Articol Publicat 2014
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COMMUNICATION, CONTEXT,
INTERDISCIPLINARITY
Studies and Articles
Volume III
Section: ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
”Petru Maior” University Press
2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Communication, Context, Interdisciplinarity – 3rd Edition
ISSN 2069 – 3389
Edited by:
The Alpha Institute for Multicultural Studies
Moldovei Street, 8
540522, Tîrgu Mureș, România
Tel./fax: +40-744-511546
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Published by:
‖Petru Maior‖ University Press, Tîrgu Mureş, 2014
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Email: [email protected]
Computer design: Dumitru-Mircea Buda
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Table of Contents
A POSSIBLE MODEL FOR MEASURING THE SERVICES QUALITY IN HOSPITALITY BRANCH
Doriana Dumitrela Morar, PhD. Student, Ioan Plăiaș, Prof., PhD, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca.................. 12
THE STRATEGY OF TRAINING HUMAN RESOURCES WITHIN AN ORGANISATION
Petruța Blaga, Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu-Mureș...................................................................................... 24
THE IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof., PhD, Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof., PhD. ......... 32
EVOLUTION AND THE NEED FOR AUDIT SERVICES IN ROMANIA
Viorica Filofteia Braga, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Odi Mihaela Zărnescu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Cristina Naftănăilă, Assist.
Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University .......................................................................................................................................... 42
ELEMENTS OF THE MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANISATIONS
Dorina Țicu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ........................................................................................ 51
THE ECONOMIC RECESSION VERSUS A NEW MODEL OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Iosif Moldovan, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Lucian Blaga‖ University of Sibiu ................................................................................ 61
DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE SALES ACTIVITY OF A COMPANY
Elena Sima, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu ................................................................................. 71
THE ROLE OF SME IN THE CONTEXT OF A COUNTRY‘S ECONOMY DEVELOPMENT
Maria Carmen Iordache, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Constantin Brâncoveanu‖ University of Râmnicu-Vâlcea ............................ 79
NATIONAL EMPIRICAL STUDY ON ETHICS IN ACCOUNTING, AUDITING AND FISCAL CONSULTING
Lucia Podoabă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca, Delia Beatrice Oprean, Assist. Prof.,
PhD, ‖Bogdan Vodă‖ University of Cluj-Napoca ..................................................................................................................... 88
MANAGEMENT OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE: THE NEXT REVOLUTION IN CLINICAL LABORATORY?
Manole Cojocaru, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Titu Maiorescu‖ University of Bucharest, Elena Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Titu
Maiorescu‖ University of Bucharest ......................................................................................................................................... 101
MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES IN NATURA 2000 SITES
Monica Marian, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Northern University Centre of Baia Mare .... 106
NUMERICAL FISCAL RULES FOR FISCAL DISCIPLINE
Mihaela Göndör, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu Mureș................................................................... 116
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PREREQUISITES FOR THE ENERGY INDEPENDENCE OF ROMANIA
Iosif Moldovan, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Lucian Blaga‖ University of Sibiu .............................................................................. 128
DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE SUPPLY ACTIVITY OF A COMPANY
Elena Sima, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu ............................................................................... 137
HOLISTIC STUDY ON DYNAMICS OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN ROMANIA
Simona Moise, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University of Bucharest ........................................................................... 147
DIRECTIONS AND ARGUMENTS ON THE INTERNATIONALIZATION PROCESS OF ENTERPRISES
Simona Moise, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University of Bucharest ........................................................................... 161
THE NECESSITY OF COLLABORATION BETWEEN DLAF AND ACCOUNTING PROFESSIONALS IN ROMANIA
IN THE FIGHT AGAINST FRAUD AND IRREGULARITIES IN THE USE OF EU FUNDS
Lucia Podoabă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca, Delia Beatrice Oprean, Assist. Prof.,
PhD, ‖Bogdan Vodă‖ University of Cluj-Napoca ................................................................................................................... 175
FROM FINANCIAL CRISIS TO GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Alexandra Deaconu, PhD Student, University of Craiova ...................................................................................................... 191
NATURAL RESOURCES, GOVERNANCE, NATIONAL SECURITY
Alexandra Sarcinschi, Senior Researcher, PhD, National Defence University ‖Carol I‖, Bucharest .................................. 196
BUSINESS ETHICS, SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE NEED OF AN ETHICAL MANAGEMENT
Alexandru Năstase, PhD, University of Bucharest .................................................................................................................. 207
ECONOMIC CONCEPTS UNDER SCRUTINY OF THE ‖SITUATIONAL HEXAGON‘‘ PRAXIOLOGICAL
PARADIGM
Alin Brădescu, PhD Student, POSDRU Researcher, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași .................................................... 216
EMERGENT MARKETS AND CRISIS CHALLENGES
Alina-Petronela Haller, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch.................................................. 227
INTERNATIONAL MERGERS AND ACQUISITION UNDER THE FINANCIAL MARKETS GLOBALIZATION
Andra Maria Găină, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Craiova .............................................................................................. 236
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CRISIS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL ECONOMICS THEORIES AND BEHAVIORAL
ECONOMICS THEORIES
Andreea Gradinaru, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași................................................................................... 241
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES OF COROSION PROTECTION BY HOT-DIP GALVANIZING OF STEEL
STRUCTURES
Andreea Hegyi, PhD, Eng., NIRD ‖URBAN-INCERC‖ Branch of Cluj-Napoca, Horia Constantinescu, Technical
University of Cluj-Napoca, NIRD ‖URBAN-INCERC‖ Branch of Cluj-Napoca, Mircea Pastrav, PhD, Eng., NIRD
‖URBANINCERC‖ Branch of Cluj-Napoca, Oana Cazan, PhD, Eng., NIRD ‖URBAN-INCERC‖ Branch of Cluj-
Napoca......................................................................................................................................................................................... 251
INTERNAL MIGRATION IN ROMANIA IN THE POST-COMMUNIST DECADES: EVOLUTIONS AND
CONSEQUENCES
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., PhD, Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof.,
Phd, „Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași.................................................................................................................................... 264
THE IMPACT OF FISCAL PRESSURE IN THE CONTEMPORARY ECONOMY
Boby Costi, Assist. Prof., PhD, Marius Boiţă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Eugen Remeş, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Vasile Goldiș‖
University of the West, Arad ..................................................................................................................................................... 273
A PRELIMINARY MODEL TO ASSESS THE COMPANY‘S READINESS FOR AN ISO / IEC 27001:2013
INFORMATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Bogdan Ţigănoaia, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Politehnica‖ University of Bucharest ..................................................................... 279
PARTICULARITIES OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Cezar Simion-Melinte, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest ...................................................... 288
MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR DECISION-MAKING - VALUE ANALYSIS
Cezarina Adina Tofan ................................................................................................................................................................ 296
EMERGING ECONOMIES VERSUS INDUSTRIALIZED ECONOMIES. ARE THERE CONDITIONS FOR
GROWTH?
Alina-Petronela Haller, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch.................................................. 304
THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AS A COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Elena Chițimuș, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ......................................................................................... 315
USING THE HOLONIC STRUCTURES TO OPTIMIZE THE OUTPUT OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
Ciprian Ionel Hrețcanu, PhD Student, ‖Ștefan cel Mare‖ University of Suceava ................................................................. 321
SOUND AS AN AESTHETIC ELEMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN MARKETING
Corina Paula Tarţa, PhD Student, Ioan Plǎiaş, Prof. PhD, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca ............................. 330
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
CONTEMPORARY CRISES AND THE POWER OF MODERN STATE
Cristian Băhnăreanu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Carol I‖ National Defense University, Bucharest .............................................. 340
TRANSLATION, ADAPTATION AND VALIDATION ON ROMANIAN POPULATION OF FRAS INSTRUMENT
FOR FAMILY RESILIENCE CONCEPT
Cristina Maria Bostan, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch / ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași........................................... 351
RECOVERY OF COST INFORMATION SYSTEM IN DECISION MAKING
Cristina Ţenovici, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Constantin Brâncoveanu‖ University of Pitești ....................................................... 360
TRANSATLANTIC COOPERATION US-EU. FAILURE OR SUCCESS
Mădălina Laura Cuciurianu, PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/S/133675 Project, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch......... 367
SOME ASPECTS REGARDING NEW REGULATION IN TAX EXEMPTION FOR REINVESTED EARNINGS IN
ROMANIA
Daniela Popa, Assist. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu............................................................................ 374
ASPECTS THAT CAN INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE GROWTH IN EUROPEAN PROJECTS
Diana Elena Ranf, Assistant, PhD, Elida Tomiţa Todăriţă, Assistant, PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu ....... 383
DIFFERENT METHODS OF MOTIVATING THE EMPLOYEES IN THE TOURISM INDUSTRY OF TODAY‘S
MARKET ECONOMY
Doina Guriță, PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ........................................................................................................... 395
THE SIBIU COUNTY: AGRICULTURAL PROFILE AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR DURABLE RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
RURAL ENVIRONMENT - SUPPORT, DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS
Maria Roxana Dorobanțu, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest ......................................................... 410
THE COMPLEXITY OF DECISION AS CONCERN THE INVESTMENTS
Robert Gabriel Dragomir, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University ............................................................................... 417
THE CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS REGARDING THE ORGANIZATION‘S COMMUNICATION
Elena Doval, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University of Brașov ................................................................................................................... 422
CONCERNS OF MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Florica Morar, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu Mureș ....................................................................... 430
THE BAROMETER OF INSOLVENCY FOR ROMANIAN AGRICULTURAL COMPANIES
Gabriela Ignat, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași ............................. 437
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE DECISION OF INVESTMENT USING THE DECISIONAL TREE
Robert Gabriel Dragomir, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University ............................................................................... 443
LE RÔLE DES TECHNOLOGIES EN LIGNE POUR PROMOUVOIR LE TOURISME RURAL
Paul Pașcu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Ștefan cel Mare‖ University of Suceava ............................................................................. 450
STUDY RELATED TO THE ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF PRODUCTION UNITS (CASE STUDY)
Elena Gîndu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Aurel Chiran, Prof., PhD, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine, Iași.............................................................................................................................................................................. 455
AN APPLICATION OF THE ELECTRE METHOD FOR THE CHOICE OF TRAVEL INSURANCES
Mariana Nagy, Prof., PhD, ‖Aurel Vlaicu‖ University of Arad, Valentin Burcă, PhD Student, West University of
Timișoara .................................................................................................................................................................................... 461
GENERIC COMPANY STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
Roxana Ştefănescu, Prof., PhD, ‖Spiru Haret‖ University ...................................................................................................... 470
THE CRISIS IMPACT ON THE CULTURAL CONSUMPTION IN ROMANIA
Dan Lungu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ....................................................................................... 476
INTERNAL MIGRATION IN ROMANIA IN THE POST-COMMUNIST DECADES: EVOLUTIONS AND
CONSEQUENCES
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., PhD, Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof.,
PhD .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 482
EMERGING EUROPE BETWEEN THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND THE POST-CRISIS
INTERNATIONALIZATION
Constantin Hălăngescu, Post PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/133675 Project, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch ........... 491
NON-FINANCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SUCCESS OF A MERGER TRANSACTION
Anca-Simona Hromei, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași .............................................................................. 504
THE FINANCIAL STABILITY OF THE COOPERATIVE BANKS IN COMPARISON WITH THE COMMERCIAL
BANKS
Ioana Raluca Diaconu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ..................................................................... 512
A REVIEW OF THE CORPORATE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK APPLIED TO ROMANIAN INVESTMENT
FIRMS
Ioan-Ovidiu Spătăcean, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu Mureș ........................................................ 524
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
USE OF CFD/CAE IN ECONOMICAL OFFSHORE PROJECTS
Ionuț-Cristian Scurtu, PhD Student, Constanța Maritime University..................................................................................... 534
ASPECTS REGARDING THE INTERNAL CONTROL ON THE LEVEL OF PUBLIC ENTITIES IN ROMANIA
Gabriela Ignat, Assist. Prof., PhD, George Ungureanu, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,
Iași ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 541
MISLEADING THE FINANCIAL SITUATION USERS BY FRAUDS
Isa Tak, Assist. Prof., PhD, Lumina - The University of South-East Europe ........................................................................ 547
MULTIPOLARITY VS. MULTILATERALISM IN THE RISING EMERGING ECONOMIES CONTEXT
Sebastian-Andrei Labeș, PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/133675 Project, PhD Student, Romanian Academy, Iași
Branch ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 557
MARKETING COMMUNICATION, VECTOR OF INCREASING THE AWARENESS OF THE MILITARY HIGHER
EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN THE EDUCATIONAL SERVICES MARKET IN ROMANIA
Laurenţiu Stoenică, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest .................................................................... 565
DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND THEIR RELEVANCE IN DECISION - MAKING
PROCESS
Lenuţa Carp (Ceka), PhD Student, Maria-Ramona Sârbu, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași .................... 577
THE PLACE AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROMANIAN TAX SYSTEM WITHIN THE EUROPEAN
FISCAL AREA
Leonida Ionel, Dr., Centre for Financial and Monetary Research ‖Victor Slăvescu‖ ........................................................... 585
THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE ORGANIZATION IN CAREER DEVELOPMENT
Valeria-Liliana-Amelia Purda-Nicoară (Netotea-Suciu), PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest ....... 591
INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT AND MARKET SHARE IN THE ROMANIAN HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
Lucica Armanca, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca .......... 596
SOFTWARE APPLICATION STRUCTURE GENERATOR FOR MANAGEMENT APPLICATION PORTALS
Florin Răzvan Lupşa-Tătaru, PhD Student, Vladimir Mărăscu-Klein, Prof., PhD, ‖Transilvania‖ University of Brașov . 603
METAPHORS THAT CAN TURN ACCOUNTING INTO A CAREER. AN ANALYSIS OF PRESENTATION
DISCOURSES IN ROMANIAN FACULTIES OF ECONOMICS
Magdalena Danileţ, Assist. Prof., PhD, Claudia Petruşcă, Assoc. Assist., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ......... 607
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN TOURISM FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE CORE – PERIPHERY MODEL
Mara Ursache, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași, PhD Fellow SOP HRD/159/1.5/133675....................... 618
SMES FINANCIAL REPORTING AND ENTREPRENEURS CONCERN FOR FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING
INFORMATION
Maria Mădălina Buculescu (Costică), PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest ...................................... 628
REPRESENTATIVE MODELS OF ONLINE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND SATISFACTION: A REVIEW
Maria-Cristiana Munthiu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, IFAG, Ecole Supérieure de Management, Amiens, France ........................ 639
FRAUD AND ERROR IN MANIPULATIVE FINANCIAL SITUATIONS
Isa Tak, Assist. Prof., PhD, Lumina - The University of South-East Europe ........................................................................ 651
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TIME FACTOR IN DEVELOPING THE STATE BUDGET
Marioara Niculae (Piroi), PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest .......................................................... 661
RESEARCH CONCERNING PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY OF POLICE WOMEN IN ROMANIAN POLICE
Angela Vlădescu, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest ....................................................................... 669
SOME ASPECTS ON ICT IMPLICATION IN GLOBAL INNOVATION
Marta Kiss, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu Mureș ............................................................................ 679
INFLUENCE OF CLIMATERIC SHOCKS ON FIRM PERFORMANCE
Nicoleta Mihăilă, PhD, Scientific Researcher, Centre for Financial and Monetary Research ‖Victor Slăvescu‖ .............. 689
QUALITATIVE MARKETING RESEARCH ON THE USAGE AND THE INFLUENCES OF ONLINE SOCIAL
NETWORKING SITES ON CONSUMERS - PART II
Mircea Fuciu, PhD Student, Lucian Luncean, PhD Student, Hortensia Gorski, Prof., PhD, Romanian-German
University of Sibiu ..................................................................................................................................................................... 697
DOES THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?
