General Physics 1

First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Week 2:
KINEMATICS IN 1-D
Learning Competencies:
1. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving uniform acceleration in one dimension into a
mathematical description.
2. Interpret displacement and velocity, respectively, as areas under velocity vs. time and acceleration vs. time curves.
3. Interpret velocity and acceleration, respectively, as slopes of position vs. time and velocity vs. time curves.
4. Construct velocity vs. time and acceleration vs. time graphs, respectively, corresponding to a given position vs. time
-graph and velocity vs. time graph and vice versa
5. Solve for unknown quantities in equations involving one - dimensional uniformly accelerated motion, including free
fall motion
6. Solve problems involving one -dimensional motion with constant acceleration in contexts such as, but not limited
to, the “tail -gating phenomenon”, pursuit, rocket launch, and free - fall problems.

LESSON 1:
MOTION GRAPHS

Translating Sentences to Mathematical Equations

An equation states that two mathematical expressions are equal. Therefore, to translate a sentence into an
equation requires recognition of the words or phrases that mean “equals.” Some of these phrases are: equals, is, is
equal to, amounts to, represents. Once the sentence is translated into an equation, the equation can be simplified to
one of the form variable = constant and the solution is found.

Example 1: Speed is the change in distance per unit of time.

Solution: We assign a variable to the physical quantities:
𝛥𝑑
If we let v = speed, 𝛥d = change in distance, 𝛥t = change in time, then: 𝑣=
𝛥𝑡

Example 2: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity over time:

⃗⃗
𝛥v
Let: 𝑎⃗ = acceleration; 𝛥v⃗⃗ = change in velocity; 𝛥t = time; so that 𝑎⃗ =
𝛥t

Try doing this!

Translate the following verbal descriptions to mathematical equations:
1. displacement - the change in position of an object
2. distance traveled - the total length of the path traveled between two positions
3. elapsed time - the difference between the ending time and the beginning time

Review of Some Concepts in Kinematics in Straight Line:

a. Displacement
Displacement 𝛥𝑑⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is the change in position of an object: 𝛥𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑓 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑖 , the arrow indicates that displacement
is a vector quantity, meaning, it is fully described by its magnitude and direction. Distance d, on the other hand, is a
scalar quantity, that is, it is fully described by its magnitude only. This difference between the two quantities is very
important: if you walk around in circle once, your total displacement is zero but the total distance travelled will be the
circumference of the circle. Another, if you moved 100 m north and then returned back to your original position, the
total displacement is 0 but the total distance travelled is 200 m.

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
b. Average Velocity
If d1 and d2 are the positions of an object at times t1 and t2, respectively, then:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑑 𝑑2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑1
𝑣⃗ = =
𝛥𝑡 𝑡2 − 𝑡1
Motion Graphs
1. Velocity-time (𝑣⃗-t) Graph
Velocity-time graphs are used to describe the motion of objects which are moving in a straight line. They can
be used to show acceleration and to work out displacement.

Figure 1 Velocity-time graph

On a velocity-time graph, a horizontal (flat) line indicates the object is travelling at a constant speed. A straight
diagonal line indicates the object's velocity is changing. In figure 1, the line sloping upwards shows the object is
accelerating and the line sloping downwards in this case towards v = 0, shows it is decelerating. The negative value of
the gradient (slope) gives the negative value for the acceleration (or deceleration), BUT, a negative value does not
always mean slowing down. In free-fall motion for example, the negative sign of g means that acceleration is directed
downward but falling objects are actually speeding up. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as deceleration since
acceleration refers to any change in motion, which includes: (1) speeding up, (2) slowing down and (3) change in
direction.

