throughout the mixture, are said to be
homogeneous. Solutions are homogenous mixture.
In the salt-water mixture, more water than salt was used to produce the solution. In this
case, water is the solvent (the substance that does the dissolving) and salt, the solute (the substance
that is being dissolved). The solution assumes the phase or state or the solvent. Solutions in which
water is the solvent are called aqueous solutions.
The amount of solute present in a solution can be varied. A solution containing more solute
is said to be concentrated, while a solution with a lesser quantity of solute is said to be dilute.
The state of the solvent determines the state of the solution. Based on this, solutions may
be classified into three types: gaseous, liquid, and solid solutions. Of the three types, liquid
solutions are the most common.
Table 5.1 gives the combinations of solute and solvent and the types of resulting solutions.
Examples are also given for each combination.

Table 5.1. Types of Solutions

Solute Solvent Solution Examples
Gas Gas Gas Air (N2, O2, and other gases)
Gas Liquid Liquid Carbonated drinks (CO2 in water
Liquid Liquid Liquid Vinegar (acetic acid in water)
Liquid Solid Solid Amalgam (mercury in silver)
Solid Solid Solid Bronze
solid Liquid Liquid Sugar in water

It was mentioned in the unit opener that copper-gold mixture is used in making jewelry.
This is an example of a solid solution where both the solute and solvent are solids. Alloys, such as
brass (made from zinc and copper) and 14-karat gold (made from gold and silver), are solid
solutions made from uniformly mixing atoms of two or more metals. With proper proportions of
each metal in the alloy, many desirable properties can be obtained, like the desired hardness for
jewelry.
The following reading material discusses the development of the jewelry industry in the
Philippines. Read the selection and identify your other subjects to which the information given can
be related. For instance, are there information related to social studies? If so, What is this
information?

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DEVELOPEMNT OF THE JEWELRY INDUSTRY

The Philippines is endowed with an abundant supply of gold. Gold and silver, the two most
important raw materials used in fine jewelry production, are sourced from Camarines Norte
and other parts of Mindanao. In the world of gold mine production, the Philippines is the 25th
highest gold-producing country, with a total production of 33 tons of gold in the year 2001.
Aside from gold deposits, the Philippines is also rich in gemstones such as opal, jasper, quartz,
tektite, Zambales and Mindoro jade, garnet, epidote, jadeite, and blue and green schist.

There are about 250 firms in the country that are engaged in the jewelry industry, employing a
pool of more than 100,000 workers. Small- and medium-scale jewelry enterprises hold about
50 percent of the industry, while the top 10 largest jewelry chains and manufacturers hold less
than 25 percent. Majority of the companies/manufacturers which fall under the small- and
medium-scale industries are geographically located in Metro Manila, Bulacan, Camarines
Norte, Davao, Cebu, and Baguio City. Production or fine jewelry encompasses a wide range
of medium to high priced products. he most popular product category is gem-set jewelry,
particularly diamonds set in 14K or 18K gold, pearl jewelry, and silver jewelry.

The Philippine exports of fine jewelry have been consistently growing in the last five years
with the United States, Hong Kong, and Italy as the top three export markets. In the first
semester of 2006, the country's export of jewelry reached US$57.84 million up by 22.71
percent compared to the same period in 2005. On the average, only 20% of the total jewelry
production is being exported, while the remaining 809% is being sold in the domestic market

Prospective investors may put their capital in the jewelry industry. For a small plateria, a
minimum capital of P1,000,000 is required. This initial capital is normally spent on basic
equipment (5096), raw materials such as gold and precious stones 309%), and working capital
(20%). Marketing techniques include distribution of sales kits, brochures and flyers, joining in
exhibits/trade fairs, putting up display centers, supplying to jewelry shops and accepting orders
from agents.

Training centers specifically for the jewelry industry workers have already been setup and
operationalized jointly by the government and private sector to upgrade the skills of the
workers and improve productivity. These centers are the: Philippine Jewelry Training Center
in Bulacan, San Eligius Jewelry Training Center located at the Cottage Industry Technology
Center in Marikina City, Technology and Livelihood Resource Center in Makati, Gemlab
Philippines in Quezon City, and Technical Education and Skills Development Authority in
Taguig, Metro Manila.

