STUDY GUIDE

Mechanical Behavior
of Polymers
category: Mold / Part Design
course id: rt_1332_us

www.traininteractive.com
© 2015 Routsis Training – All Rights Reserved

Routsis Training
275 Donahue Rd, Suite 1
Dracut, MA 01826
tel: (978) 957-0700
fax: (978) 957-1860
LICENSE AGREEMENT - TRAINING PROGRAMS
All of the training materials such as study guide, student guide, instructor’s guide, pre-
training tests, manuals, and final training tests are protected under United States
copyright. This license gives you the right to use the training and all of the related
materials.

PERMITTED USES OF LICENSE

The purchaser may use the training and related materials within your company and for
employees of the company. You may photocopy the written materials for employees of
your company only.

PROHIBITED USES OF LICENSE

The purchaser may not make copies of the training or transfer the tapes onto any other
media in any way. Any damaged training will be replaced by simply returning the
damaged materials to our company for a period of up to one year. The training program
may not be used outside of your company. You may not lend, lease, or rent any of the
training programs or related materials to any third party.

2
Table of Contents
ABOUT THIS COURSE 4
INTRODUCTION 4
OBJECTIVES 4
STRESS/STRAIN CURVES 5
STRESS/STRAIN TERMINOLOGY 6
SPRING AND DASHPOT MODELS 8
CREEP 11
CREEP CURVES 12
ISOCHRONOUS STRESS/STRAIN CURVES 14
CYCLIC STRESS 15
ALTERNATING VS. SEMI-ALTERNATING 16
FATIGUE HEATING 17
IMPACT TESTING 18
CONCLUSION 19

3
About This Course

INTRODUCTION
This series was developed by Dr. Robert Malloy, a respected author and professor
at the University of Massachusetts, Lowell. The Part Design series is intended to provide
part designers with an understanding of the plastic part design process, and many of the
factors and concerns associated with proper plastic part design.

OBJECTIVES
This program provides the participant with an understanding of the mechanical
behavior of polymeric materials.

4
STRESS/STRAIN CURVES

Stress/Strain Curves are used to test various material attributes. These can be
performed on virtually any material- including both metallic and polymeric materials.
This is a typical Stress/Strain Curve for a metal material. Strain is represented on the
horizontal, or X axis. Strain is a measure of deformation in the sample. This deformation
is calculated by the change in length divided by the original length. Strain is typically
graphed by percent Strain. Stress represented on the vertical, or Y axis.

Stress is calculated by the force applied to the sample divided by the cross
sectional area and is typically graphed as pounds per square inch or in megapascals. The
curve on the graph represents the polymer’s behavior when a stress or strain is applied.
The asterisk at the end of the curve indicates failure of the test sample.

Various tests, such as Tensile Tests can produce Stress/Strain data. In these tests,
a sample of the material is placed into a tensile tester. The sample is strained or pulled at
a constant rate. The force required to pull the sample at the constant rate is recorded over
time. The distance the sample is pulled is translated into percent Strain, and the force
applied to the test sample is translated into Stress- represented in p.s.i. or megapascals.
This data is plotted and graphed to create the Stress/Strain curve.

Metals exhibit linear Stress/Strain behavior. As the sample is stressed, the

resulting graph is linear- or in a straight line. The slope of the line is equal to the modulus
of the material. After the sample is strained- provided it has not yielded or failed, it
returns to its original shape, like a spring. This is called Elastic Behavior. Polymers, on
the other hand exhibit Visco-elastic Behavior. This means that they respond like a metal
material by exhibiting Elastic behavior, but also exhibit Viscous Behavior, like a liquid.

5
STRESS/STRAIN TERMINOLOGY

The Stress/Strain curves for metal materials tend to be relatively simple. The
curve is linear, and the slope of the line represents the modulus of the metal. Since metals
exhibit Elastic Behavior, the behavior of the material is fairly predictable. Polymers do
not behave in the same manner. This is a stress strain curve for a typical ductile polymer.
The modulus of plastics is only for the initial slope of the line, and does not accurately
depict the behavior of the material under large stresses or strains. The linear portion of
the curve is referred to as the Elastic Region.

This region is where the polymer deformation is mostly elastic, with very little
viscous flow. Most of the deformation in this region can be recovered if the stress or
strain is immediately removed. As the curve looses its linearity, it reaches what is
referred to as the Proportional Limit. After the Proportional Limit, the polymer flows
more, and the stress required to strain the polymer increases slowly until the polymer
yields. As the polymer yields, the Stress required to Strain the sample lessens as Strain is
increased. After the yield point, the polymer exhibits unrecoverable viscous deformation.