Ioana Andrada Moldovan (Gavril), Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest.................................. 707
A MODEL OF STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING IN THE GREEN INVESTMENTS PROJECTS
Oriana Negulescu, PhD Student, ‖Transilvania‖ University of Brașov ................................................................................. 716
CLOUD ACCOUNTING – A NEW PLAYER IN THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT
Otilia Dimitriu, PhD Student, Marian Matei, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași.......................................... 727
L‘ANALYSE DU RISQUE DE FAILLITE PAR LE BIAIS DES SYSTÈMES DE L‘INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE
Paul Pașcu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Ștefan cel Mare‖ University of Suceava ............................................................................. 733
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING POLICIES FOR THE YOUNG ALUMNI
Loredana Maria Păunescu, Assistant, PhD Student, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiești ................................................. 738
CHANGING LEADERS IN THE CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Olivia Roxana Popescu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Constantin Brâncuși‖ University of Târgu-Jiu .............................................. 743
THE AUDITOR‘S RESPONSABILITIES REGARDING BUSINESS ETHICS IN CONDUCTING A FINANCIAL
AUDIT
Viorel-Horaţiu Rotaru, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Lumina‖ University of South East Europe ...................................................... 748
NATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS AN ATTRACTOR FOR FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTS
Raluca Elena Iloie, PhD Student, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca ..................................................................... 755
INTANGIBLE ASSETS – RECOGNITION AND EVALUATION
Mircea-Iosif Rus, PhD Student, ‖Babeș-Bolyai‖ University of Cluj-Napoca ....................................................................... 766
ANALYSING THE PERFORMANCE OF MAJORITY STATE-OWNED ECONOMIC ENTITIES IN THE EIGHT
DEVELOPMENT REGIONS IN ROMANIA
Sabin Siserman, PhD Student, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca .................................................................................... 773
CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING FINANCING ISSUES IN OPERA HOUSES: SHOWCASING THE NATIONAL
OPERA OF BUCHAREST
Diana Florea, PhD Student, ‖Lucian Blaga‖ University of Sibiu ........................................................................................... 787
THE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE ON MICROECONOMICAL LEVEL IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION
Silvia Elena Isachi, PhD Student, ‖Victor Slăvescu‖ Centre for Financial and Monetary Research ................................... 793
CONSUMER‘S CHOICE: BEHAVIORAL CHALLENGES TO NEOCLASSICAL ASSUMPTIONS
Sînziana Bălțătescu, Assist Prof., PhD, Liviu George Maha, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ....... 800
THE SYNCHRONIZATION PROCESS OF CREDIT CYCLES: EVIDENCE FROM EU COUNTRIES
Stanislav Percic, PhD Student, Constantin-Marius Apostoaie, PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ........................... 806
SUCCESSFUL PROMOTIONAL STRATEGIES IN THE WINE INDUSTRY: THE CASE OF WEB MARKETING
Ştefan Matei, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași ............................................................................................. 819
THE ACCOUNTING AND FISCAL TREATMENT OF PROVISIONS AND THE IMPACT ON FINANCIAL AND
ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
Nicolae-Bogdan Velicescu, PhD, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest..................................................................... 833
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
AUDIT EVIDENCE IN MIMINIZING THE FINANCIAL AUDIT RISK
Viorel-Horaţiu Rotaru, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Lumina‖ University of South East Europe ...................................................... 837
TRUE AND FAIR VIEW – A PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF ACCOUNTING
Maria – Mădălina Voinea, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași........................................................................ 848
ACL-BASED MODEL FOR USER ACCESS CONTROL IN MANAGEMENT APPLICATION PORTALS
Florin Răzvan Lupşa-Tătaru, PhD Student, Vladimir Mărăscu-Klein, Prof., PhD, ‖Transilvania‖ University of Brașov . 853
STRATEGIC STRESS MANAGEMENT
Irina Simionescu (Barbu), PhD Student, ‖Valahia‖ University of Târgoviște ....................................................................... 857
MONETARY AND FISCAL POST-CRISIS POLICIES IN ROMANIA
Mihaela Ifrim, Post PhD Fellow, SOP HRD/159/1.5/133675 Project, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch.......................... 869
ECONOMIC CONVERGENCE AND TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES IN EASTERN EUROPE – THE FUNCTIONAL
NEIGHBORHOOD AND THE ESTIMATION OF THE SIGMA REGIONAL CONVERGENCE TRENDS
Alexandru Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD, Andreea Mihaela Buraga, PhD Student, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași......876
AIR ACCESSIBILITY, RESILIENT REGIONS AND ECONOMIC CONVERGENCE IN THE EASTERN
EUROPE - TERRITORIAL EVIDENCES SUPPORTING THE POLICY DESIGN AND THE DECISION
MAKERS
Andreea Mihaela Buraga, PhD Student, Alexandru Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD.....................................................887
INDUSTRIAL AGGLOMERATIONS AND SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM. A NORMATIVE APPROACH
Raluca Irina Clipa, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Al. Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași..........................................................898
THE MANAGEMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ACTIVITY AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL
Pia Simona Făgăraş, Assist. Prof., PhD, ‖Petru Maior‖ University of Tîrgu Mureș, Liliana Elisabeta Radu, ‖Al.
Ioan Cuza‖ University of Iași……………………………………………………………………………………905
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
A POSSIBLE MODEL FOR MEASURING THE SERVICES QUALITY IN
HOSPITALITY BRANCH
Doriana Dumitrela Morar, PhD. Student, Ioan Plăiaș, Prof., PhD, ”Babeș-Bolyai”
University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Based on a better forecasting and response to customers' needs, the companies
compete with each in order to provide superior value. Recognizing customers as seekers for
solutions for their problems and for values that result from the use of what they buy, it is
fundamental for the long-term business viability. The way in which a company defines its
business, and the way in which it desires to build its market image, depends on the
understanding of this issue.
This article explores new directions regarding service quality and also the determining
dimensions of quality as expected by the consumers. Furthermore, in the present paper, the
authors emphasize the differences existent between the degrees of importance that various
dimensions have in defining service quality. The objective of this paper is to evaluate in a
critical manner the different models used for measuring service quality and, based on the
traditional models; the authors will elaborate a new conceptual model for measuring service
quality in the hospitality industry.
Keywords : value, customer satisfaction, model of measurement, service quality, hospitality
industry.
Introduction
In the last decades, the service industry has become the dominant sector of the
economy, and relevant studies show that the ―service quality‖ variable is an essential
condition to the success and survival of the firms in today‘s competitive environment.
Therefore, the interest in service quality has increased in a visible manner (Ghobadian et al,
1994 cited in Akbaba, A, 2005). According to relevant literature, service quality leads to
loyalty, attracting new customers, positive word-of-mouth, employees‘ satisfaction and
implicitly their commitment, improved corporate image, cost reduction and increase in
business performance. (Berry et al., 1989). And while the service industry and the quality
variable as a competitive advantage are considered to become more important than ever, the
service quality concept has yet to be fully developed, even though Ghobadian et al. first
underlined this fact in 1994.
The process of evaluating service quality is far more complex than that of evaluating
product quality. This is the result of the service inner nature, its heterogeneity, the fact that its
production cannot be separated by its consumption, as well as its perishability and
intangibility (Frochot and Hughes, 2000). In the hotel industry, other attributes, which make
difficult evaluating service quality, have been identified, such as imprecise standards, short
distribution channels, reliability and coherence, interactions and information exchanges with
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
customers, and fluctuating demand. All these complicate even more the task of defining how
service quality should be delivered and measured in the hospitality industry. Furthermore, the
demand for hotel services is generally grouped around peak periods of the day, week or year,
which further increases the difficulty of delivering services of higher quality (Barrington and
Olsen, 1987; Mei et al., 1999).
As our endeavor is to create a better model for measuring service quality, we have
undertaken a vast literature review, by analyzing some of the existing models in relevant
literature. Based on our finds, we will try to elaborate a model for measuring service quality
adapted to the hospitality hotel industry.
1. Literature review
Since 1980, the concept of service quality has been a much discussed and
controversial subject, which has yet to receive an universally accepted definition. Authors,
such as Christian Grönroos, Leonard L. Berry, A. Parasuraman and Valarie A. Zeithaml, have
had a significant contribution to literature. With the idea that services are different from
products as a starting point, these authors have underlined the need for a better understanding
of the concept of service quality. The most relevant articles are from the period between 1985
and 1988, which have greatly increased the theoretical and practical knowledge in the field of
service quality.
Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1985, p. 41) highlight the difficulty of defining the
concept of service quality since they consider it to be an evasive and unclear term, based on
service characteristics of intangibility, heterogeneity and inseparability. Because of service
intangibility, it is more difficult for companies to understand how customers perceive and
evaluate service quality. In the case when a service is bought, there is less physical evidence
than when a product is bought.
Because of the lack of concrete evidence, customers need to use other types of clues
when deciding if a service offer is superior to another one. Secondly, services are
heterogeneous. This means that the notion of service quality varies depending on the
performance of the front-line personnel, the time when it was delivered and the type of client
who received it. Taking these characteristics into account, it becomes a difficult task for
companies to ensure a high consistency between the service which was offered and the
service which was finally delivered. This, in turn, makes troublesome for companies to
determine on an objective level the given service quality at a certain point in time. Thirdly,
because of the inseparability between production and consumption, service quality is mainly
limited to the quality of the interactions between the service supplier and customer. As it
follows, the two partners (front-line personnel and customers) can positively or negatively
influence the perceived level of service quality. This limits the company in what it can do to
control the quality of the services they provide.
Eventually Parasuraman et al. (1985), cited in Grönroos (1990), highlights the
necessity for companies to identify the basic elements which customers use in evaluating
service quality. The same idea is presented by the representative of the Nordic School
(Grönroos, 1991, pp. 36-37) when they state: „when a service supplier knows the way
customers evaluate service quality, it can influence that evaluation in the direction it
desires…‖
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In Lewis‘ vision (1989), service quality is a critical dimension of competitiveness.
Berry and Parasuraman (1992) state that „ a service supplier company is defined by the
quality of their services. In the case when services are mediocre, then the company is
mediocre" (p. 5). Therefore, high service quality is the answer to many problems a company
faces at a certain point in time. This vision has been largely accepted by theoreticians and
practitioners, but it is not without its controversy. The models proposed are based on the
expectancy disconfirmation paradigm. The North American School of Thought suggests
determining perceived service quality as the difference between perceptions and expectations
since the results of focus groups have confirmed that both the dimensions are related to the
results, and those implicated in the process influence the quality assessments made by the
clients (Zeithaml and Parasuraman, 2004, cited in Radomir, L., 2013).
In the traditional approach, service quality results from the comparison between
customer expectations and perceived performance of the service (Parasuraman, Zeithaml,
Berry, 1985). The most common definition for service quality is that quality is the customer‘s
perception of service excellency, which has been defined by the customer‘s impression of the
delivered service (Berry, Zeithaml, Parasuraman, 1985). Even so, the more quality is being
analysed as a concept, the more difficult it is to give it a meaning (Grasing and Hessick 1988,
cited in Radomir et al., 2012). On the other hand, delivering high-quality services and
satisfying customer expectations remain the most important elements in the service industry
(Hung et al., 2003).
2. Dimensions and measuring models for service quality
In relevant literature, service quality is based on many dimensions (Grönroos, 1982,
1990; Parasuraman et al., 1985). Literature review regarding service quality explicitly shows
that European researchers had a great influence on the study of the service quality dimensions.
Lehtinen J. and Lehtinen U. (1982, cited in Kang and Jeffrey, 2004), define service quality in
terms related to physical quality, interactive quality and corporate image. Physical quality
refers to the tangible aspects of the service, while interactive quality implies the interaction
that occurs between the customer and the service supplier, or its representative. Corporate
image quality refers to the image the supplier has in the mind of its current and potential
clients, and all the other types of public. Comparing it with the other two dimensions of
service quality, corporate quality has the tendency of being much more stable over time.
Service quality has Perceived Service
Perceived service
Expected Service Quality
been the focus of numerous
models, being analyzed in
relation to service, customer Traditional Marketing Activities
expectations and perceptions. (advertising, sales, public
relations, price strategies) and the Image
Seth, Deshmukh and Vrat influence of external factors such
as traditions, ideology and word-
(2005), have analyzed of-mouth
nineteen models of
measuring service quality,
Technical Quality Functional Quality
highlighting the advantages
and disadvantages of each, WHAT? HOW?
yet they didn‘t go through all Figure 1: Service quality model (source: Grönroos,1984, p. 40)
the models available in
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
literature. One result of the analysis was the conclusion that improving service quality leads to
increase in customer satisfaction and loyalty.
2.1 Service quality model by Grönroos (1984)
Grönroos (1984) suggested that the model of perceived service quality should take
into consideration those quality dimensions which can replace the physical characteristics of
products. Therefore, he has identified technical quality(―what‖ service is being delivered) and
the functional quality (―how‖ is the service delivered?).
Several years later, Grönroos (1991, p. 48) details the model by subdividing technical
quality into: knowledge, technical solutions, machines, computerized systems, employees‘
technical skills; and the functional quality dimension into accessibility, consumer contacts,
attitudes, internal relations, behavior, service mindedness and appearance.
Therefore,‖perceived service quality is the result of an evaluation process in which the
customer compares their expectations with what they perceived is actually being delivered‖
(Grönroos, 1991, p.38). The author considers that the solution for satisfying customers is
eliminating the gap between the expected and perceived service, and when that is impossible,
reducing the difference as much as possible.
Service quality can be determined through several criteria. Therefore, the perceived
service is of high quality only if these criteria are met. Because of this, the representatives of
the Sweedish School of Service Marketing (Grönroos and Gummeson, 1988 cited in
Brogowicz, Delene, Lyth, 1990) propose six criteria for determining service quality:
Professionalism and skills;
Behavior and attitudes, interest in giving a solutionto customer‘s problems;
Accessibility and flexibility;
Reliability and trustworthiness;
Recovery or the organization‘s capacity of taking corrective actions when something
goes wrong;
Reputation and credibility.
Although usually referenced in literature, the model proposed by Christian Grönroos is
not without its limits, something underlined by several authors including the researcher
himself. From his perspective ―The service quality model wasn‘t supposed to be an
operational model for service quality‖ (Grönroos, 1998, p.329). The model‘s objective was to
offer a support to researchers and practitioners in finding solutions to customers‘ problems
when the products are intangible (Grönroos, 2001). The authors Ennew and Waite (2007)
appreciated the total quality model, respectively its approach, as being a qualitative one.
Likewise Loonam and O`Loughlin, (2008), as cited in Radomir (2013, p.25) suggest that the
Nordic School representative does not offer enough details regarding the proposed quality
dimensions.
The American researchers (Berry, Parasuraman, 1991, p.16, cited in Pentescu, 2014)
propose five elements for determining service quality: reliability, assurance, responsiveness,
tangibles and empathy. Among these, the most important one is reliability, customers losing
their trust in the organization which makes mistakes when delivering the service or when it
doesn‘t keep its promises. The other dimensions (responsiveness, assurance, tangibles and
empathy) are evaluated during service delivery, their importance being in exceeding
15
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
customers‘ expectations. Therefore, successful organizations exceed their customers‘
expectations by creating emotional bonds with them. According to I. Cetină (2009, p.40), the
main mistakes a service supplier must avoid are: the lack of, or wrong identification of
customer needs, errors in creating quality standards, errors in designing the service and
inadequate business administration models.