Displacement as area under a velocity-time graph

The area under a velocity-time graph is the
displacement of motion. That is, we can determine the
displacement by computing for the area under a 𝑣⃗-t
graph.
Figure 2 forms an isosceles trapezoid or three
regular polygons (P1, P2 and P3, two right triangles and a
P2 rectangle). We can use this observation to show that the
area under a velocity-time graph is equal to
P1 P3 displacement. Using the of equation area for isosceles
trapezoid:

A = ½ (a + b) h; where a and b = bases and h = height

Figure 2. Area under v-t graph Note that a and b (the bases) correspond to the time
variable (x-axis) and h corresponds to the velocity variable (y -
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑑
axis). What is the product of velocity and time? If we manipulate 𝑣⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, then: 𝛥𝑑
to get 𝛥𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝛥𝑡, that is the
𝛥𝑡
product of velocity and time is displacement. What is the displacement in figure 2? If a = shorter base, 10 s to 20, =
10s and b = longer base, 0s to 30 s = 30 s and h = maximum 𝑣⃗ = 5 m/s and substituting these values into the equation:

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =½ (10s + 30 s) (5 m/s) = 100 m, thus, the displacement in figure 2 is 100 m.
A = 𝛥𝑑

Will you be able to get the same answer if you use the areas of P1,P2 and P3? P1 and P3 are right triangles (Area = ½ bh)
and P2 is a rectangle (A = lw)

Acceleration as the slope of velocity-time graph

The slope of a velocity time graph is acceleration. You can easily verify this using the slope formula and a set
of points in the graph:
𝛥𝑦 𝑦2 −𝑦1
Slope , 𝑚 = =
𝛥𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1

The quantity along the y-axis = velocity while along the x-axis = time, thus:
⃗⃗
𝛥𝑣 ⃗⃗2 −𝑣
𝑣 ⃗⃗1
m= = = 𝑎⃗
𝛥𝑡 𝑡2 −𝑡1

Therefore, the slope of a 𝑣⃗-t graph is equal to acceleration.

Now, we want to check if the area under a 𝑣⃗-t graph is indeed equal to displacement. First we derive the equation for
displacement from the equation of velocity:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝛥𝑑
𝑣⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝛥𝑡
 𝛥𝑑
𝛥𝑡

Instead of using the instantaneous velocities per unit of time, we will use the average velocity along the graph where
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝛥𝑡 whenever 𝑎⃗ = 0. To make it easier, the graph was labelled. Line a and b have
𝑎⃗= constant and we will use 𝛥𝑑
constant acceleration while line b has zero acceleration.

For displacement where 𝑎⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡;

b
(A) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑣⃗⃗2 +𝑣⃗⃗1)𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑑
c 2
a For displacement where 𝑎⃗ = 𝑜;

(B) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝛥𝑡

𝛥𝑑

(note: Eqn A is actually equivalent to eqn B

when 𝑎⃗ = 𝑜, can you figure out why?)

We now compute for displacements of line a, b and c and sum them up to compute for the total displacement:

a: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑣⃗⃗2+𝑣⃗⃗1)𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑑
2
𝑚 𝑚
5𝑠 +0𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (
𝛥𝑑 ) (10𝑠 − 0𝑠) = 25 𝑚
2

b: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (5 𝑚 )(20 𝑠 − 10𝑠) = 50 m
𝛥𝑑
𝑠

c: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝑣⃗⃗2+𝑣⃗⃗1)𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑑
2
𝑚 𝑚
0𝑠 +5𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (
𝛥𝑑 ) (30 − 20𝑠) = 25 𝑚
2

Total displacement: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 25 m + 50 m + 25 m = 100 m

∑ 𝛥𝑑

This is equal to the displacement that we have computed using the equation for the area of isosceles trapezoid.

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Activity 1: Motion Graphs & Kinematics

The 𝑣⃗-t graph below describes the motion of a fly that starts out going left.

a. At what time interval(s) did the fly move with constant velocity?

b. At what time interval(s) did the fly move right slowing down?

c. At what time interval(s) did the fly move left speeding up?

d. When is the fly at rest?

e. What is the average velocity of the fly between 0 and 15 second?

f. What is the distance traveled by the fly in this time interval?

g. What is the total displacement of the fly from 0 to 22 seconds?

h. Draw an acceleration-time graph for the fly. The first two motion intervals are done as your reference.

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
LESSON 2:
INSTANTANEUOS VELOCITY, SPEED AND ACCELERATION
Instantaneous Velocity
The instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗(𝑡) of an object is the limit of the average velocity as the elapsed time approaches
zero, or the derivative of x (position) with respect to t:
𝑑
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Instantaneous Speed
The instantaneous speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity:
vins = |𝑣⃗(𝑡)|
The symbol | | refers to the magnitude of the vector.