Most material suppliers provide Stress/Strain graphs for their materials. If the
supplier cannot provide such information, it is possible to derive a similar graph from the
material supplier’s Initial Modulus, Strength & Stress at Yield, and Strength & Stress at
break information. Such a graph can be useful in understanding the behavior of a
polymer, but it does not represent the material’s actual performance. If more accurate
information is required, samples should be obtained and tested.

6
When obtaining Stress/Strain information, be sure that the testing conditions are
similar to that of the application. Polymeric materials are sensitive to the testing rate and
temperature used. For example, if a material is tested at one rate, and is found to have a
modulus of 2000 pounds per square inch, the same material could show a modulus of
3000 psi if tested at a faster rate, or at a lower temperature.

Many rigid polymers break before the polymer reaches a yield point. In very
flexible polymers, the stress gradually increases with strain after the initial stress.
Although these materials do not exhibit yield points, they still have a modulus,
proportional limit, and breaking point.

7
SPRING AND DASHPOT MODELS

Another method of understanding a polymer’s behavior is the Spring and Dashpot

model. The Spring represents the elastic behavior of the polymer. The elastic portion of
the model acts as a metal, and has fully recoverable strain. The Dashpot represents the
viscous behavior of the polymer. The viscous portion of the model acts as a fluid, and has
unrecoverable strain.

One way to understand the Spring and Dashpot model is by examining the
behavior of the system with a suspended load. A graph of deformation and time helps you
understand the mechanics of the system. The first component of the model is a spring.
When a weight is added to the spring, an immediate deformation is observed. When the
weight is removed, all of the Elastic Deformation is recovered.

8
The second portion of the model involves a Spring and Dashpot in parallel. The
spring portion of the system cannot immediately deform because the viscous component
slows it down. Therefore, the deformation takes place over a period of time. As the
weight is removed from the system, the deformation recovery of the Spring is slowed by
the Dashpot.

The third component of the model is the Dashpot. The Dashpot flows while the
weight is applied to the system. When the weight is removed from the system, none of
the viscous component is recovered.

9
To fully understand the model, the three components must be superimposed.
When the weight is applied, the system undergoes an immediate deformation due to the
Spring component. The second component, with the spring and dashpot in parallel,
produce a deformation over time. The viscous deformation of the third component is
added to the second component. This results in a model of the behavior of the loaded
system over time. When the load is removed, the initial deformation of the spring is
recovered. Then the deformation of the Spring and Dashpot is recovered over time. The
deformation due to the Dashpot is never recovered. The result is a permanent deformation
of the system.

10
CREEP

The deformation of a polymeric system under a load, over time is referred to as

Creep. The three types of Creep typically tested are Tensile, Compressive, and Flexural.
These attributes vary in importance, depending on the application. For example,
Compressive Creep would be an important characteristic when designing a vibration
mount for a sensitive instrument. If the mount exhibits too much Creep, it could loose its
vibration absorption characteristics.

Tensile Creep can be important in applications such as a compressed air filter

bowl. If the bowl expands over time, the filter may not work properly.

Lastly, Flexural Creep can be important in cases such as trays and shelving. If the
parts deflect over time, items may fall off of the shelves. In any case, Flexural Creep may
make the shelves or trays quite unsightly.

11
CREEP CURVES

The more a polymer is loaded, the greater it Creeps. This is an example of how
Creep Curves are represented. The vertical, or Y axis represents the Strain exhibited by
the polymer. The horizontal, or X axis represents the log of time. Since Creep is a
behavior related to the log of time, it takes a long time to acquire creep data. Creep data
can be obtained from the material suppliers for some materials, but it is unlikely to find
Creep Curves for newer materials. Since these new materials have existed for only a short
period of time, any available Creep data would accurately describe only short-term
behavior of the polymer. As time increases, the Creep Behavior approaches linearity. It is
sometimes possible to extrapolate the Creep Curves over a period of one decade on the
logarithmic scale.

12
This should be done cautiously, as the breaking stress of the polymer is reduced
over time. For example, if a polymer has a breaking stress of 6000 psi, it may break when
loaded with 3000 psi after 100 hours, or 1000 psi after 10,000 hours. This is why some
Creep Curves contain Rupture Lines. The Rupture Lines are used to evaluate the break
sensitivity of the polymer over time. If some Rupture and Creep information is available,
it may be possible to extrapolate the Rupture Line. When extrapolating Rupture or Creep
curves, be sure not to extrapolate more than one log decade, especially when product
liability is an issue. Reinforcements such as glass fibers increase the Creep Resistance of
the polymer.