2.2 - SERVQUAL- The Gap Model
Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry((1985) have developed a service quality measuring
model by comparing the expected quality with the perceived one. This model has been known
as the GAP Model (Seth, 2005). The authors, (PZB) have made the model by analyzing five
different types of gaps that may happen during service delivery: Gap 1 – the difference
between customer expectations and the managerial perception of them; Gap 2 – the difference
between customer's expectations as seen by the management and service quality standards;
Gap 3 – the difference between quality standards and actual service delivery; Gap 4 – the
difference between service delivery and external communications; and Gap 5 – the difference
between the expected service and the experienced one, this last difference being the sum of all
four previous gaps. According to this model, quality can be determined as: SQ=∑kj=1 (Pij - Eij),
where: SQ= service quality; k= number of attributes or service dimensions; P ij= perception of
individual ,,i‖ regarding the performance of attribute ,,j‖; Eij= expectations of individual ,,i‖
regarding the qualities of attribute ,,j‖.
The model is an analytical instrument which allows managers to identify differences
between expectations and perceptions of service quality by analyzing various elements
pertaining to the service offer. The model in focused externally giving managers the
opportunity to identify relevant quality factors from the point of view of the customer. Its
limits are the fact that it is an exploratory study and there are no procedures for measuring the
different gaps that may occur.
This exploratory research has been improved by introducing the SERVQUAL scale,
which can measure customer‘s perceptions on service quality. (Berry, Parasuraman and
Zeithalm, 1988). The SERVQUAL model is based on the expectancy disconfirmation
paradigm, and it was developed with ten quality dimensions as starting points, which were
selected from 97 elements previously identified by PZB in 1985. However, through two
quantitative studies, Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry, manage to reduce the research
instrument to 22 items which they further grouped into five quality dimensions: tangibles (4
items), reliability (5 items), responsiveness (4 items), assurance, (4 items), empathy (5 items).
This is one of the best-known and utilized instruments for measuring service quality, as it is
perceived by the customers (Bloemer et al., 1999; Kang and James, 2004). By analyzing these
five dimensions, we can tell that at their core, they refer to the human component of service
delivery; reliability, empathy and responsiveness showing a direct link to the performance of
the personnel.
Applied to many activity sectors (Parasuraman et al., 1991a), the SERVQUAL model
has been utilized by both researchers and managers. Nonetheless, there are practical studies
which show that the service quality dimensions may be more than five. According to Carman
(1990, cited in Souca, 2013, p.93) analyzing medical services shows the existence of nine
16
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
service quality dimensions, while Saleh and Ryan (1991) have found other five dimensions
for the hotel industry than the ones previously identified by PZB: conviviality, tangibles,
reassurance, avoidance of sarcasm and empathy. Tsang and Qu (2000), in order to identify the
gaps between customers and managers‘ perceptions used 35 attributes, in a study adapted
after Parasuraman et al. (1985). According to their results, the general quality of hotel
services in China has fallen quite bellow tourists‘ expectations, the biggest difference between
perceived performance and expectations being about physical premises, professionalism and
skills and price value. Furthermore, according to Petrick (2002, cited in Morar, 2013) the
benefits customers receive after buying services are quality, emotional response, reputation
and monetary price. The scale developed by Petrick was called PERVAL SERV.
Still in the hotel industry, Nadiri and Hussain (2005) have discovered only two
dimensions of service quality: tangibles and intangibles. Therefore, it can be said that the
number of dimensions is dependent on the type of service, which has been analyzed. Some
authors (Sánchez et al., 2006, cited in Morar, 2013), have developed a measuring scale for
post-purchase value in the tourism sector, which they have named GLOVAL. This scale has
six dimensions for perceived value, four of them being under functional value: stability value,
functional value of contact personnel, functional value of service quality and price as a
functional value. The other two dimensions cover the affective aspect of perceived value:
emotional value and social value.
2.3 The Model proposed by Sweeney et al. 1997
According to Zeithaml‘s definition (1988, cited in Morar, 2013) perceived value
results from comparing personal benefits with sacrifices. The perception is about benefits and
sacrifices as seen by the customers. The concept of value used in the model proposed by
Sweeney et al. (1997), cited in Seth et al. (2005, p. 927), represents ―value for money‖. The
model underlines that, next to functional and technical service quality, perceptions over price
and overall service quality have a direct influence on perceived value.
Functional Service
Quality
+
+
Technical Service
Quality +
+
+ +
Product Quality Value Willingness to
buy
+ -
Relative Price -
Figure 2: Model proposed by Sweeney et al. (1997) (source: Seth, Deshmukh and Prem (2005, p. 928))
The perceived technical quality of retail services is an important determinant in
perceived product quality and intentions to repurchase. The perceived functional service
quality, on the other hand, is an indirect influence on repurchase desire by coloring the
customers‘ perception of product quality and their value. This will eventually lead to the
17
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
desire to repurchase them, independently of the product‘s value. When it comes to its limits,
the perceived value model is one-dimensional since it analyzes only the ―value for money‖
aspect of products. Furthermore, the study has very few items taken into consideration (Seth
et al., 2005, Helkhula et al., 2010).
2.4 Service quality, value and customer satisfaction model
The model proposed by Oh in 1999 (cited in Seth, Deshmukh and Vrat, 2005),
represents an integrative model for service quality, with variables such as: perception,
perceived service quality, customer satisfaction, perceived customer value and intentions to
repurchase. The arrows in it indicate causality, the model emphasizing the fact that perceived
customer value has a significant role in the post-purchase decision-making process,
representing a predecessor to customer satisfaction and intentions to repurchase. Furthermore,
the model created by Oh indicates that the perceived price has a negative influence on
perceived value.
Actual Price
Perceived Price
Perceived Customer
Value
Repurchase Word of
Perceived Service
Intention Mouth
Quality
Customer Satisfaction
Perceptions
Figure 3: Service quality, value and customer satisfaction model (source: Seth, Deshmukh and Vrat (2005, p.928) )
The model can be used for understanding the customer‘s decision-making process and
to evaluate company‘s performance on certain target markets. The main limit of the model is
that it hasn‘t been generalized for more types of services, and the variables are measured
through a small number of items (Seth et al., 2005, Helkhula et al., 2010, cited in Micu,
2013).
2.5 A ”possible” model for evaluating service quality in the hospitality industry
According to Johns and Howard (1998), measuring service quality has operational
value only in the case when it can indicate if the service has been satisfying or not for the
customers. From the analyzed models, the starting point for our proposed model is the one
created by Oh (1999) since it contains a finality, a consequence of delivering value to the
customers by evaluating even their intentions to repurchase and their willingness to engage in
positive word-of-mouth. However, the model can be improved by eliminating some of the
factors Oh thought would lead to satisfaction and by introducing new ones.
Concretely, we will eliminate the perception dimension, since what is being perceived
by customers is already measured by perceived service quality. In addition, we eliminated the
perceived price indicator and decided to keep only actual price. Price value is an important
indicator for customer satisfaction (Getty and Thompson, 1994), and because of this, we have
included it as a measurement indicator. According to Hallowell (1996, p.29), customer
satisfaction is the result of perception over received value, which consists of the comparison
between perceived service value and actual service price. Therefore, an essential determinant
18
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
of overall customer satisfaction is the perceived quality of the service which has been
delivered and its perceived value (Fornell et al., 1996, cited in Pentescu, 2014).
Furthermore, price is a subjective construct which has a moderating role between
service quality and customer satisfaction (Caruana et al., 2000).
Actual Price
Perceived
Customer Value Positive
Real Quality Intentions to Word of
Perceived Repurchase Mouth
Service Quality
Customer
Interaction Satisfaction
Quality
Figure 4: Model for measuring service quality in the hospitality industry (source: the authors of the article)
Perceived service quality in our model is the result of real service quality and the
quality of the interactions between those involved in delivering the service. Real service
quality, in the authors‘ opinion is given by service tangibles (PBZ, 1985), personnel
knowledge (Cadotte and Turgeon, 1988; Caro and Garcìa, 2008, cited in Michael et al., 2010),
service performance (Chelladurai and Chang, 2000; Kim and Cha, 2002 cited in Michael et
al., 2010), service accuracy (Akan, 1995) and organization reputation. According to
Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996, cited in Kandampully (2000), a company‘s reputation or image
has the ability to influence customer perceptions of the company‘s products and services.
Several researchers have indicated the importance of the ―personnel‖ component,
which has a fundamental impact in the process of delivering a service and how the service
quality is being perceived (Bigné, Martìnez, Miquel, and Belloch, 1996; LeBlanc, 1992, cited
in Michael et al., 2010). The interaction quality is comprised of the personnel relationship
skills (Brady and Cronin, 2001, cited in Michael et al., 2010), personnel willingness (Choi
and Chu, 2001; Czepiel et al., 1985, cited in Michael et al., 2010); and employee's
competence (Knutson, 1988, cited in Michael et al., 2010). Personnel relationship skills are
given by the personnel credibility, responsiveness, and empathy; dimensions which have
already been proposed and verified by American researchers (Berry, Parasuraman, 1991, cited
in Pentescu, 2014). In the author‘s opinion, they are overlapping the service functional quality
dimension.
Conclusions, limits and future research
Quality is an important concept which has been used in most fields, covering a large
number of concepts and meanings. In the service industry, quality is the most important
element, as it is essential for having loyal and satisfied clients who are willing to promote the
service. When it comes to the hospitality industry, it is very important that the hotels offered
high-quality services and experiences (Gundersen, Heide and Olsson, 1996). Because of this,
the authors consider that it is essential to determine how service customers perceive quality
and, which are the determining factors in evaluating it. Furthermore, expectations and
perceptions of service quality should always be the main focus for those operating in the
hospitality industry.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
After reading the relevant literature we consider that, regardless of the nature of the
services, a model for measuring service quality must be created, which would take into
account both the market and the type of services for which it has been applied. Of the same
opinion, there are also Karatepe et al., (2005), who consider that, although there are many
other models for measuring service quality, they have to be adapted to the country where the
study takes place, because the definition of quality depends on the cultural background of the
respondents. Hayes (2008, cited in Radomir, 2013), considers as well that some standard
dimensions can be generalized for more than one service category, yet others are specific to
only certain types of services.
The limits of this study are, among others, the lack of empirical validation for the
proposed model, which could offer the evidence of the model‘s validity and reliability for use
in future research. Furthermore, the large number of papers dedicated to the study of quality,
service quality, and measurement models, makes it improbable to study them all in detail, in
order to use them as theoretical support for the model which we proposed in the current
article.
Future research should consider the field testing of the proposed model for measuring
service quality as perceived by tourists and hotel services customers, and then to analyze the
data and present them in forthcoming article.
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Acknowledgement
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
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POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral
research in Romanian economics science domain‖
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THE STRATEGY OF TRAINING HUMAN RESOURCES WITHIN AN
ORGANISATION
Petruța Blaga, Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu-Mureș
Abstract : The strategy of human resources development derives from global organizational
strategies and has a positive role in achieving organizational goals. Its purpose is to promote
the human resources plan, it being built on the idea that human resources are a major source
of competitive advantage. It is based on the organization‘s needs for the development of
intellectual capital and its need for present and future well trained personnel.
Keywords : human resources, training, training needs, training strategy.
Odată cu dezvoltarea societăţii şi a nevoilor sale, se intensifică competiţia pe piaţă.
Pentru a se impune, organizaţiile au nevoie de anumite atuuri. O organizaţie poate căuta
avantaje faţă de competiţie în trei domenii: să folosească cea mai bună şi cea mai modernă
tehnologie, să folosească cele mai eficiente sisteme de lucru şi de prezentare, să aibă angajaţi
foarte eficienţi. Cum primele două posibilităţi pot fi folosite şi de concurenţă, atenţia trebuie
îndreptată spre a treia şi anume, calitatea angajaţilor. Din ce în ce mai multe organizaţii
conştientizează necesitatea învăţării continue în rândul angajaţilor, a actualizării permanente a
cunoştinţelor şi a dobândirii de cunoştinţe noi în domenii conexe.
Ca urmare, una dintre cele mai importante caracteristici ale unei organizaţii este
capacitatea sa de învăţare, aceasta fiind şansa sa de adaptare într-o lume în continuă
schimbare. Instruirea resurselor umane este o activitate sistematică şi planificată subsumată
acestui ţel, menită să ducă la dobândirea şi perfecţionarea competenţelor şi cunoştinţelor
angajaţilor. În acest context, funcţia de resurse umane capătă tot mai mult statutul de funcţie
strategică.
Un sistem modern de instruire devine astfel o necesitate vitală pentru orice organizaţie
în scopul dezvoltării şi menţinerii standardelor înalt profesionale ale propriilor sale resurse
umane. De aceea, organizaţiile cheltuiesc o parte considerabilă din bugetele lor pentru
instruirea cadrelor proprii.
1. Procesul de instruire
Teoria învăţării sugerează că instruirea are eficacitate numai dacă se îndeplinesc zece
condiţii de bază [11]:
– angajaţii trebuie să se simtă motivaţi să înveţe, să fie conştienţi că actualul lor nivel de
cunoştinţe, aptitudini sau competenţe, ca şi atitudinea sau comportamentul din prezent,
trebuie îmbunătăţite pentru ca activitatea profesională să continue să le ofere satisfacţii şi
lor, şi celorlalţi; prin urmare, trebuie să aibă o imagine clară a comportamentului pe care
trebuie să-l adopte;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
– trebuie stabilite standarde de performanţă pentru angajaţii care învaţă, respectiv trebuie
fixate obiective şi standarde pe care angajaţii să le considere acceptabile şi pe care să le
utilizeze pentru a evalua cum progresează;
– angajaţii care învaţă trebuie să dispună de îndrumare, aceştia putând avea nevoie de
recomandări, indicaţii şi feedback referitor la progresele înregistrate din partea
formatorului;
– activitatea de învăţare trebuie să ofere satisfacţii celor care învaţă; dacă învăţarea le
satisface una sau mai multe nevoi, angajaţii pot învăţa chiar şi în cele mai dificile
circumstanţe; pe de altă parte, până şi cele mai bune scheme de instruire riscă să eşueze
dacă angajaţii nu le consideră utile pentru ei înşişi [7];
– învăţarea nu trebuie să fie un proces pasiv, ci activ, angajaţii trebuind să se implice activ,
alături de formator şi de colegi, în stabilirea conţinutului programului de instruire;
– trebuie utilizate tehnici de instruire adecvate de către formatori, acestea trebuind utilizate
în funcţie de necesităţile programului de instruire, ale persoanelor individuale şi ale
grupului;
– metodele de învăţare trebuie să fie variate pentru a contribui la procesul de învăţare,
menţinând astfel viu interesul participanţilor;
– trebuie alocat un timp suficient pentru asimilarea celor învăţate, acesta trebuind oferit în
cadrul programelor de instruire;
– comportamentul corect trebuie să fie recunoscut şi consolidat; participanţii la instruire
simt de obicei nevoia să li se confirme faptul că au început să se descurce mai bine în
meserie;
– trebuie acceptat şi recunoscut faptul că există niveluri diferite de învăţare, care necesită
metode diferite şi durate de timp diferite.
Instruirea sistematică
Conceptul de instruire sistematică a fost elaborat de Industrial Training Boards în anii
'60 şi defineşte o instruire concepută special pentru a satisface cerinţe bine definite [3].