Example 1:
Calculate the instantaneous velocity of a particle traveling along a straight line for time t = 3s with a function
x (t) = 5t2 + 2t + 3 m:
Solution:
1. Substitute x in to the equation of 𝑣⃗:
𝑑
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = (5t 2 + 2t + 3)
𝑑𝑡
2. Evaluate:
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = (5t 2 ) + (2t) + (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 10𝑡 + 2 + 0
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 10𝑡 + 2
3. Substitute t = 3s:
𝑣⃗(3𝑠) = 10(3) + 2
𝑣⃗(3𝑠) = 32 𝑚/𝑠

The instantaneous velocity of the particle at t = 3s is 32 m/s.

Example 2:
Consider the motion of a particle in which the position is x(t) = 3t – 3t2 m:
(a) What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 0.25s , t = 0.50 s and t = 1 s?
(b) What is the speed of the speed at this times?

(a) Solution:
𝑑(3𝑡 − 3t 2 )
𝑣⃗(𝑡) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑣⃗(𝑡) = 3 − 6𝑡
At t = 0.25 s:
𝑣⃗(0.25𝑠) = 3 − 6 (0.25) = 1.5 𝑚/𝑠
At t = 0.50 s:
𝑣⃗(0.50𝑠) = 3 − 6 (0.50) = 0 𝑚/𝑠
At t = 1 s:
𝑣⃗(1𝑠) = 3 − 6 (1) = −3 𝑚/𝑠
(b) Solution:
Since instantaneous speed is vins = |𝑣⃗(𝑡)|, then at t= 0.25s; vins = 1.5 m/s, at t = 0. 50 s, vins = 0 m/s and
at t = 1.0 s, vins = 3 m/s.

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Instantaneous Acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration 𝑎⃗(t), or acceleration at a specific instant in time, is obtained using the same process
as instantaneous velocity. Instantaneous acceleration is the first derivative of velocity and is expressed mathematically
as:
𝑑
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 𝑣⃗(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Example 1:

A particle is in motion and is accelerating. The functional form of the velocity is 𝑣⃗(t) = 10t − 3t2 m/s

a. Find the functional form of the acceleration.

b. Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 1, 2, 3 s.
a.
𝑑
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = (10 𝑡 − 3𝑡 2 ) = 10 – 6t m/s 2
𝑑𝑡

b. t = 1 s:
𝑎⃗(1𝑠) = 10 – 6 (1) m/s 2 = 4 m/s 2
t = 2 s:
𝑎⃗(2𝑠) = 10 – 6 (2) m/s 2 = −2 m/s 2
t = 3 s:
𝑎⃗(3𝑠) = 10 – 6 (3) m/s 2 = −8 m/s 2

Activity 2:
1. The location function of an object is x(t) = t 2 + 3t. Compute the instantaneous velocity of the object:
a) at t = 7 s b) t = 10s c) at t
(d) What is the acceleration of the object?

2. The location function of an object is x(t) = -t2 + t. Compute the instantaneous velocity of the object:
a) at t = 3 s b) t = 4 s c) at t
(d) What is the acceleration of the object?

LESSON 3:
UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION
Uniformly accelerated motion is type of motion where 𝑎⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, that is, there is no resistance to the
motion. We will derive the equations for uniformly accelerated motion based from our earlier definition of
acceleration and velocity.

Velocity-time Relation
Consider an object moving in a straight line with uniform or constant acceleration 𝑎⃗. Let 𝑢 ⃗⃗ be the velocity of
the object at time t = 0, and 𝑣⃗be velocity of the body at a later time t. The definition of acceleration is:
⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
We will rewrite it to allow integration:
𝑑𝑣⃗ = 𝑎⃗ 𝑑𝑡
Then we will integrate from 𝑢
⃗⃗ to 𝑣⃗:

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
⃗⃗
𝑣 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣⃗ = 𝑎⃗ ∫ 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗
𝑢 0
Integrating the left side:
⃗⃗
𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗|𝑣𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑣⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗
⃗⃗
𝑢
Integrating the right side:
𝑡
𝑎⃗ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑎⃗ 𝑡|𝑡0 = 𝑎⃗𝑡
0
Equate the left and right side:
𝑣⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝑡 or 𝑣⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗+𝑎⃗𝑡 The first equation of
motion