Source: http://www.invest.cfo.gov.ph/pdt/part1/development-of-the-jewelry-industry.pdf

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In connection to jewelry making, the Republic Act No. 8502, also known as Jewelry
Industry Development Act of 1998, was enacted. This act aims to promote the development
of the jewelry-manufacturing industry, providing incentives and for other purposes. You can
read the full text of Republic Act No. 8502 at http://www.congress.gov.ph/download/ra_ 10/
RA08502.pdf.
Another way to classify solutions is by the nature of solutes dissolved in them. Ionic
compounds that dissolve to form ions in solution are called electrolytes. On the other nana,
solutions that contain neutral molecules are called nonelectrolytes. Salt-water solution 15 an
electrolyte, as the sodium chloride breaks up into sodium and chloride ions in water, while a
solution of sugar in water is a nonelectrolyte since a sugar molecule does not break up into ions
when dissolved.
Some polar molecular compounds like hydrogen chloride when dissolved in water form
ions in solution. They are also electrolytes. The term electrolyte means that the solution conducts
electricity. Electrolytes may be strong or weak. A strong electrolyte is one that completely ionizes
in solution. On the other hand, a weak electrolyte partially ionizes that only a small fraction of the
solute ionizes while a larger portion remains unionized in solution.

Energy of Solution Formation

Have you been to a gathering and noticed that people

Section Objectives:
normally form into groups? Did you also notice that it is easier to
interact with people who have the same interests and personalities At the end of this
section, you should be able to:
as yours than to group with people whose interests and
personalities are different from yours? In essence, this also 1. Predict whether two
substances are
happens to compounds. Different compounds interact differently
soluble or insoluble;
with each other. They have different levels of attraction toward 2. Explain how the
each other. solution process
happens; and
In this section, you will learn more about solubility and the 3. Describe the energy
that accompanies the
solution process. You will form generalizations and explain why formation of
substances are soluble in some solvents but are insoluble in other solutions.
solvents. Recall the lessons about intermolecular forces and
interactions.
Activity: Lava Lamp
Objective: To explain why a substance is soluble or insoluble
Materials: water, red food coloring, unused cooking oil, and 1.5-liter PET bottle
Procedure:

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1. Pour water into the PET bottle until it is almost full.
2. Add a few drops of food coloring into the water, and then stir to diffuse the food color.
3. Fill the bottle with the cooking oil. Cap the bottle and shake. Turn the bottle upside
down.
4. Describe your observations and give possible explanations.

Just like in human groups, molecules in liquids and gases are held together by attractive forces.
Humans are bound together by common interests while molecules are held together by
intermolecular forces. When a solute dissolves in a solvent, the particles of the solute disperse
throughout the solvent. Hence, to describe how a substance can dissolve in another substance we
need to look at the strengths of the following:
1. solute-solute interaction
2. solvent-solvent interaction
3. solute-solvent interaction

Figure 5.2. The solution Process. The interaction between the particles of the solid solute (a) and the solid solvent (b)
break. Then the solute and solvent particles mix due to solute-solvent interaction (c) and forms the solid solution.

For a solute to dissolve in a solvent, the solute particles must first be separated
from one another and the same must happen to solvent particles. Then the solute
particles and solvent particles must interact with each other. If the interaction
between the solute and solvent particles is stronger than that of the solvent-solvent
and the solute-solute interaction, the solute readily dissolves. These processes
involve energy.
Oil is made of hydrocarbons which are nonpolar molecules. On the other hand, water, is
polar. The forces keeping oil molecules together are dispersion forces; while in water, molecules

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interact by dipole-dipole interaction and hydrogen bonding. The two substances
exhibit different types of interaction-dipole-dipole interaction with hydrogen
bonding and nonpolar interactions. Thus, oil does not mix with water, as you
have observed in the activity on lava lamp. There is a rule in solubility that says
"like dissolves like"' This means that solutes that exhibit the same type of
intermolecular interaction will tend to dissolve in solvents that exhibit the same
type of interaction.