Instruirea sistematică este planificată şi asigurată de persoane specializate în domeniu, iar
impactul activităţii de instruire este atent evaluat. Modelul presupune:
– definirea necesităţilor de instruire;
– alegerea tipului de instruire capabil să satisfacă necesităţile respective;
– implicarea unor formatori bine pregătiţi şi experimentaţi pentru a pune în practică
activitatea de instruire aleasă;
– monitorizarea şi evaluarea acţiunii de instruire pentru a i se stabili eficacitatea.
Modelul asigură o bază de pornire pentru planificarea programelor de instruire, dar are
o serie de deficienţe: constituie o simplificare excesivă a situaţiei reale, pune prea puţin accent
pe responsabilitatea managerilor şi a angajaţilor individuali, a încercat să impună în mediile
economice un ansamblu de practici birocratice şi extrem de elaborate. Dar valoarea intrinsecă
a conceptului de instruire sistematică nu a fost distrusă de implementarea sa deficitară. De
aceea, s-a impus punerea la punct a unei abordări mai realiste, denumită „instruire
planificată‖.
Instruirea planificată
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Conform lui Kanney şi Reid (1994), instruirea planificată este „o intervenţie
deliberată, menită să asigure învăţarea necesară obţinerii de performanţe profesionale
îmbunătăţite‖. Procesul de instruire planificată cuprinde etapele [1]:
– se identifică şi se definesc necesităţile de instruire – etapa implică analizarea cerinţelor
organizaţiei, echipei, ale ocupaţiei respective şi ale individului cu privire la obţinerea de
noi cunoştinţe, aptitudini sau la îmbunătăţirea competenţelor existente; analiza se referă la
problemele ce trebuie soluţionate, dar şi la necesităţile viitoare; în această etapă se decide
tipul adecvat de instruire şi cele mai eficiente moduri de rezolvare a problemelor
identificate;
– se defineşte ceea ce trebuie învăţat – trebuie să se specifice cât mai clar ce cunoştinţe şi
aptitudini vor fi deprinse, ce competenţe vor fi dezvoltate şi ce atitudini vor fi schimbate;
– se definesc obiectivele instruirii – se stabilesc obiectivele activităţii de învăţare, care
definesc nu doar ce anume trebuie învăţat, ci şi ce anume trebuie să ştie să facă angajaţii
după încheierea programului de instruire;
– se concep programele de instruire – programele trebuie astfel concepute încât să satisfacă
obiectivele şi necesităţile de învăţare, utilizând combinaţia adecvată de locaţii şi tehnici de
instruire;
– se hotărăşte cine anume va asigura instruirea – trebuie specificat dacă instruirea este
asigurată din interiorul sau din exteriorul organizaţiei; concomitent, trebuie împărţite
responsabilităţile între departamentul de instruire, managerii sau şefii de echipe şi
persoanele individuale;
– se implementează activitatea de instruire – se utilizează cele mai adecvate metode, astfel
încât angajaţii să dobândească toate cunoştinţele şi aptitudinile sau nivelul de competenţă
şi atitudinile dorite;
– se evaluează activitatea de instruire – eficacitatea instruirii trebuie monitorizată pe întreg
parcursul programului, fiind evaluat totodată impactul acesteia, pentru a se determina
gradul în care au fost îndeplinite obiectivele propuse;
– se corectează şi se extinde procesul de instruire, după necesităţi – pe baza evaluării, se
decide nivelul îmbunătăţirilor care trebuie aduse programului de instruire şi modul în care
vor fi satisfăcute necesităţile de învăţare încă neîmplinite.
Abordarea sistemică a instruirii planificate
Procesul de instruire descris funcţionează eficient numai dacă este pe deplin integrat în
sistemele de relaţii, structuri, interdependenţe şi muncă din organizaţie. Abordarea sistemică a
instruirii a fost definită de Manpower Service Commission (1981) ca un proces de identificare
a intrărilor, a ieşirilor, a componentelor şi a subsistemelor şi apoi a modului în care instruirea
poate îmbunătăţi modul de funcţionare a organizaţiei prin contribuţia adusă de componenta
umană (oamenii), pe lângă cea formată de echipamente şi de procedurile de lucru [12].
Abordarea sistemică este apoi aplicată în concepţia instruirii [6], ale cărei componente
sunt oamenii şi strategiile de învăţare, iar obiectivele sunt stabilite sub aspectul lucrurilor care
trebuie învăţate. Abordarea sistemică este folosită şi în analiza interacţiunii dintre instruire şi
modul de operare al organizaţiei, oferind feedback-ul necesar îmbunătăţirii următoarelor
programe de instruire.
Abordarea sistemică impune celor însărcinaţi cu pregătirea planurilor de instruire să ia
în calcul toţi factorii şi toate variabilele care ar putea afecta învăţarea. Astfel, programul de
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
instruire aplicat în organizaţie poate fi afectat de evenimente petrecute în interiorul sau în
exteriorul companiei, iar modul în care sunt concepute acţiunile de instruire trebuie să ţină
seama de aceste interacţiuni.
2. Identificarea necesităţilor de instruire
Instruirea trebuie să aibă un scop, iar acesta poate fi definit numai dacă necesităţile de
învăţare ale organizaţiei, ale grupurilor şi ale angajaţilor individuali din cadrul ei sunt
sistematic identificate şi analizate.
Analiza necesităţilor de instruire se referă în parte la definirea diferenţelor dintre ceea
ce se petrece în prezent şi ce anume ar trebui de fapt să se petreacă. Decalajul respectiv –
deosebirea dintre ce ştiu şi ce pot face oamenii acum şi ce ar trebui să ştie şi să poată face –
trebuie eliminată de procesul de instruire [1].
Rolul instruirii este acela de a se preocupa de identificarea şi satisfacerea necesităţilor
de învăţare şi dezvoltare: policalificarea, pregătirea oamenilor pentru a-şi asupra
responsabilităţi suplimentare sau mai complexe, creşterea competenţei generale.
Necesităţile de instruire trebuie analizate în primul rând la nivelul ansamblului
organizaţiei – necesităţile organizaţionale. Apoi la nivelul departamentelor, al echipelor şi al
ocupaţiilor din cadrul organizaţiei – necesităţile de grup. În sfârşit, la nivelul angajaţilor
individuali – necesităţile individuale. Aceste trei domenii sunt interconectate. Analiza
necesităţilor organizaţionale duce la identificarea necesităţilor de instruire din diferite
departamente sau ocupaţii, iar acestea la rândul lor indică instruirea de care au nevoie
angajaţii individuali. Procesul funcţionează însă şi în sens invers [9].
Pe măsură ce necesităţile individuale sunt analizate, devin tot mai reliefate necesităţile
colective, care pot fi satisfăcute la nivel de grup. Suma necesităţilor individuale şi de grup
contribuie la definirea celor organizaţionale, deşi pot apărea şi unele necesităţi de instruire
suplimentare, proprii numai organizaţiei în ansamblu, care o vor ajuta să-şi urmeze priorităţile
de dezvoltare. Astfel, planul de instruire poate fi mai cuprinzător decât simpla sumă a părţilor
sale componente.
Surse de informare pentru stabilirea priorităţilor de instruire
În literatura de specialitate, Walters (1983) se identifică mai multe surse de informare
cu ajutorul cărora se pot stabili priorităţile de instruire [11]:
– obiectivele şi planurile generale ale organizaţiei indică direcţia în care se îndreaptă
organizaţia şi arată principalele priorităţi de instruire;
– planificarea resurselor umane şi a succesiunii oferă informaţii asupra viitoarelor cerinţe
cu privire la aptitudini şi asupra necesităţilor de instruire managerială [5];
– statisticile de personal scot în evidenţă problemele de resurse umane care ar putea fi
remediate prin instruire (de exemplu cele de fluctuaţia forţei de muncă);
– interviurile finale, desfăşurate la părăsirea organizaţiei de către angajaţi pot reliefa
deficienţele din programele de instruire;
– consultarea managerilor din eşalonul superior, care îşi pot oferi opiniile cu privire la
necesităţile de instruire;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
– datele despre productivitate, calitate şi performanţă indică unde există discrepanţe între
aşteptări şi rezultate sau unde se manifestă unele tendinţe negative, dezvăluind astfel
necesităţile de instruire;
– schimbările funcţionale din cadrul departamentelor oferă informaţii despre tendinţele
viitoare şi despre necesităţile de instruire adiacente;
– cerinţele conducerii cu privire la instruire scot în evidenţă necesităţile detectate de
conducere;
– planurile financiare arată dacă există fonduri pentru instruire, invitând la adoptarea unor
abordări creative, atunci când resursele sunt limitate;
– planurile de introducere de noi tehnologii sau de dezvoltare a sistemelor informaţionale şi
planurile de marketing indică unde sunt necesare noi aptitudini pentru comercializarea
unor produse sau servicii noi, pentru utilizarea unor tehnici de vânzare diferite sau pentru
operarea în teritorii noi.
Metode de analiză a necesităţilor de instruire
Sursele prezentate anterior contribuie la efectuarea unei analize detaliate a necesităţilor
de instruire, cu ajutorul următoarelor metode [11]:
a. Planurile de activitate şi planurile de resurse umane
Strategia de instruire a unei organizaţii trebuie să se bazeze pe strategiile şi planurile
sale de activitate şi de resurse umane, cuprinzând aici şi planurile de introducere a noilor
tehnologii, care au implicaţii de resurse umane [8]. Aceste planuri trebuie să indice în termeni
generali tipurile de aptitudini şi competenţe necesare în viitor şi numărul de angajaţi care să
deţină aceste aptitudini şi competenţe. Indicatorii generali trebuie apoi transpuşi în planuri
specifice, care să se refere, spre exemplu, la rezultatele programelor de instruire la care
participă persoane cu anumite aptitudini speciale sau cu combinaţii de aptitudini
(policalificate).
b. Analiza posturilor
Analiza posturilor din punctul de vedere al necesităţilor de instruire înseamnă
examinarea în detaliu a conţinutului muncii efectuate pe posturile respective, a standardelor
de performanţă impuse sub aspectul calităţii şi cantităţii şi sub aspectul cunoştinţelor,
aptitudinilor şi competenţelor necesare pentru îndeplinirea sarcinilor la standardele de
performanţă cerute. Rezultatul analizei postului trebuie să fie o specificaţie de învăţare sau
instruire în care sunt descompuse îndatoririle generale din fişa de post în sarcini detaliate. De
asemenea, sunt stabilite atributele pe care ar trebui să le aibă angajatul pentru a îndeplini
eficient sarcinile respective. Aceste atribute sunt:
– cunoştinţele – ce trebuie să ştie angajatul: poate fi vorba despre cunoştinţe
profesionale, tehnice sau comerciale; despre mediul comercial, economic; despre
dispozitivele care trebuie folosite; despre materialele şi echipamentele utilizate sau
despre procedurile care trebuie respectate; despre clienţii, consumatorii, colegii şi
subordonaţii cu care angajatul intră în contact şi despre factorii care le afectează
comportamentul; despre problemele ce pot apărea şi modalităţile de a le rezolva;
– aptitudinile – ce trebuie să fie în stare să facă angajatul pentru a obţine rezultatele
dorite şi a-şi utiliza eficient cunoştinţele; aptitudinile se cizelează treptat, prin instruiri
repetate sau prin alte tipuri de experienţe practice; ele pot fi aptitudini manuale,
intelectuale sau mentale, perceptuale sau sociale;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
– competenţele – competenţele comportamentale necesare pentru atingerea nivelurilor
de performanţă cerute;
– atitudinile – disponibilitatea de a se comporta sau de a acţiona în concordanţă cu
cerinţele postului;
– standardele de performanţă – ce trebuie să realizeze un angajat pe deplin competent;
organizaţia poate elabora pentru uzul noilor angajaţi sau al celor care intră într-un
proces de instruire o specificaţie de învăţare.
c. Examinarea performanţelor
Procesele de management al performanţei trebuie să fie sursa principală de informare
în stabilirea necesităţilor de dezvoltare şi de învăţare de la nivel individual. Abordarea
activităţii de învăţare din punctul de vedere al managementului performanţei [4] se axează pe
pregătirea unor programe de îmbunătăţire a performanţelor şi pe contracte de învăţare sau
planuri de dezvoltare personală, ambele ducând la elaborarea planurilor de acţiune. Accentul
se pune pe dezvoltarea continuă; fiecare contact între manageri şi angajaţi pe întregul parcurs
al anului este considerat o oportunitate de învăţare.
d. Studiile privind instruirea
Studiile privind instruirea coroborează toate informaţiile obţinute prin celelalte metode
de analiză, scopul lor fiind asigurarea bazei dezvoltării şi implementării strategiei de instruire.
Este însă esenţial să se suplimenteze informaţiile respective prin discuţii directe cu oamenii.
Cel mai bun punct de plecare sunt discuţiile cu oamenii despre cerinţele şi problemele ridicate
de activitatea lor profesională şi determinarea necesităţilor lor de instruire, pornind de la ceea
ce aceştia comunică despre munca lor.
Studiile de acest fel acordă o atenţie deosebită gradului în care procesele existente
corespund necesităţilor de instruire ale organizaţiei. Se pot obţine şi alte informaţii din
evaluările făcute la sfârşitul acţiunilor de instruire.
Se pot face şi sondaje de atitudine, care să prezinte opiniile angajaţilor cu privire la
volumul şi nivelul actual al instruirii care li se oferă.
3. Satisfacerea necesităţilor de instruire
Analiza necesităţilor de instruire, se face de regulă la nivelul fiecărei ocupaţii; uneori
este însă nevoie să se ţină seama de cerinţele anumitor grupuri: minorităţi etnice, persoane cu
probleme speciale de sănătate (handicapuri) etc.
Astfel trebuie să se facă o analiză separată a necesităţilor de instruire ale unor astfel de
angajaţi, care să identifice ocupaţiile şi cerinţele de instruire specială pentru diferitele grade
de invaliditate ori pentru membrii anumitor grupuri etnice. Informaţii cu privire la
modalităţile adecvate de instruire a persoanelor cu handicap pot fi obţinute de la organizaţiile
de profil. De asemenea, diversele grupuri etnice pot necesita o instruire specială, dacă ridică
probleme de ordin lingvistic sau cultural.
4. Responsabilitatea pentru instruire
Cea mai mare parte a instruirii are loc la locul de muncă, prin îndrumare metodică,
experienţe planificate şi auto-perfecţionare. Responsabili pentru aceasta trebuie să fie atât
managerii, cât şi angajaţii înşişi [10]. Conducerea organizaţiei trebuie că creeze o cultură de
organizaţie care învaţă, în care managerii să înţeleagă că instruirea şi dezvoltarea constituie o
componentă integrantă a atribuţiilor lor, cu pondere în evaluarea propriilor lor performanţe.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Rolul personalului [2] specializat în activitatea de instruire este de a oferi consiliere şi
îndrumare managerilor cu privire la responsabilităţile pe care le au în formarea angajaţilor. În
majoritatea organizaţiilor, ei se implică extrem de puţin sau chiar deloc în conţinutul propriu-
zis al instruirii. În ultimul timp se apelează din ce în ce mai frecvent la formatori externi; în
consecinţă, marile departamente de instruire care existau în numeroase organizaţii au fost
reduse substanţial, iar rolul formatorului angajat în cadrul companiei este tot mai adesea cel
de consultant intern.