Displacement-time Relation
The velocity of the body is given by the first derivative of the displacement with respect to time:
𝑑
𝑣⃗ = 𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Rewriting the equation:
𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥
Since 𝑣⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗+𝑎⃗𝑡, then:
(𝑢
⃗⃗+𝑎⃗𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑥 or 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑢
⃗⃗+𝑎⃗𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

Assuming that at t = 0, the body is at the origin and at later time t, the body is at displacement 𝑥⃗, and then integrating:
𝑥⃗ 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑢
⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0 0 0
Evaluate the left-side:
⃗⃗
𝒙
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥⃗ − 0 = 𝑥⃗
0
Evaluate the right-side:
𝑡 𝑡
1 1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑎
𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( 𝑡 2 − 0) = 𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 + 𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 2
0 0 2 2
Combing the left-side and right-side:
1
𝑥⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 2
𝑎
2

If at t = 0, the body is not at the origin (say, at ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗),

𝑥0 applying the same method, then:

1 The second equation

𝑥⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥0 + 𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 2
𝑎 of motion
2

Velocity-displacement Relation
The third equation of motion can be derived by combing the first and second equations of motion
algebraically. From the first equation, in terms of t:
𝑣⃗ − 𝑢⃗⃗
𝑡=
𝑎⃗

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
Substitute this equation into the second equation of motion:
𝑣⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗ 1 𝑣⃗ − 𝑢 ⃗⃗ 2
𝑥⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥0 + 𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗( )+ 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗( )
𝑎⃗ 2 𝑎⃗
2𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗ − 2𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣 2 − 2𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗𝑣 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑢2
𝑥⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥0 = +
2𝑎⃗ 2𝑎⃗
2𝑎⃗(𝑥⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
𝑥0 = 2𝑢 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗ − 2𝑢 + 𝑣 − 2𝑢2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑣⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2

The third equation of

𝑥0 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2𝑎⃗(𝑥⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑣 2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2
motion

In summary, the Kinematics Equations are:

Velocity-time relation: 𝑣⃗ = 𝑢
⃗⃗+𝑎⃗𝑡
1
Displacement-time relation: 𝑥⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑥0 + 𝑢⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 2
𝑎
2

Velocity-displacement relation: 𝑥0 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

2𝑎⃗(𝑥⃗ − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗) 𝑣 2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑢2

Note:
1. The arrows above the variables indicate that we are dealing with vectors. Some references do not reflect this.
2. Instead of using u and v, most references make use of v i and vf to indicate initial and final velocities and d or s for
displacement or distance, instance of x (horizontal) or y (vertical).
3. For free fall motion, just change x  y (or h) and a  g (constant at 9.8 m/s2, downward or -9.8 m/s2)

Activity 3:
Use the Kinematics equation to solve the following word problems, assume uniform acceleration for all problems:
1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly over a time of 5.21 seconds for a distance of 110 m. Determine the
acceleration of the car.
2. A race car accelerates uniformly from 18.5 m/s to 46.1 m/s in 2.47 seconds. Determine the acceleration of the car
and the distance traveled.
3. A ball is thrown with an initial upward velocity of 5 m/s. What is its velocity after 1.5 seconds, and what is the
direction of velocity?
4. A ball is thrown upward at a velocity of 3.5 m/s. What is the greatest amount of time that must pass, after the ball
is thrown, so that the ball is 0.25 meters above its launch point? (Clue: Negative time has no meaning in this context)

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
LESSON 4:
THE PHYSICS OF TAILGATING
(Copied from: http://kanthonywvhs.weebly.com/uploads/1/3/9/2/13921985/tailgating_stse.pdf)
Have you ever been in a rush to get somewhere and wished that the car ahead of you would just hurry up?
Have you ever driven a little too close in an attempt to hurry the driver along? If so, you are guilty of tailgating.
Tailgating is a dangerous and usually futile practice: "It only takes one crash in a tailgating line to produce a chain
reaction" (Frank, n.d.). The laws of physics and of common sense dictate that you cannot go any faster than the slowest
car ahead. Also driving too close forces stronger reactions to everything done by the car in front, making the drive
much harder on your nerves and your car. An understanding of the physics of tailgating may be crucial in ensuring
road safety and in helping tailgaters slow down and enjoy the ride. It might even result in less 'road rage'.