13
ISOCHRONOUS STRESS/STRAIN CURVES

When a designer is interested in a product’s durability for a given amount of time,

Isochronous Stress/Strain Curves can be developed. Developing an Isochronous
Stress/Strain Curve starts with the Creep Curves for a given material. Using this graph,
create vertical lines at different time intervals. Each intersection between the horizontal
line and the Creep Curve has a stress and strain value associated with it.

Next, graph Stress and Strain values for that time on a Stress/Strain graph. This
curve represents the Stress/Strain behavior for that material after being loaded for a given
amount of time. Designers can use this information to determine how much strain a
material will exhibit after being loaded for a given amount of time. Some material
supplier can provide Isochronous Stress/Strain curves for various materials.

Sometimes these graphs include a Craze Limit Line. The Craze Limit Line
indicates when the polymer exhibits Cracking or Crazing. This information is sometimes
available from material supplier, but a long time is required to obtain the data.

14
CYCLIC STRESS

Polymeric materials are not only susceptible to how long they are stressed, but
also to how many times they are stressed. Every time a polymeric system is stressed, its
strength is reduced. Each time a polymer is stressed, the Breaking or Yielding Stress
lessens. This S & N Curve relates the amount of cycles the polymer must be stressed to
result in sample breakage. The vertical, or Y axis represents the stress at which the
polymer is cycled. The horizontal or X axis represents the number of cycles required to
break the sample at a given stress.

The curve is a result of when the Stress and the amount of cycles required to
break the sample are plotted, and the Fatigue Endurance, or S & N Curve is developed.
These curves are extremely helpful in determining the life and endurance of products
such as a spring return or a button.

15
ALTERNATING VS. SEMI-ALTERNATING

In a Cyclic Stress application, it is important to determine whether the Cyclic

Stress is Alternating or Semi-Alternating. Alternating Stress involves continually
stressing the sample back and forth. Semi-Alternating Stress stresses the sample in one
direction, and then allows the sample to relax before the next stress. Semi-alternating
stress allows the sample to last much longer than if the sample is subjected to an
Alternating stress. Therefore, it is important for the S & N data to be obtained under
similar stresses and frequencies.

16
FATIGUE HEATING

When a polymer is stressed and then unstressed, heat is generated. This is called
Fatigue Heating. In most cases, the system has enough time to release the heat before the
next stress. In the case of a Cyclic Stress, the system must have enough time to dissipate
the heat. When the system cannot remove the heat applied to polymer, the polymer heats
up.

If the polymer heats up, some of the physical properties are lost. This can lead to
excessive Creep, Cracking, Crazing, or Failure. Alternating Stresses result in more
Fatigue Heating than Semi-alternating Stresses because the stress is nearly continuous. In
these cases, it is important to try to distribute the stress or remove the heat to prevent
failure.

17
IMPACT TESTING

Many designers are concerned with the Impact Resistance of polymeric materials.
Metal materials exhibit relatively simple Impact Behavior. Unfortunately, polymeric
materials do not behave like metals in Impact situations. Standard Impact testers such as
IZOD or the Charpy Test were developed to test metals. These measure the amount of
energy required to break the sample with a swinging weight. These tests work well for
metallic materials, but polymeric materials give varying results. The testing conditions
may not match the real life application, and therefore can give misleading results.

Many polymers, Nylons for example, perform poorly in the IZOD and Charpy
impact tests, but perform well in many other impact situations. A major concern with
impact tests involves the direction of Orientation. Polymers have a greater strength when
impacted perpendicular to the direction of Orientation.

When a polymer is impacted perpendicular to flow, many of the polymer chains

must be broken in order for the sample to break. When the polymer is impacted in the
direction of flow, the polymer chains need only be separated from each other in order for
the sample to fail. For a highly oriented sample, the perpendicular strength can be three
or four times higher than that in the direction of flow.

Other mechanical tests can test the Impact performance of the sample through
bending, puncture, and other real life situations. These tests will provide you with more
relevant information for part design applications.

18
CONCLUSION

Upon completing this program you should have a better understanding of how
polymers behave. You should next participate in the program entitled Mold Filling, Weld
Lines & Gating.

19