Totuşi, funcţiunea de instruire a companiei rămâne responsabilă de:
– formularea strategiei de instruire care să vină în sprijinul strategiilor economice ale
organizaţiei;
– identificarea şi analiza necesităţilor de instruire pe ocupaţii şi în diferitele unităţi ale
organizaţiei;
– elaborarea propunerilor privind modalitatea de satisfacere a acestor necesităţi;
– pregătirea planurilor şi bugetelor activităţilor de instruire;
– identificarea resurselor externe de instruire, selectarea furnizorilor externi, precizarea
cerinţelor la adresa acestora şi asigurarea conformării prestaţiei lor la cerinţele de
instruire;
– furnizarea de consultanţă cu privire la cursurile externe de instruire pentru angajaţii
individuali sau pentru grupuri;
– organizarea de cursuri şi programe interne de instruire sau folosirea de sprijin extern
pentru cursurile de instruire formală sau părţi din aceste cursuri;
– instruirea managerilor, supervizorilor şi mentorilor cu privire la responsabilităţile lor de
instruire;
– furnizarea de îndrumare şi asistenţă angajaţilor individuali în pregătirea şi implementarea
planurilor lor de dezvoltare personală;
– monitorizarea şi evaluarea eficacităţii instruirii la nivelul întregii organizaţii.
5. Concluzii
Strategia de instruire a unei organizaţii vine în completarea strategiilor de management
ale resurselor umane utilizate şi se conectează cu sistemele de dezvoltare a resurselor umane
instituite în cadrul organizaţiei. Scopul unei astfel de strategii este să utilizeze la maxim
resursele finaciare existente prin elaborarea şi derularea de activităţi de formare, atunci când
acest lucru este posibil şi adecvat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Armstrong Michael, Managementul Resurselor Umane: manual de practică, Editura
CODECS, Bucureşti, 2003;
2. Cole G.A., Managementul personalului, Editura Codecs, Bucureşti, 2000;
3. Cowling Alan, Mailer Chloe, Managing Human Resources. Third Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, 2013
4. Deaconu A., Podgoreanu S., Rasca L., Factorul uman şi performanţele organizaţiei,
Editura Academiei de Studii Economice, Bucureşti, 2004, http://www.biblioteca-
digitala.ase.ro/biblioteca/carte2.asp?id=370&idb;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
5. Emilian Radu, Tigu Gabriela, State Olimpia, Tuclea Claudia, Managementul resurselor
umane, Editura Academiei de Studii Economice, Bucureşti, 2000;
6. Felea Sanda, Neagu Marian, Rădăceanu Eduard, Duma Mario, Dezvoltarea şi
diversificarea programului de instruire şi perfecţionare managerială în specificul
activităţii de cercetare-dezvoltare, SCIENTCONSULT, 1995,
http://www.scientconsult.ro/CD/consult/D62F1.htm;
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Levels, Third Edition, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc, San Francisco, 2006;
8. Manolescu A., Managementul Resurselor Umane, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2003;
9. Manta Elena, Administration and Management,
http://www.academia.edu/5967865/INTRODUCERE;
10. Muscalu Emanoil, Managementul resurselor umane. Suport de curs, Universitatea
―Lucian Blaga‖ Sibiu, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice, 2009;
11. Pastor I., Managementul resurselor umane, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca, 2007;
12. * * *, Manpower Services Commission – MSC (1984) „A New Training Initiative‖,
United Kingdom, http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/3181/Manpower-Services-
Commission-%28MSC%29.html.
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THE IMPACT OF MIGRATION ON HUMAN CAPITAL AND ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof., PhD,
Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof., PhD.
Abstract: Human capital accumulation is time consuming and requires public and private
resources. Therefore, decision of investing in human capital depends on the gains and costs
associated with these investments. It was noticed that, during the last decades, the migration
rates have been much higher for the highly-skilled than for the low-skilled workers.
Moreover, they tended to migrate especially to the developed countries, where they are better
remunerated. In this context, migration costs of highly-skilled workers are not only on short
term, discouraging investments in higher education, but also on long term, generating a
number of ―externalities‖: their departure increase the domestic inequality, raise the fiscal
burden on those left behind and it negatively influences the country‘s economical and
technological development prospects. Considering all these arguments, it can be concluded
that skilled migration increases inequality at the international level, rich countries getting
richer at the expense of the poorer countries. Recent studies doubt this conclusion and
analyze the way in which traditional negative effects of the skilled labor migration may be
compensated through positive consequences of the migrants‘ return, creation of trade and
business networks, knowledge diffusion or remittances.
Keywords: migration, human capital accumulation, economic development, economic growth
1. Introduction
In the same way that at the end of the last century the cross-border financial capital
flows have transformed the global economic and political landscape, over the next few
decades, it is likely that the global migration, driven by demographic and technological
factors, and by the inevitable persistence of large income gaps across countries, plays a
similar influential role in shaping this landscape. It is foreseen that the migration will take
place within developing countries – in giants like India and China, specifically regarding the
movement from rural to urban settings –, among them, and from developing to developed
countries. In the context of globalization, the migration from lees developed or developing
countries to prosper economies has a particular importance. A leading cause is the increasing
focus of immigration policies from industrialized countries on ―quality of human capital‖.
This trend is likely to intensify as rich countries age and competitive pressure amplifies.
It was considered that the states with a higher educational level grow faster than the
others due to the fact that formal and informal education gives the opportunity to better adapt
to the new technologies in a shorter period of time. Some authors such as Rauch (1993) or
Acemoglu and Angrist (2000), analyzing the production externalities of education, conclude
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that a higher level of human capital generates an increase of the individuals‘ marginal product
and, by extension, of their wages; to sum up, we can agree that a more educated labor force
can raise the average productivity of a country. Moreover, education improves the welfare
state not only by opening up broader economic opportunities, but also through its indirect
benefits such as improvements in health, nutrition, opportunity for self-fulfillment and
development of individual capabilities (Haveman and Wolfe, 1984). Regarding these indirect
effects, Sianesi and Van Reenen (2000) underline that a high educational level might be
related to a friendlier environment, a wider political and community participation, a greater
social cohesion and a lower criminality; all these, on their turn, may influence the economic
growth.
Therefore, an important role in sustaining the educational system of a country is
played by the level of the investments that are made, not only public funds but also private
resources. Lall (2001) considers that the public sector should be responsible for financing the
primary and secondary education, and only partially for the tertiary one. It is the case of many
East-Asian countries that put a great accent on the private expenditure for the tertiary
education.
Judson (1998) argues that, for the economic growth, the way in which resources are
allocated between the primary, secondary and tertiary education is more important than the
their quantity. To sustain this idea, some studies conducted by Lee (2001) and Lall (2001)
bring the example of the Asian tigers where the good allocation of the resources for education
contributed to the economic growth and development. They show the way in which the
allocation of the resources on different educational levels has been made in East Asia, starting
with 1970. Thus, at the beginning of the development process, the primary education had a
great priority in East Asia, obtaining an attainment rate of almost 100% for this level in 1970.
This fact helped the region focus on improving the quality and raising the amount of the
resources devoted to secondary and tertiary education.
In a comparative analysis of M. Belot (2004) between European states and USA, he
concludes that in USA there is a higher share of population with tertiary education than in
Europe. We can also remark the higher share of private and public expenditure with the
tertiary education in the total expenditure of United States compared to any other European
country; this aspect could be partially explained through the high cost of migration in Europe.
Specialized studies reveal the fact that the opportunities offered by migration stimulate
the private investments in education. For example, Stark and Wang (2001) confirm that the
results of private investments in human capital depend on the medium level of human capital
from the countries where people work. As a consequence, in poor states this level is low and
consequently the results of the investments in human capital will be low. The opening of these
countries to migration to states with higher levels of human capital may foster the investments
in education. As long as the migration policies establish the limits up to which workers can
migrate, the opening of the country to the migration process may involve welfare (if all the
workers, including those from home, invest in order to increase the level of human capital).
2. Human capital and the trends of migration
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One of the most complex phenomena that define globalization is the migration of
labor force. Being based on the need of personal fulfillment or on the simple desire to survive,
the phenomenon has major consequences for the countries involved in this process.
Globalization gives the opportunity to accumulate human capital in that regions or countries
where it already is abundant and well rewarded – in developed countries. While the world
exports/GDP ratio has increased by 51% between 1990 and 2000 (WTO, 2004), the total
number of foreign-born individuals residing in OECD countries has increased in the same
proportion - 51% (Docquier and Marfouk, 2004). In absolute values, the total number of
immigrants who lived in OECD countries was 58.5 million in 2000, compared to 39.8 million
in 1990. Referring to a United Nations report, Borjas (2000) considers that 200 millions of
people, which means almost 2% of the world‘s population, were living, at the beginning of
the XXIst century, in another country that the natal one. Moreover, the share of the immigrants
with tertiary education was 70%, compared to that of immigrants with a low level of
education (30%), in spite of the fact that migration costs probably hurt more the high-skilled
workers (Schiff, 2002). The high-skilled workers can perform more tasks, including the low-
skilled ones, so they do not necessarily need to migrate. But because they invested a large
number of resources to specialize in doing specific tasks, they will look for a job
corresponding to their education, with a good salary. Investments in ones education, which
require not only material resources but also a long period of time, have a clear reason:
increasing the income. As an average, in developed countries each additional schooling year
increases the income with about 20%. It is obvious why people with medium and superior
education are the most tempted to migrate to these kinds of destinations, especially when in
the origin country, due to the low productivity and to the limited options for using the
productive capacities, they will not be able to completely use their skills and they will get a
salary significantly below the medium level of the developed economies.
At a global level, 1.66% of the active population lives in a foreign country and the
average global rate of emigration is 0.94%, 1.64% and 5.47% for those with low, medium and
high levels of education. Since 1990, the share of skilled workers in the total stock of
immigrants has increased in all receiving countries. In the OECD countries, especially in
North America, the proportion of skilled immigrants originating from low-income countries
has raised during the last 10 years, with a notable increase of high-skilled immigration from
Asian countries (OECD, 2013). Meanwhile, the number of the low-skilled migrants has also
augmented, as a result of an increasing demand for low-skilled workers. For example, the
number of the migrants with no more than lower secondary education in OECD countries
increased by 12% during the last ten years (OECD, 2013).
Brain drain has a very important impact on the human capital structure of the labor
force in the Caribbean, Central America, South-East Asia, Western and Eastern Africa. The
proximity to the USA is obviously a key factor explaining the situation of those from
Caribbean and Central America. The emigrants from the South-East Asia generally choose
between USA, Canada or Australia. In the case of the African countries, one of the factors
that influence the destination country for the emigrants is represented by the colonial ties with
the European states such as UK, France or Portugal.
For the poor countries, the increase in the number of high-skilled emigrants became a
serious problem because those who migrate represent a growing share in the total population
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(for example, they are more than a quarter for many African countries). A research conducted
by Docquier and Marfouk in 2004 reveals the situation of the emigrants with tertiary
education, starting with 2000. The share of the tertiary educated people, in the whole
population with tertiary education, who had emigrated, was more than 50% in Gambia, Cape
Verde, Somalia and Seychelles, between 25 and 50% in 14 countries and between 5 and 25%
in 28 other states. Moreover, a study conducted by OECD in 2013 shows that, in 2010, close
to 90% of highly skilled persons born in Guyana lived in OECD countries.
Kapur and McHale (2005) consider that these flows are driven by three powerful long
term trends: not only do the new technologies require a larger number of high-skilled persons,
but also there are also favorable governmental policies in the host country; the aging of rich
countries‘ population; the broader globalization of production and trade: the integration of
capital and product market brings along the integration of labor force market (for example, the
multinational companies desire flexibility to locate the production and to move their staff
between locations).
The emigration is a very serious problem for every country, but especially for the poor
or developing ones. Usually, the young productive people emigrate. Not only the base of the
age pyramid is narrowing, affecting the normal structure of the population, but also the
production will be disturbed by the diminishing of the available labor force, fact that modifies
the level of the equilibrium salary, increasing the costs and reducing the competitiveness of
the products. The final effect is not a favorable one for the poor countries, because for them,
the low price, due to cheap labor force, is the only competitive advantage. Moreover, from
among the young people, especially those with strong general or specific education emigrate.
The loss for the origin country is double. On one side, the investments in education of those
people will not be refundable. The costs of education are high, the average being around 3%
of GDP. At a macroeconomic level the emigration of the young people is considered to be an
unproductive consumption, a diminishing of national product. On the other side, the country
loses the future production that could have been obtained by those who emigrate. In fact, this
is the most important loss not only because the number of specialists diminishes, but also due
to the fact that the structure of market‘s labor force modifies. It is not surprisingly why the
supplying labor force countries rest, for a long period of time, in a less developed stage, not
being able to develop or to adopt new technology: there are not enough specialists to do this
because they are attracted by the higher levels of incomes from the developed countries. This
aspect is largely debated.
Analyzing the determinants of the migration for Indian states between 1961-1991,
Cashin and Sahay (1996) consider that here the income in the destination region has a much
smaller impact on inter-state migration than in the case of the migration across the USA states
between 1900-1987 or across Japan between 1955-1985. Moreover, the impact of income in
the destination area on migration in India is closer to that of migration across regions of
Europe. The authors argue that the most important factors explaining the differences in
response in the US and Japan, on the one hand, and Europe and India, on the other, are the
higher level of social, cultural and linguistic barriers in the latter. Studies by Barro and Sala-i-
Martin (1995) or Gros (1996) confirm this aspect, underlying the fact that migration trends
within or between the nations, generated by the unemployment or by the level of the wages,
are lower in Europe than in the United States.
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In the analysis made by Rodriguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufi (2004), regarding the
disparities still existing in the regions of European Union, they point out the correlation
between GDP per capita, the level of human capital endowment and the migration trends.
They divided the EU regions in four groups, taking in consideration the evolution of GDP per
capita between 1994 and 2000:
A: catching-up regions, with a low starting level of GDP per capita with respect to
their national average, but with a higher than average economic performance;
B: winning regions, with both higher than national average initial GDP per capita and
economic growth rate;
C: losing regions, with both lower than national average initial GDP per capita level
and economic growth rate;
D: falling behind regions, with a higher than national average initial level of GDP per
capita, but with below average economic performance.
As shown in the Rodriguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufi‘s study, most of the regions tend to
fall either in the winning or losing category. Among the winning regions we find many of the
capital regions (such as Brussels, the South-East of England, Madrid, Athens or Lisbon), as
well as regions home to some of the most important urban agglomeration, such as Munich,
Milan or Ruhr. Loosing regions form a large group that consists of a series of industrial
declining regions (such as the North, North-West and Yorkshire in UK, Wallonia in Belgium)
and many peripheral regions such as Calabria or Sicily in Italy, the South, Centre and the
North-East of Spain, the Centre and North of Portugal. After analyzing the endowment with
human capital in the four types of regions, it results that the winning regions have a superior
stock of human capital compared to the other three: here, the number of persons with tertiary
education is 30% higher than in the regions form the D group. The situation from this last
group reveal a shortage of individuals with higher education, a low percentage of high-skill
jobs and a low presence of professionals and technicians. In fact, while in the first three
regions – A, B, C – the number of people with secondary and tertiary education is above the
average, in the D type regions the share of these individuals is 10-15% under the average.
From the migration point of view, it is obvious that the regions with a high level of GDP per
capita (especially in B and D regions) have the highest rate of migration, while in the poorest
regions the immigration rate is much lower. However, the type and motives for recent
migration differ across the four categories of regions: the winning ones manage to attract
highly qualified workers; the catching-up group attracts skilled labor and has a strong job-
related migration; on the contrary, falling behind regions and the loosing ones score best in
non-highly qualified job related migration. Considering the econometric analysis of
Rodriguez-Pose and Vilalta-Bufi, we can conclude that the ability of a region to attract
foreign highly qualified workers is as important as a good education; as a consequence, the
regions that are able to attract a large number of qualified workers have a high growth rate.