Polar compounds such as water can effectively dissolve ionic compounds such as salt because
water molecules can align themselves such that the partial charge is opposite that of the charge of
the ion (Figure 5.3). The partial negative ends of polar molecules are oriented toward positive ions
while the partial positive ends are oriented toward negative ions. On the other hand, nonpolar
molecules do not possess partial positive and partial negative portions, which they can orient
toward the ions. Ion- induced dipole interaction can occur, but this type of interaction is weaker
than ion-dipole interaction. Thus, ionic compounds have extremely low solubility in nonpolar
solvents.
Sickle cell anemia is one illness that is molecular in origin. It is caused by an abnormality
in the structure of hemoglobin. It is a genetic illness in which the red blood cells are shaped like a
sickle rather than the usual disk. The shape of the cells is due to hemoglobin that precipitates out
of the water inside the red blood cells. Hemoglobin is soluble in water due to its polar group.
However, genetic mutation alters the polar group of hemoglobin and causes its molecules to have
nonpolar groups instead. This lowers the solubility of the hemoglobin in water causing the
hemoglobin molecules to precipitate out.

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Concentrations of Solutions
Section Objectives

If we want to quantitatively study solutions, we must At the end of this section,

be able to express the concentration of solutes in solutions. you should be able to:
Knowing the concentration of solutions is important 1. use different ways of
because the concentration of solutes present in a solution expressing concentration
affects its properties. This will be discussed in the next of solutions: percent by
chapter. mass, percent by volume,
mole fraction, molarity,
Activity: Expressing Concentrations molality, parts per million
(ppm), parts per billion
Think of creative ways to express the amount of (ppb), parts per trillion
solute dissolved in a solvent. Explain why the ways you (ppt); and
2. choose the appropriate
thought of provide reliable measurements. List the
unit of concentration to
advantages and disadvantages of each. use in calculations.

There are many ways of expressing concentration, each having both advantages and
disadvantages. The choice of concentration unit to use depends on the purpose of the user.
One of the ways to express concentration is by using mass. Expressing concentration in
terms of mass is advantageous if the solute is solid. Moreover, mass is more stable since it is not
affected by temperature.
Percent by mass, %(m/m), is computed by dividing the mass of the solute by the mass of
the solution. A 30% sugar solution in water means that 30 grams of sugar is dissolved in 70 grams
of water to create 100 grams of solution.

𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, % ( ) = 𝑥 100%
𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Sample Problem:
To maintain the same sodium chloride (NaCl) solution concentration as sea water, an
aquarium should contain 3.5 g NaCl per 100.0 g of water. What is the percent by mass of NaCl in
the solution?
Solution:
You are given the mass of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in 100.0 grams of water. Note
that to get the mass of the solution, you should add the mass of the solute and the mass of the
solvent. Thus:

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𝑚 3.5 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, % ( ) = 𝑥100%
𝑚 3.5 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 100 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

3.5 𝑔
= 𝑥100%
103.5 𝑔
= 3.4%

Practice Problem:
Bleach solution contains the solute sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). How many grams of
NaOCl are in 1500.0 grams of 3.62% bleach solution?
Percent by Volume. Another method is to express concentration in volume. Expressing
concentration in terms of volume is the method used when the substances that form the solution
are in states whose quantities can be more accurately measured in terms of volume such as when
both the solute and solvent are in the same liquid or gaseous state. Concentration can be expressed
in percent by volume. Calculations are similar to those of percent by mass.
For example, a 70.0 % (v/v) ethyl alcohol-water solution is made from 70.0 mL ethyl
alcohol diluted to 100.0 mL using water. Since the volume of the solution is the sum of the volumes
of the solute and solvent, there must be 30.0 mL of water in every 100.0 mL of the ethyl alcohol
solution.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (%) = 𝑥 100%
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
70.0 𝑚𝐿
= 100.0 𝑚𝐿
𝑥100%