Tailgating can lead to multiple car crashes if even one car in a line suddenly slows down. The critical question
is “how close is too close?” When learning to drive you are usually told to keep a safe distance of at least two seconds
behind the car in front of you. As you observe the car ahead of you pass a fixed point, your own car should pass that
same point at least two seconds later. This safe distance can also be expressed as one car length per 22 km/h of speed
travelled. These rules of thumb are usually given since it is assumed that most people learning to drive do not
understand basic physics. But without an understanding of some simple physics, we may all be at increased risk from
tailgating. The physics of tailgating is related to motion and the kinematics equations, and includes principles like
stopping distance and reaction time.

Reaction Time
If you are driving along the highway at 95 km/h and the car ahead of you suddenly applies the brakes, you
must react quickly. Variables like response time become very important. When you first observe that the car ahead of
you is stopping, it takes time for the brain to process this information. Reaction time includes the time taken for this
processing plus the time for your foot to move to the brake. Reaction time can be determined by utilizing acceleration
due to gravity principles (see activity). Typical reaction times are between 0.2 and 0.7 seconds. Nicklin (1997) tested
reaction time with 64 students using computer trials of simulated brake and gas pedals, to find average reaction times
of 0.3 to 0.6 seconds. The reaction times stated above are typically obtained under ideal circumstances where the
person being tested is paying attention to the task at hand. In a real situation the driver could possibly be distracted
(eg. having a conversation with a friend, or singing along to the radio). Testing reaction time under these conditions
might give a more realistic representation of reaction time. An even more realistic estimate would include adding on
an estimation of the time it would take to move your foot from the gas pedal to the brake. Since the foot is farther
away from the brain than the hand, the reaction time calculation will be increased slightly.

Stopping Distance
A person's reaction time is important in calculating a stopping distance for the vehicle they are driving. Initially you
are travelling along at some constant velocity before your foot hits the brake. The distance travelled during the
reaction time is given by 𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡, where 𝑣𝑖 is the initial velocity. When the brakes are applied the vehicle begins to
𝑣𝑓2 −𝑣𝑖2
decelerate. During this period of deceleration, the distance travelled is given by: 2𝑎𝑑 = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2 or 𝑑 = , where
2𝑎
−𝑣𝑖2
vf = 0 so that 𝑑 = (where a is negative since it opposes the direction of motion). Thus the total stopping distance
2𝑎
for the car is given by:
−𝑣𝑖2
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 +
2𝑎

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021

Identical Braking Capacity

Assume that two Lincoln Continentals are travelling along a highway at 97 km/h. The front car slams on its
brakes. Knowing the reaction time of the driver we can determine the minimum distance that the second Lincoln
should have been behind the first to avoid a rear end collision. The following calculation shows that the front car will
stop in a distance of 41 m.
27𝑚 2
−𝑣𝑖2 −( 𝑠 )
𝑑= = = 41 𝑚
2𝑎 9𝑚
2(− )
𝑠
The second car (using a reaction time of 0.45 s) will stop over a distance of,
27𝑚 2
−𝑣𝑖2 𝑚 −()
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + = 27 (0.45𝑠) + 𝑠 = 12 𝑚 + 41 𝑚 = 53 𝑚
2𝑎 𝑠 9𝑚
2 (− )
𝑠

Note that 12 m of this distance is travelled before applying the brakes, and the other 41 m is required to stop.
Thus a safe distance behind the first car would be at least 12 m. Given that the average car length is about 5.0 m, this
safe distance translates into about 2.4 car lengths behind. A constant speed of 27 m/s over this 12 m translates into a
'safe time' that is equal to the reaction time.
𝑑 12𝑚
𝑡= = = 0.44 𝑠
𝑣 27 𝑚
𝑠
The only factor affecting the required separation distance is the reaction time (when both cars are travelling
at the same speed and have the same deceleration).

At this point it might appear that the two second rule is overly cautious. However, the situation described is
an idealized one where both cars have the same braking ability and the tailgater has a reasonably good reaction time.
The situation could be much worse if the tailgater had a poor reaction time, if the road conditions were wet or icy, if
the lead car were travelling slower than the tailing car, or if the braking capacity of the cars were different.