3. Migration externalities
Current trends of the global economy reveal a tendency towards a complete
globalization in which the boundaries become less important for the factors of production.
Free movement gives individuals the opportunity to identify the best job offers, with the best
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level of the salary, from the international labor market. We cannot yet call it global because it
still excludes some regions and there are some prohibitions left, which developed countries
still maintain in order to protect their own internal markets. In the future, the migration trends
will increase due to the intensification of product market competition that will force the
governments to ease immigration restrictions so as to provide domestic firms with a source of
competitive advantage through improved and cheaper access to a diverse set of skills. In a
world of perfect competition, with free mobility of labor force, we can talk about equilibrium:
those who emigrate will receive higher incomes, natives in the receiving countries can share
the immigration surplus and the remaining residents in the sending countries can benefit from
the rise in the land/labor and capital/labor ratios. In reality, this does not happen because the
highly-skilled emigrants generate a number of externalities. Being net contributors to the
government budget, their departure will increase the fiscal burden on those left behind.
Moreover, human capital depletion through emigration seems to have a negative influence on
a country‘s growth perspectives because human capital accumulation is considered to be a
central engine of economic development. As demonstrated in various new geography
frameworks, skilled labor force is essential in attracting foreign direct investments and
fostering research and development expenditures (Fujita, Krugman and Venables, 1999).
Looking for competitive advantages, the multinational firms identify and migrate to those
locations that have specific characteristics, such as a cheap and highly skilled labor force. It is
the case of Central and East Asia in the last fifteen years. Here, the firms could benefit from
skilled workers, who required a minimum training. As a consequence, the mobility of labor
force generates the agglomeration of the economic activities in specific locations, at the
expense of sending regions.
The ―brain drain‖ literature of the 1970s emphasized the negative effects of migration
for those left behind, one of the conclusions being that skilled emigrants contribute to
increased inequality at international level, at the expense of the poorer countries. From this
analysis it was omitted the fact that due to the insufficient capital resources, the skilled labor
force would not have been used anyway at its compete potential by these countries, remaining
an unused stock. Migration allowed human capital to reach a superior level of usage and
remuneration, fact that also brought advantages for the sending countries. We have to admit
that a large share of those who migrate for economic or professional reasons do not do this
forever; after a certain period of time, long enough to get financial resources, they return. This
return is an advantage for the origin country, due to the surplus of human capital that people
had obtained in the host country and to the financial flows that they bring with them.
Meanwhile, even if the emigration is forever, the family relationships involve the fact that the
emigrants repatriate a part of their incomes (obtained in the host country). It must not be
forgotten that, in the case of Romania for example, the emigrants annually repatriate between
two and four billions Euros, representing 2-4% of GDP, money that fosters the domestic
consumption, the investments and the savings. Despite all the problems generated by the
emigrants on short term to their origin countries, on long term they could contribute to the
increase of national welfare. That is by using their savings, earned in the foreign countries, to
invest at home, acting like international entrepreneurs or even developing business networks
between those from origin country and the social international networks (Grubel and Scott,
1969). Kirdar estimates that the annual flow of accumulated savings of returning migrants
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from Germany to Turkey averaged around 1,25% of total Turkish domestic savings in the
middle of 1990s (Kirdar, 2005). Moreover, many of these returning migrants invested their
savings in small business in home country. Based on a survey, Dustmann and Kirchkamp
(2002) consider that 51% of the Turkish migrants who returned from Germany started their
own business. More than 60% of the companies with foreign capital from China have, as
main shareholders, Chinese persons; this leads to the paradox that the Chinese are the most
important foreign investors in China.
The number of the emigrants who return is relatively high, both in North America and
in Europe. Jasso and Rosenzweig (1982) reported that from the 1970 immigrants in the US,
the share that returned by 1980 was as high as 50%. The German Ministry of Interior
estimates that between 1993 and 1997 around forty-five thousand Turks returned from
Germany, on average, per year (Kirdar, 2007). This number declined in the early 2000s;
however, the number of Turkish returned migrants was still above thirty-five thousand in
2002. A remark made by Kirdar underlines the fact that while the Turks emigrants have a
higher return rate among the persons with the age between 45 and 54 years old, most of the
European emigrants are more likely to return at earlier ages – up to 35 – or after 55 years old
(Kirdar, 2007).
Returned migration has important implications for both the host and home country.
For instance, if many emigrants return before reaching older ages, it would mean that they
will be less a burden for the health insurance system of the host country. Moreover, returning
before older ages would also imply receiving less unemployment benefits when there is a
positive association between age and unemployment probability, which, for instance, is the
case of Germany.
For the host country, the impact of the low-skilled immigrants may be negative
because they may raise concerns about the employment prospects and the wages of natives
with similar characteristics. The participation of the immigrants to the host country welfare
system is another problem that has drawn a lot of attention. Hansen and Lofstrom, and
Riphahn argue that immigrants are more likely to receive welfare than natives in Sweden and
Germany (Hansen and Lofstrom, 2003). This phenomenon determined European states
impose various constrains to immigrants. Zimmerman (1995) considered that the immigrants
in European Union should pay some immigration taxes. Canada has implemented programs to
ensure that immigrants bring sufficient human, financial or/and entrepreneurial capital with
them (Stalker, 1994).
Some analysts, such as Kapur and McHale (2005), tried to find out solutions for the
developing countries (home of emigrants) so that they take advantages form the emigration.
One of the solutions considers four policy options: control, compensation, creation and
connection. While the control refers mainly to the reduction of the emigrants flow through
various governmental policies, the compensation is about some taxes that should be
established for the host countries‘ governments, for the employers from the host country or
even for the emigrants. The creation implies both the developed host countries, which should
avoid the underinvestment in sectors such as health care and education, and the origin poorer
ones, that should reform the educational system and give the emigrants the possibility to
return, creating return incentives and not prohibitions on staying. Meanwhile, the emigrants
must remain economically and socially connected to their homes; for this it is necessary that
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both host and origin countries facilitate the free movement. Moreover, the origin country
should make temporary visas without the possibility of transitioning to permanent status.
All these measures intend to attract the skilled migrants back to their home country,
because, as Kapur and McHale (2005) underlined, ―countries need talent to ensure innovation,
build institutions and implement programs‖, aspects considered to be the key pillars of long-
term development.
4. Conclusions
The role of human capital in fostering the economic growth is a primordial one for the
modern economies. The accumulation of a high stock of this factor became a priority for
developed countries and, therefore, there are policies concerning this aspect, both at a micro
and macroeconomic level. Meanwhile, these states have to face the problem of the aging
population and the slowing down the growing rates, partly caused by the decreasing rates of
human capital accumulation. Thus, it appeared the necessity of redirection the strategy in
order to attract active labor force from the developing countries, which usually have a young
population. The attention was drawn by those highly educated, able to bring a surplus of
productivity for the host country. Considering that the equilibrium salary in the developed
countries is much higher than in the developing ones, it is not very difficult for the former
ones to attract high-skilled specialists who usually accept a lower level of income than the
nationals. The brain drain, the name given to this phenomenon, became a very extensive one,
especially in the last 25 years, after falling various political barriers is the ex-communist states
and after the demographical boom of South and Central Asia.
There are some controversies related to the advantages and disadvantages generated
by the migration of the population. From the point of view of disadvantages, we can mention
the unbalancing of the internal labor markets both from host and home country, the
diminishing of the cultural homogeneity, the loss for the origin country generated by the fact
that the investments in the education of those that migrate are not refundable, the future losses
of the national income, the aging population, especially caused by the migration of the young
people, the amplification of fiscal burden, the increase of the technological gap between the
developed and developing countries, etc. As we can see, the disadvantages are especially for
the sending countries, while the advantages goes for the receiving states and consist in the
increase of human capital stock, attraction of young people, demographical growth, creation
of new technology with lower costs, increase of the national income, etc. There are some
advantages for the origin countries of the emigrants, but only when they return home: increase
in quality of human factor, in stock of social capital and know-how, getting financial
resources, etc.
In the context in which the national economies become more and more parts of the
global economy, the migration has to be considered not only from the point of view of the
advantages and disadvantages. The labor market tends to be a global one so that a temporary
deficiency caused by migration might be compensated by attracting labor force from less
developed or developing countries. The most affected states seem to be the poorest countries
that do not succeed in integrating into the global markets. They would not be able to
compensate the loss of human capital because they do not have the ability to attract it.
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M.G. Kirdar, Return Migration and Saving Behavior of Foreign Workers in Germany,
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EVOLUTION AND THE NEED FOR AUDIT SERVICES IN ROMANIA
Viorica Filofteia Braga, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Odi Mihaela Zărnescu, Assoc. Prof.,
PhD, Cristina Naftănăilă, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University
Abstract: In this paper we intend to present the way of organization of the financial audit in
Romania, the evolution of the number of entities that provide these services, the barriers that
characterize the audit market but and their necessity.
Keywords : financial audit regulations, audit companies, professions, performance.
1. Introduction
Profession of financial audit in Romania has developed after 1990, due to the
conditions imposed on Romania‘s accession by the EU, develops of business and diversifies
the trade relations, but also due to aligning of Regulations in the country with the European
Directives and International Accounting Standards, through the establishment of Chamber of
Financial Auditors. This is a professional organization, independent legal person, public
benefit, non-profit, with the role of organizing, coordinate and authorize on behalf of the
State, conducting external audit activity in Romania.
The financial audit represents the work performed by the financial auditors in order to
express an opinion on the financial statements or of their parts, exercising other assurance and
professional services according to international auditing standards and other regulations
adopted by the Chamber of Financial Auditors of Romania.
Financial auditors who have acquired this quality and are members of the Chamber, in
their independent activities, carry out the following main activities1:
a) Statutory audit of the annual financial statements and of the consolidated annual
financial statements in cases provided by law;
b) The financial audit of the annual financial statements and of the consolidated
financial statements of entities that have chosen to audit of the annual financial statements;
c) Review missions of the annual financial statements, of the consolidated financial
statements and of the interim financial statements;
d) Insurance and other mission assignments and professional services in accordance
with international standards and other regulations adopted by the Chamber;
e) Internal audit.
They may carry out other activities, such as:
a) Financial accounting consulting;
b) Financial accounting management;
1
GEO no. 75/1999 on financial audit, republished in the Official Gazette. No. 598 of August 22, 2003, amended and
supplemented
42
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
c) specialized professional training in the field;
In awarding the quality of financial auditor, the legal framework is Emergency
Ordinance no. 75/1999 of the Romanian Government on the financial audit, as amended and
supplemented, in conjunction with the Emergency Ordinance no. 90/2008 on statutory audits
of the annual financial statements and consolidated annual financial statements and
Regulations of organization and functioning of the Chamber of Auditors of Romania.
Individuals to get quality of financial auditors and members of the Chamber have to
meet the following conditions:
to be licensed of an economics faculty or another one and have completed with an
additional training program in economics (according to norms issued by the Chamber,
concerning the additional training programs supported by CAFR);
to have experience in the financial and accounting activity at least four years;
to promote the verification test on financial and accounting knowledge for accessing
to the internship;
to undertake a 3-year practical training in the financial audit activity;
to satisfy during the internship the requirements of the Code of Ethics and professional
in the financial audit;
To promote the professional competence examination organized in the end of the
internship.
Internationally, the occurrence of the audit services due primarily to the capital
market development. Shareholders (and others) have imposed a number of requirements on
financial reporting on the listed company performance based on trust granted by an
independent and professional opinion of the auditor.
The literature of speciality put the occurrence of the audit services demand on behalf
of four basic theories2: Policeman Theory, Lending Credibility Theory, and Theory of
Inspired Confidence and Agency Theory.
In the case of policeman theory, launched in the early 1940s, the auditor is responsible
for discovering the fraud as a policeman. Recent the financial scandals have contributed to
reconsider of this theory and to launch a public discussion on the role of financial auditor in
detecting and presenting the financial fraud.
Lending credibility theory appeals to the role that audit firms play by the audit of
financial statements required to the managers, to increase the user confidence of financial
accounting information in the corporate governance act.
According the theory of inspired confidence developed in the late 1920s, the necessity
of audit services comes from the shareholders who wish to evaluate the performance of the
company and to be remunerated for obtaining the profit, proportional to the size of the
entitlements held.
From the perspective of the agency theory, originally developed by Watts and
Zimmerman (1978), a firm is viewed as a contractual result in certain parts, called agents
(managers) want to attract funds from other parties, called principals (credit institutions,
shareholders, investors, employees) at a certain cost (interest, dividend, salary bonuses).
2
Hayes, R., Dassen Roger, Schilder, A., Wallage, P., Principles of Auditing. An Introduction to International Standards of
Auditing, Second Edition, Pearson Education Publishing House, 2005, p. 44-47.
43
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In this case, the auditor role comes to support the principal to certify the financial
information provided by the agents, contributing significantly to reducing the information
asymmetry.
Auditor independence
2. Evolution of the number of auditors in Romania during 2000-2012
Since 1993 in Romania appear auditing consulting rooms constituting the Big Four
group, as follows: 1993 - PricewaterhouseCoopers, 1995 - Deloitte& Touche & Tomatsu,
1995 - KPMG, and in 1999 - Ernst & Young.
In 2000, the assessment exam of the professional skills was first organized in the
Chamber of Financial Auditors and established the Register of Financial Auditors in which
are the natural and legal persons.
As shown in Table no. 1 Evidence of the persons in the register is made on two levels,
so it results active and non-active members.
Table no. 1 Evolution of the number of the financial auditors
Categories 2000 2001 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Individuals 470 1195 1536 1567 1762 2317 2649 3164 3691 4046 4251
Active
382 979 1280 1277 1465 1927 2203 2706 3134 3431 3656
individuals
Non-active
88 216 256 290 297 390 446 458 557 615 671
individuals
Legal
0 130 569 623 688 571 875 814 893 951 973
persons
Total 470 1325 2105 2190 2450 2888 3524 3978 4584 4997 5224
Percentage
of growth 0 181.9 58.87 4.04 11.87 17.88 22.02 12.88 15.23 9.01 4.54
(%)
Source: Data are taken from the Reports of activity of the CAFR in the period 2008-
2012
Figure no. 1 Evolution of the number of the financial auditors in Romania during
2000-2012
44
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
As it is shown in Figure 1 both the number of persons in the category of individuals
and the legal persons had an increasing trend during 2000-2012. Thus, from 470 individuals
who were in 2000 reached 4251 in 2012 increasing being 9 times.
The most significant increases was during 2000-2001 and after 2007 the year when
Romania entries into the European Union. In 2007 it is recorded in the Register of Financial
Auditors 555 people, in 2008 still 332 people in 2009 another 515 people in 2010 still 527
individuals in 2011 still 355 and in 2012 still 205. It is a sustained growth of the desire for
economic development, characteristic for the post-accession periods of the EU member
countries. We see a moderation in growth for 2012.
Of the total number of active individuals and legal person, not all submitted Report of
activity and not all recorded income from audit activity.
We present bellow the main results of a study by auditing, consultancy and accounting
CRG Nexia Romania on the audit market, accounting and consulting in Romania3.