= 70%

Practice Problem:
What is the percent by volume of rubbing alcohol, an aqueous solution of liquid isopropyl
alcohol, in a solution that contains 42mL of isopropyl alcohol in 1.2L of water?
Take note that:

ppm, ppb and ppt. if the solute is present in very low concentrations, 1 ppm = 1 mg/L
then one of these units is used: parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), 1 ppb = 1μg/L
or parts per trillion (ppt). One part per million means that 1.0 mg of solute is
1 ppt = 1ng/L
dissolve in 1.0 L of water. At this concentration, the solution will have the same

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density as water, which is 1 g/mL. Thus, we can rewrite 1 mg/L as 0.001 g solute /1000g solution
or 1g solute/1,000,000 g solution. The same process can be done with 1μg/L to get 1 ppb and 1ng/L
to get 1 ppt.
Molarity. The most common and one of the most used units of concentration is molarity.
It is defined as the number of moles of solute in one liter of solution. Molarity is denoted as M and
has the unit of mo/L, and is read as molar.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀=
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Sample Problem:
To prevent dehydration, intravenous (IV) solution is given to hospital patients. Commonly
used are solutions containing sodium chloride and glucose. A 150.0-mL IV solution contains 6.60
grams glucose (C6H12O6). What is the molarity of this solution? The molar mass of glucose is
180.16 g/mol.
Solution:
You are given the mass of glucose dissolved in the solution. However, the number of moles
of solute is needed to compute for the molarity. The given volume of the IV solution is in mL, but
the formula requires volume in liters.
Use the molar mass to calculate the number of moles of C 6H12O6.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 06
(6.60 𝑔𝐶6 𝐻12 06 = = 0.03663 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 06
180.16 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻12 06
Convert the volume of solution from milliliters to liters.
1𝐿
(150.0 𝑚𝐿) = 0.1500 𝐿
1000𝑚𝐿
Substitute the known values into the equation to solve for the molarity.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀=
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.03663 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶6 𝐻12 06
𝑀=
0.1500 𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀 = 0.244
𝐿
Practice Problem:
What is the molarity of a bleach solution containing 12.5 grams of NaOCl per liter of
bleach?

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Molality is another unit of concentration. It is similar to molarity except that the number
of moles of solute is divided by 1 kg of solvent rather than 1 L of solution. Using molality instead
of molarity is advised if calculations are performed over different temperatures since volume is
dependent on temperature. The unit for molality is m, which is read as molal.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀=
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Thus, 3.0 moles of NaCl dissolved in 2000 g of water has a concentration of 1.5m NaCl-
water solution. The computation is given below:
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑚=
2 𝑘𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑚 = 1.5𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑘𝑔

Mole fraction. Some properties, such as vapor pressure need the solution concentration to
be expressed in terms of mole. Mole fraction is defined as the amount of the component of the
solution expressed in moles per mol of solution. Mathematically,
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖
𝑋1 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
X represents the mole fraction and i denotes the solution component in question. More
specifically, the mole fraction of the solute can be written as X A while the mole fraction of the
solvent can be written as XB. Thus, the expression for XA and XB are as follows:
𝑛𝐴
𝑋𝐴 =
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵
𝑛𝐵
𝑋𝐵 =
𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵
Where 𝑛𝐴 is the number of moles of solute and 𝑛𝐵 is the number of moles of solvent. The
sum of the mole fractions of each component of the solution is always equal to 1.
Mole percent is mole fraction multiplied by 100%.
Sample Problem:
What is the mole fraction of HCI in an aqueous solution that contains 44.2 grams HCI and
88.6 grams H2O?
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 44.2 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑥 = 1.21 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
36.5 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 = 88.6 𝑔𝐻2 𝑂 𝑥 = 4.92 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
18.0 𝑔 𝐻2 𝑂

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𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 1.21 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑋𝐻𝐶𝑙 = = = 0.197
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 1.21 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 4.92 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 4.92 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑋𝐻2 𝑂 = = = 0.803
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑛𝐻2 𝑂 1.21 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 4.92 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑂

Practice Problem:
What is the mole fraction of NaOH in an aqueous solution that contains 33.9% NaOH by mass?

Reference:

General Chemistry 2 (First Edition)

Authors:
Luciana V. Ilao
Betty M. Lontoc
Edwehna Ellinore S. Paderna-Gayon
Coordinator:
Josefina Gironella-Belen

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