Different Braking Capacity

The situation with different braking capacities can also be illustrated using data from the table given (Nicklin,
1997). Nicklin describes a situation where two cars are travelling at 121 km/h with a separation distance of 5 car
Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
lengths (24.38 m). Car A decelerates at 9.8 m/s 2 (a BMW), while car B decelerates at 7.5 m/s 2(a Chevrolet Blazer). If
the driver of car B has a reaction time of 0.45 s, the following calculations show that car B will in fact hit car A even at
5 car lengths away.
Stopping distance of car A:
33.6𝑚 2
−𝑣𝑖2 −( 𝑠 )
𝑑= = 𝑚 = 57.6 𝑚
2𝑎 2(−9.8 2 )
𝑠
Stopping distance of car B:
33.6𝑚 2
−𝑣𝑖2 𝑚 −( )
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + = 33.61 (0.45𝑠) + 𝑠
2𝑎 𝑠 𝑚 = 15.1 𝑚 + 57.6 𝑚 = 90.4 𝑚
2(−9.8 2 )
𝑠
Thus when car A has stopped, it would be 24.38 m (5 car lengths) + 57.6 m = 81.98 m from where car B started.
If Car A has come to a complete stop, it will still be hit by Car B since Car B requires 90.4 m to stop (it can be shown
that Car B will actually collide with Car A 3.4 s after Car A starts to brake). Car B would have been decelerating for
81.98 - 15.1 m = 66.88 m before reaching car A. The final velocity of car B at 66.88 m is
Vf2 = 2ad + vi2 = 2(-7.5 m/s)(66.88 m) + (33.61 m/s)2 = 11.2 m/s
Under these conditions when car A has better brakes and can stop faster, car B will collide with car A even
with a good reaction time and a separation distance of five car lengths. The situation is even more complicated when
there is a line of tailgating cars. If the car ahead of you is also tailgating, you have no way of knowing how much they
have reduced their own safety margin. As a driver you can roughly tell your own reaction time, velocity, and braking
ability. Unfortunately, you know nothing about the other driver's reaction time or braking conditions. This lack of
knowledge further increases the risk of tailgating.

Getting Ahead?
Traffic lights can be particularly frustrating especially when trying to reach a destination in a hurry. Many
drivers think that tailgating and driving as fast as possible between lights will get them there faster than somebody
who obeys the speed limit. However, this is not necessarily the case. In the case of heavy traffic, tailgating can actually
slow you down. How many times have you observed a car whiz by you by weaving in and out of traffic, only to find
that four or five lights later they are still only slightly ahead of you? Traffic lights are timed to ensure easy flow of
traffic. One way of doing this allows a person following the speed limit to get every green light (once they get one).
Tailgaters however are forced to slow down or stop every time a car ahead slows or takes a turn. Getting back up to
speed leaves a larger gap in front of the car than if they had been travelling along at a constant speed at a safe distance.
This gap is quickly filled in heavy traffic, so the tailgater doesn't get much further ahead. Also, having to get up to
speed at every red light causes the slowdown of trailing lines of traffic that would ordinarily have made the light, thus
contributing to traffic congestion.

Conclusion
In our fast paced world, it is often difficult to slow down when there is so much to do in so little time. Tailgating
may give the perception of getting ahead, but a basic understanding of motion shows that this is not the case. So, how
close is close enough? In the case of tailgating the answer to this question is 'too close for comfort'.

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.
General Physics 1
First Semester, S.Y 2020-2021
Curious about your reaction time? Try to determine it by following the procedure below.

Activity 4:
Solve the following problems.
1. What is the stopping distance, in meters, of a Toyota Celica (a = -9.2 m/s2) from 97 km/h where the driver has a
reaction time of 0.55 s?
2. A Chevrolet Blazer travelling at 97 km/h can stop in 48 m. Given that the actual stopping distance for a certain driver
is 54 m, what was the driver's reaction time?
3. An automobile is travelling at 25 m/s on a country road when the driver suddenly notices a cow in the road 30 m
ahead. The driver attempts to brake the automobile but the distance is too short. With what velocity would the car
hit the cow if the car decelerated at 7.84 m/s2 and the driver's reaction time was 0.75 s?

Prepared by:
MVW Jr.