- In 2011, the top of 300 companies in the field posted a total turnover of about 206
million euros, an increase of about 5% compared to 2010. The largest weight in the total of
turnover generated by accounting firms, consultancy and audit was held at the national level
by the first four companies with CR4 of 67%. Top 30 of the standings remained dominated by
the member firms of international network of accounting, consultancy and auditing which
holding over 96% of the turnover of the segment at the end of 2011. Firms from middle
(places 5-30) showed a slight decrease in the market weight from 22% in 2010 to 20% in
2011, while the other firms in the field have maintained weight of about 12%;
- The largest four companies of consulting and audit in Romania are the local
representatives of PricewaterhouseCoopers, Ernst & Young, KPMG and Deloitte, known as
BIG4. Their income fell by 11.42% to 558.3 million lei in 2010 compared to 2009;
3
http://www.consiliulconcurentei.ro/uploads/docs/items/id9017/evolutia_concurentei_in_sectoare_cheie.pdf
45
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- BIG4 maintained their leading position among providers of auditing, accounting and
consulting services, but their market share has been declining in recent years. So, the CR4
decreased from 76.52% in 2009 to 72.12% in 2010;
-Market share of the following six companies increased from 10.75% in 2009 to
14.5% in 2010, while the companies in places 11 to 25, the rate increased from 9% in 2009 to
9.20% in 2010;
- Companies after the 25 place increased from 3.72% in 2009 to 4.17% in 2010.
At EU level, BIG4 checked 90% from the balance sheets of the large companies and
of the listed companies4, a situation which the European Commission describes as ―in essence
as an oligopoly‖. This thing draws attention to the barriers faced by the remaining companies
of audit and demonstrates the need for more diversity in a highly concentrated market,
especially in the first four audit firms - Ernst & Young, Deloitte, KPMG and PwC.
The audit firms from the second tier, such as BDO and Grant Thornton, have
developed a long company in an attempt to induce the authorities to reduce the barriers faced
by smaller competitors in this market, but BIG4 have so far managed to dilute or block more
proposals in this regard.
3. Challenges and barriers imposed by the market services of audit
Smaller companies of audit and especially individuals have to face many challenges
and barriers to enter on the market. Among them, we mention:
capacity and reduced size in terms of number of employees auditors;
strong preference of the large companies to BIG 4 mainly because of the
reputation, the reluctance between the companies and the lack of incentives to
change the audit firms;
The increasing requirement on the audit market for the expertise in the field
where activated the audited companies;
Impact of technology on the audit process. Although the companies from the
second tier realize the necessity to increase the professional skills, costs and
risks of listed audit companies can not be assumed.
If these obstacles are not addressed, the degree of concentration on the audit market at
the BIG4 level could increase even more in the near future. In response to the described
situation on this market, the EC proposed in 2011 a series of directives aimed at regulating
tougher the auditing industry that is perceived as an oligopoly. Specifically, the draft law
proposed in November 2011 aims to restore confidence in the financial reporting by forcing
large audit companies to abandon consulting operations and to make place on the market to
smaller competitors. According to the project, the companies with assets greater than one
billion euros would be required to hire two firms of audit for the financial reports, including at
least one from outside of the group of the four largest players in this market. Double audit
seems to be the main measure in reducing the short-term focus: France is the only Member
State that uses double audit, therefore having a concentration ratio below the European
average and an audit firm from the second tier is found on the primary market segment.
4
According to the results presented in the final report entitled „Study on the effects of the implementation of the acquis on
statutory audits of annual and consolidated accounts including the consequences on the audit market‖ and published in
November 2011, Paris, authors: Joëlle Le Vourc‘h şi Pascal Morand, ESCP Europe
46
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Also, an audit firm may work for a company with assets greater than one billion euros
for a period between 6 and 8 years or, in cases that are assigned to two audit firms, between 8
and 12 years. Such rotation required is intended to strengthen the independence and
competition in the accounting auditors. In this respect, it is important to note that currently,
some large companies are working with the same firm for over 100 years.
Some advantages and disadvantages of collaboration of the Romania firms with
large audit firms
reputation of large companies is more popularized,
recognition internationally of the large audit companies;
provides greater confidence than small companies;
run time of the audit mission is much lower, more people working on an audit
mission;
efficiency in the work carried;
quality of the services is superior to audit by small companies;
deviations in the quality of the services are less likely;
Interpretations of standards in the same manner by all large audit companies.
Also, as a disadvantage of large audit companies can be considered the high price
practiced compared with smaller ones.
4. Necessity for auditing services
In Romania, according to the provisions Public Finance Ministry Order no. 3055/2009
are subject to audit activities those entities that exceed two of the following three criteria for
two consecutive years. Auditing of the financial reports will begin in the second consecutive
year.
These criteria are: total assets - 3,650,000 euros, turnover - 7,300,000 euros, number
of employees - 50.
In addition to these types of entities that are subject to audit, in Romania are subject to
statutory audit: credit institutions, non-banking financial institutions, insurance-reinsurance
entities, authorized entities regulated and supervised by the Council for Supervision of
Interest of the Accounting Profession (CSIPPC), financial investment companies (Financial
Supervision Authority - FSA), companies whose real estate are traded on a regulated market,
the companies belonging to a group (consolidated), the financial statements prepared for the
reorganization, companies benefiting by subsidies from the state or EU, companies that have
opted for a financial audit.
For accounting information to meet the requirement to reflect a true and fair view of
the assets, liabilities, equity, profit or loss (According to IAS 1 ―Presentation of Financial
Statements‖, the financial statements should fairly present the financial position, financial
performance and cash flows of a entity. Fair presentation requires the faithful representation
of the effects of transactions, of other events and conditions in accordance with the definitions
and recognition criteria for assets, liabilities, income and expenses set out in the Framework)
(IASB, 2013, p. A549). Such the accounting information must meet certain QUALITY
CRITERIA.
47
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Main qualitative characteristics that financial information must meet in the IASB's
vision to be useful to the existing and potential investors, lenders and other creditors in the
decisions they take are: relevance and faithful representation. Besides the fundamental
qualitative characteristics, the financial information is accompanied by the qualitative
amplifiers characteristics, namely: comparability, verifiability, opportunity and intelligibility.
In compliance with these quality characteristics contribute substantially the auditing activity.
Next we present other arguments regarding the importance of audit services for both
external users of information and entity5.
a. For users of accounting information or other nature, the audit aims to “reduce the
risk of information”. Auditors being competent and independent provide a reasonable
assurance on the information based on which users take different decisions, reflects the true
image, are collected, processed and presented in compliance with predetermined rules and
sincerely.
Decision makers are required to substantiate their decisions based on information
provided by others. Interests of the information providers may not coincide with those of
users. As a result, data can be manipulated in the interest of the bidder, leading to
misinformation of the users. So, the debtor entity, manipulating information, it directs the
lender to accept lending.
This misinformation may be deliberate when it presents incorrect information
insincere or incomplete in order to conceal some fraud or distortion of the results, or may be
unintentional due to some mistakes or due to honest optimism of those who provide
information through the failure of accounting prudence.
Informational risk should not be confused with economic and business risk. Investors
when making decisions to buy, to keep or sell shares and bonds; providers agree to deliver the
goods on trade credit; bankers when agree to grant a credit etc., take into account both the
economic risk of the business partner, the risk that it can not reimburse the debt or fail and
the information risk that is to that consists in probability that based information on which is
estimated the economic risk to be erroneous.
The auditors have no direct influence on the economic risk; they do not decide on the
durability and effectiveness of the business, however, they have a significant influence on the
information risk. Audit provides a better distribution of the resources according to identified
risks, helping to improve the decision makers. Thus, if the bankers are happy with the level of
information risk, they can reduce the interest rate, in these circumstances the audited entity
raise funding sources at lower costs.
b. Users of information usually can not check the quality (regularity and sincerity) the
information on which it based its decisions. They also can not obtain direct information
about the transactions and operations that occurred. As a result, users of information are
obliged to base on the information provided from other people because at least the following
three reasons:
- Increasing the distances between places that collect and process the information and
their users;
5
Oprean Ioan, Auditarea situaţiilor financiare- support course
48
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- Increasing the volume of transactions, increasing the possibility that some wrong
information to be hidden by a pile of other information, these conditions the erroneous
information are harder to detect, especially in condition of IT using.
- Carrying out the complex operations such as purchases of other entities, using the
derivatives financial instruments, consolidation of accounts of entities (subsidiaries) of
different branches, etc., and making judgments based on the accounting records (value
adjustments). Checking information about these operations can be done by users who usually
do not master the audit procedures.
Due to these reasons, the users have not the opportunity (time necessary, knowledge
required, etc.) to obtain direct information or to verify personal information provided by
others.
Verification of information by each user by moving them where they gather and
process this information is inefficient because:
• High costs incurred by these movements, and due to repeated checks of the same
information by each user through the specific objectives;
• Quality checks. Not all users have the necessary professional competence to carry
out these checks and do not have standards or technical standards of work, checks were done
by intuition and inspiration to each user;
• Confidentiality of information that cannot be provided to all involved persons.
c. Those that collect process and present internal and external information if they
know that they will be audited showed a greater requirement, respects more rigorous
criteria and established procedures.
The most convenient way for users to obtain reliable information (useful for a while
and secure for the objectives pursued) is based on the services of the independent auditors,
competent and operating on the basis of rigorous standards or norms. They offer a guarantee
on the fact that the information is complete (exhaustive) are real (verifiable and justifiable)
are accurate and unbiased.
The financial audit is conducted by competent and independent professionals and they
are authorized to do so. These professionals are called upon to provide reasonable assurance
on conformity of the financial statements with predetermined criteria. This insurance is
provided to information users as an opinion expressed through the audit reports.
Conclusions
Auditing activity in Romania is organized by the Chamber of Financial Auditors under
the Government Emergency Ordinance 75/1999 on financial audit,
Number of members increased from 2000 until 2012 by nine times, we can say that it
is a relatively high number compared to other professions. This increase was due both
to EU accession and changes arising from the transition to a market economy;
Barriers to entry on the market are primarily generated by the qualitative requirements
imposed to the profession and secondly by the existence of reputable companies and
market power.
On audit market can say that both in Romania and in the EU it is owned of 70-90%
percent by large companies of the Big Four group that includes PricewaterhouseCoopers,
KPMG, Deloitte and Ernst & Young.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In 2011, largest weight in the total of turnover generated by accounting firms,
consultancy and audit was held at the national level by the first four companies with CR4 of
67%.
At EU level, BIG4 checked 90% from the balance sheets of the large companies and
of the listed companies, a situation which the European Commission describes as ―in essence
as an oligopoly‖.
To remove this barrier we propose reducing the level of indicators by which is done
the audit of financial statements in Romania, which would allow the smaller firms access on
the market.
Also, we advise the individuals‘ auditors, to cooperate in establishment of the audit
firms. These have the advantage that with a large number of employees can audit large
companies and can cover large territories.
Necessity of audit is justified, especially in these conditions of economic instability by
the following arguments: the role of accounting information to reflect fairly the assets,
liabilities, equity, profit and loss, reducing the information risk, a more responsible
attitude to those who are audited to respect the established criteria and procedures,
reducing the cost of collecting the information from the external users.
References:
1. Jaba Elisabeta, Ioan-Bogdan Robu, Explorarea statistică a pieţei de audit în
scopul aprecierii independenţei auditorului, Audit Financiar, year IX
2. Cordoş George Silviu & Melinda Timea Fülöp, Consideraţii privind preferinţa
entităţilor cotate la bursa de valori pentru a fi auditate de companii mari de audit, Audit
Financiar Journal no. 10/2013
3. Pop (Grigorescu) Ioana Iuliana, Studiu comparativ - evoluţia şi perspectivele
pieţei de audit financiar în România şi Spania, Audit Financiar Journal no. 1/2013
4. Oprean Ioan, Auditarea situaţiilor financiare, support course
5. Public Finance Ministry Order no. 3055 of 29 October 2009 for approving the
Accounting Regulations in accordance with European Directives, published in Official
Gazette no. 766 of 10 November 2009
6. Emergency Ordinance no. 90 of 24 June 2008 on statutory audits of annual
financial statements and consolidated annual financial statements published in the Official
Gazette no. 481 of 30 June 2008, Romania
7. Government Emergency Ordinance 75/1999 concerning financial audit, republished
under art. III of the Government Ordinance no. 67/2002, published in the Official Gazette of
Romania, Part I, no. 649 of 31 August 2002.
8. www.cafr.ro
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ELEMENTS OF THE MANAGEMENT IN ADMINISTRATIVE
ORGANISATIONS
Dorina Țicu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: At the level of the administrative organizations, as well as within any type of
organization, it appear elements of the management of their own structures, relationships,
departments, internal or external actors, processes or mechanisms. Is what we define in terms
of specialty as public management, in the light of the fact that the administrative
organizations are operating in the public space, in the interest of the community in which they
arise.
The present article aims to outline the features of the management at the organizational-
administrative level, on the basis of dimensions: actors involved in the administrative process,
characteristics of the decision making processes and of the institutional mechanisms, of the
selection criteria of the decisions at this level and of the values activated. The analysis will
focus on a quantitative study, based on a questionnaire applied to the workers from the city
halls of Moldavia: Suceava, Botoşani, Neamţ, Iaşi, Vaslui, Bacău, Galaţi and Focşani.
Keywords : public administration, management, public management, decisional process,
organizations.
From general management to the management of the administrative
organizations
Generally speaking, the management refers to ―the organization and coordination of
the activities of a business in order to achieve defined objectives‖1.
Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines,
materials, and money. According to Peter Drucker (1909-2005), ―the basic task of
management includes both marketing and innovation‖ (Druker, 1999, p. 43). Practice of
modern management originates from the 16th century ―study of low-efficiency and failures of
certain enterprises‖, conducted by the English statesman Sir Thomas More (1478-1535)
(Mullins, 2001, p. 31).
From our point of view, the management consists of the interlocking functions of
creating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an
organization's resources in order to achieve the objectives of the public policies.
Continuing the analysis, a central part of the study of organisations and of the
management is the development of management thinking and what might be termed as the
management theory. There are many ways of categorising these various approaches.
1
The definition is taken from the online adress:
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management.html#ixzz3DSip5qhn.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Whatever form of categorisation is adopted, it is possible to identify a number of other
approaches, or at least sub-divisions of approaches, and cross-grouping among the various
approaches. The choice of a particular categorisation is therefore largely at the discretion of
the observer. The following analysis will revolve around a framework based on four main
approaches:
- classical – including scientific management and bureaucracy;
- human relations – including neo-human relations;
- systems;
- contingency.
Attention is also drawn to other approaches or ideas, including:
- decision-making;
- social action;
- postmodernism field (Stewart, 1999, pp. 35-42).
McGregor consider that: ―Every managerial act rests on assumptions, generalizations,
and hypotheses – that is to say, on theory. Our assumptions are frequently implicit, sometimes
quite unconscious, often conflicting; nevertheless, they determine our predictions that if we
do a, b will occur. Theory and practice are inseparable‖ (McGregor, 1987, p.6).
Miner makes the point that ―the more that is known about organisations and their
methods of operation, the better the chances of dealing effectively with them. Understanding
may be more advanced than prediction, but both provide the opportunity to influence or to
manage the future. Theory provides a sound basis for action‖ (Miner, 1980, p. 25).
Mooney and Reiley set out a number of common principles which relate to all types of
organisations. They place particular attention on:
- the principle of co-ordination – the need for people to act together with unity
of action, the exercise of authority and the need for discipline;
- the scalar principle – the hierarchy of organisation, the grading of duties and the
process of delegation; and
- the functional principle – specialisation and the distinction between different kinds
of duties (Mooney, Reiley, 1947, pp. 61-68).
In the case of public sector organisations, in particular, there is a demand for
uniformity of treatment, regularity of procedures and public accountability for their
operations. This leads to adherence to specified rules and procedures and to the keeping of
detailed records. In their actual dealings with public sector organisations, people often call for
what amounts to increased bureaucracy, even though they may not use that term. The
demands for equal treatment, for a standard set of regulations that apply to everyone, and that
decisions should not be left to the discretion of individual managers are in effect demands for
bureaucracy.
Green argues that, although bureaucracies are becoming less and less the first-choice
format for organisational shape, there is still a place for bureaucracy in parts of most
organisations and especially public sector organisations such as local authorities and
universities (Green, 1997, p.19). The use and implementation of tried and tested rules and
procedures help to ensure essential values and ethics, and that necessary functions are run on
a consistent and fair basis.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
From our point of view, when we speak about management in administrative
organization, we will try to conturate an analysis that shoul focus on management theories, on
administrative and bureaucratic theories, on organizational behavior theories.
From these paradiigms activated, we determined the direction of analysis that we will
apply on public administration: the actors involved in the public policies process, the decision
making process and the features of the public decisions and the evaluative criteria and de
values activated in the decision making in public sector.
Methodology and sample
The present study is a prescriptive one and aims to identify the actors, their features,
the mechanisms and processes that the decision-making process enables and the values at
levels at the administrative level: in Moldovians city halls. The questionnaire uses the three
models based on some items in the form of closed questions that are designed to place the
respondent in a decision making model.
The research sample is composed of 648 respondents, employees of the mayoralties of
cities: Piatra Neamţ (PN), Iaşi (IS), Bacău (BC), Vaslui (VS), Suceava (SV), Botoşani (BT),
Galaţi (GL), Focşani (FC).
The sample is representative for the population of Moldova region, the civil servants
employed in institutions of the Moldovian cityhalls being quite homogeneous, meaning an
average of 1,51% from the total population of civil servants of these institutions (5317).
Results
In the present analysis, we will outline the results in a comparative manner (the results
obtained from the genral sample, together with the results obtained at the level of the 8
administrative organizations) and we will try to analyze the similarities and differences.
On the actors involved dimension, we have had in mind four items (A1, A2, A3, A4)
in order to determine the characteristics of this dimension of this early analytical dimension.
In the total sample, decisions are taken by the institution, as a whole or of its representatives
at the level of leadership – 69,4%, 16,8% claim that individuals, in the singular manner, are
involved in decision making, 7,9% - both individuals and groups are involved in decision-
making process, non-response rates is 5,9% (A1); Inside the institution, beginning at the level
of decision-making body, of total respondents, 49,4% declares that the group of those who
take the decisions is clearly established and defined, but there may be some changes on the
way, 42,1% claim that the group has a distinct identity from the start, 2,8% argue that it is not
clearly established, non-response rate is 5,7% (A2); 73% - those who take the decisions are
clearly outline in each department or workgroup structure, in part, 18,1% - are inside the
institution, but are not clearly distinguish in general administrative staff, and 3,5% - may as
well be from the outside (A3); Those who take the decisions are not independent – 69,3%,
may have some degree of freedom – 11,3% or are cvasi-independent - 6,3% (A4).
In relation to the four items, at the 8 the administrative organizations level, the
percentages for each variation of the response of each item are part of the same general logic
in relation to those obtained from the total sample. Only the value of each percentage is
different (Table 1: Actors – comparative results).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Table 1: Actors – comparative results
Total IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
Sampl
e
A1: The decision 16,8% 19,3 19,2 26 1,4 12,9 12,8 11,3 33,8
are taken: from the
institution, through
leaders
From the 7,9% 9,1 13,7 7,8 0 11,8 4,7 7,2 8,5
individuals
From the 69,4% 71,6 67,1 61 98,6 69,4 80,2 71,1 35,2
individuals and
groups
A2: The group that 49,4% 48,9 50,7 49, 53,2 45,9 54,7 50,5 42,3
makes decisions is: 4
clearly established,
but there may be
some changes on
the way
has a clear identity 2,8% 4,5 5,5 2,6 0 1,2 1,2 5,2 1,4
from the start
is not clearly 42,1% 45,5 43,8 44, 46,5 48,2 40,7 34 35,2
established 2
A3: Those who 18,5% 6,8 20,5 19, 4,2 25,9 22,1 16,5 29,6
take the decisions 5
are: clear outline of
each Office
inside the 3,5% 3,4 2,7 9,1 1,4 1,2 4,7 5,2 0
institution, but not
clear outlined
may as well be 73% 89,9 76,7 70, 93 69,4 70,9 69,1 45,1
from the outside 1
A4: The decion 69,3% 84,1 68,5 66, 95,8 70,6 65,1 53,6 54,9
makers are not 2
independent
may have some 11,6% 8 15,1 19, 1,4 11,8 19,8 10,3 5,6
degree of freedom 5
Are cvasi- 6,3% 3,4 2,7 6,5 1,8 5,9 9,3 10,3 8,5
independents
As it can be seen, in relation to those four items, the answer options turned on for each
administrative organizations are the same (except Suceava, which claims that the group of
54
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
those who make decisions is not clearly established – 48,2% - making jarring note against the
other units).
The models that characterize the size of actors when it comes to institutional
management are quite similar (Figure 1), in the sense that it follows the same steps, except
that each procentage of each point of the models are closed, but not identical.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7 a8 a9 a10 a11 a12
Actors
Total sample IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
Figure 1: Models - actors
Towards the general model obtained, Vaslui and Galaţi seems to have one rode a little
differently than the general, model and with lower values in the focal points than those of the
general model, and Iaşi, Bacău, Botoşani seems to have some higher values in that points.
On the decision-making processes and mechanisms dimension, we will take into
consideration five items to identify the general characteristics of functional management in
public administration (P1, P2, P3, P4, P5).
In the total sample, the decision-making process has different characteristics at the
public policies level. Of the total valid responses – 91,5% - 64,2% declare that the decision-
making process involves the following steps: defining the problem, identifying the purpose-to
formulate all the alternatives in order to identify the best alternative - at the end to reach the
best choice; 17,6% declares that the decision-making process involves the problem definition
- identification of an already applied alternative which is known to decision makers to
redefine the issue from this perspective - implementation of alternative - if it's not functional,
is seeking other alternative which does not differ much from that previously put into practice;
9,7% start from the problem definition – searching for an alternative as a result of a process of
negotiation - choosing the optimal solution, recognized by everyone on the basis of some
routines - its implementation (P1).
In decisional process, It is aimed at, according to respondents, the maintenance of
existing policies – 38,6% - the policies may change, but not drastically – 23,6% - or, on the
contrary, it aims the change - 20,1% (P2).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
When it is taken a decision, there are disscused all the issues related to it (65,3%),
some issues are ignored in favor of others (13%) or the problems are imposed by the
coordinator, some may be knowingly circumvented (11,6%) (P3).
In decision making process, there are evaluated all the alternatives and then the
decision-makers are considering the consequences (58,6%), are evaluated the alternative
which is a priority for the group (21,1%), and 7,9% of the respondents declare that evaluate
the alternative that differs the least of what was already in practice (P4).
58,8% declare that the decision-making process is a strategic document, planned from
the start, 15,9% process is regulated, but not necessarily coherent if the group requires, and
8,5% argue that it's not necessarily coherent, it is changeing and with errors (P5).
Table 2: Decision-making processes and mechanisms – comparative results
Total IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
sampl
e
P1:definition – 64,2% 65,9 61,6 58, 71 52,9 74,4 61,9 40,8
best alternative - 4
implementation
Definirtion-other 17,6% 20,5 21,9 20, 0 23,5 14 17,5 21,1
aplicated 8
alternative -
redefinition
Definition- 9,7% 12,5 13,7 14, 0 12,9 7 7,2 9,9
negociateg 3
alternative-
accepted
implementation
P2: The aim of the 38,6% 38,6 39,7 48, 0 45,9 48,8 42,3 40,8
decision is: 1
keeping policies.
Moderate change 23,6% 34,1 21,9 15, 35,2 22,4 24,4 26,8 5,6
6
Brutal change. 20,1% 14,8 24,7 19, 54,2 14,1 15,1 13,4 12,7
5
P3: There are 65,3% 75 71,2 46, 97,2 58,8 73,3 59,8 42,3
disscused: all the 8
problems.
Some problems are 11,6% 8 13,7 27, 0 12,9 9,3 10,3 11,3
igonorate in favor 3
of others.
Are imposed by the 13% 12,5 9,6 22, 0 21,2 11,6 14,4 9,9
coordinator. 1
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
P4: There are 58,6% 71,6 68,5 46, 69 47,1 66,3 60,8 38
evaluated: all the 8
alternatives
the alternative 21,1% 19,3 23,3 32, 29,6 25,9 14 13,4 14,1
which is a priority 5
for the group
The alternative that 7,9% 8 4,1 11, 0 15,3 9,3 6,2 7
differs at least from 7
other.
P5: The decision- 58,6% 58 52,1 45, 100 61,2 58,1 47,4 52,1
making process is: 5
strategically
planned from the
beginning.
Is reglemented, but 8,5% 6,8 17,8 10, 0 7,1 7 9,3 9,9
not necessarily 4
coherent.
Is coherent, but 15,9% 17 12,3 24, 0 15,3 12,8 22,7 16,9
changeing. 7
In terms of processes, we can notice that the differences between percentages
(minimum/maximum) are larger (in the sense that the slopes of the models established
through Figure 2 are much higher), and the model obtained at Bacău seems to be much more
different from the general model obtained from the general sample.
The other administrative organizations generally follows the course of the process,
noting that the percentages vary from one organisation to another, what individualizes each
unit. Iaşi and seems to have in all the nodal points higher values or lower than those of the
general model. Smaller values have other cities: Galaţi, Focşani, Botoşani, Suceava.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 p8 p9 p10 p11 p12 p13 p14 p15
Processes
Total sample IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
Figure 2: Processual models
On the criteria and values dimension, there are generally activated the specific
values of classical economy. In all the cases, except Bacău, the biggest procentage is obtained
by eficiency. The lowest values of the percentages are obtained at Galaţi and Vaslui (see
Table 3: Criteria and values (after the qualifier „very important”) – comparative
aspects).
Table 3: Criteria and values (after the qualifier „very important”) – comparative
aspects
Values Total IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
sample:
Very
importa
nt
Utility 68,5% 63,9 43,8 58,4 98,6 58,8 62,8 53,6 39,4
Eficiency 78,1% 83 60,3 77,9 94,4 62,4 75,6 64,9 47,9
Clarity 62,3% 58 39,7 55,8 91,5 35,3 48,8 47,4 56,3
Brevity 42,4% 38,6 20,5 24,7 73,2 23,5 29,1 33 28,2
Novelty 23,9% 18,2 15,1 16,9 18,3 14,1 23,3 26,8 22,5
Inequality 13,5% 3,4 9,6 2,6 28,2 8,2 7 9,3 16,9
Adaptability 33,7% 22,7 15,1 23,4 67,6 17,6 18,6 25,8 32,4
Continuity 45% 34,1 21,9 40,3 78,9 29,4 32,6 32 31
Stability 51% 40,9 31,5 39 76,1 41,2 36 39,2 36,6
Experience 56,3% 51,5 37 57,1 60,6 47,1 40,7 51,5 32,4
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Non-ideology 14,2% 10,2 11 11,7 7 8,2 12,8 9,3 16,9
Objectivity 63,8% 47,7 52,1 54,5 90,1 49,4 54,7 49,5 54,9
Loiality 46,8% 43,2 30,1 28,6 87,3 31,8 24,4 35,1 25,4
Strategy 51,4% 39,8 30,1 44,2 78,9 41,2 37,2 38,1 52,1
Puwer 21,5% 9,1 12,3 19,5 28,2 21,2 17,4 14,4 15,5
In relation to the values - criteria of selection of the decisions, efficiency is the most
assessed for all administrative centers, utility and objectivity. It also counts the clarity with
more than 49%. Bacău is the organisation that obtain the biggest percentages, in the sense that
from 15 values, 11 obtain up to 50%, Bacău and but moving away from the characteristics of
the general obtained from the general sample, nd the closest of this model seems to be the
organizations from Neamţ, Bacăul and Iasul what values most the efficiency.
As can be seen from Figure 3, the panel of the values of each organization isa specific
one, with much more different than the other two dimensions, where focal points of each
stripe model (depending on the dimension actors and processes) have closed values.
Total sample: IS VS NT BC SV BT FC GL
120,00
100,00
80,00
Percentage
60,00
40,00
20,00
-
ity
lty
ity
ity
ty
gy
gy
ity
y
y
cy
r
we
rit
ilit
ilit
lit
nc
tili
al
e
u
ev
tiv
te
lo
n
ia
la
ov
in
ab
ab
qu
ie
U
rie
Po
eo
ra
ec
Br
Lo
C
t
ic
on
St
t
e
pe
St
ap
-id
bi
Ef
In
O
Ex
Ad
on
N
Values- criteria
Figure 3: Axiological and criteria models
In relation to the three dimensions taken into account for making comparisons between
administrative organizations, we can say that the first two of them are those showing fewer
deviations from the organisations (although if the case of Bacău is a different one on
processes dimension). The third dimension is more heterogeneous in terms of models enabled
on the general level or at the level of each administrative organization.
Conclusions
At the public administration level, the organizational management has its own traits
that may come on line or the institutional actors, on the processes and decisions, or on line
selection criteria or value decisions.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In relation to the present study, we can identify some characteristics of public
management: it is an institutionalized one, recognize the hierarchical relationships, quite
centrally at the institutional level, implies a clear set of process (which starts from the
definition of public interest issues, identifying the best alternatives especially in relation to the
economic criteria - efficiency, effectiveness - and the implementation and its evaluation).
Every organization has its properly way, especially as regards the processes and
values, the size of the actors is more homogeneous, highlighting the birocratico-administrative
unitary character.
Concluding, the elements of the organizational management in public administration
includes within the size of a management-line that starts from the private sector-as well as
elements relating to the administrative legislation, from the bureaucratic routines or
mechanisms widely spread at the institutional-organizational level.
References
Druker, P. (1999) Management Challenges for 21st Century, New York: Harper
Business.
Green, J. (1997) Is Bureaucracy Dead? Don‘t Be So Sure, ―Chartered Secretary‖, Vol.
36, Number 6; pp18-19, London.
McGregor, D. (1987) The Human Side of Enterprise, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Miner, J. B. (1980) Theories of Organizational Behaviour, Hinsdale, IL: Dryden
Press.
Mooney, J. D., Reiley, A. C. (1947) The Principles of Organization, Mooney, J. D.,
New York: Harper & Row.
Mullins, L. J. (2001) Hospitality Management and Organisational Behaviour, fourth
edition, London: Longman.
Stewart, R. (1999) The Reality of Management, third edition, London: Butterworth-
Heinemann.
www.businessdictionary.com
60
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE ECONOMIC RECESSION VERSUS A NEW MODEL OF ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Iosif Moldovan, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu
Abstract: Following a GDP growth in 2013, which surprised Romanian politico-economic
environment, the data provided in September 2014 by the European Statistical Office,
Eurostat, confirms the previous information regarding Romanian economy's entrance in
technical recession. This negative result raises questions and can not be viewed but only as a
consequence of the structure of Romanian economic growth, which was not tackled so far as
economic development and which remains reliant to imbalances caused by income
polarization and social inequalities due to large discrepancies in the salary level and in the
pension system, the low level of employment, the income from agriculture, the low level of
public revenues collection, the low level of EU funds absorption rate etc. Given the
circumstances, there is an increasing number of opinions in Romania supporting the need for
a new model of economic growth, that should be understood as a result of economic
development. This approach is subject to political maturity in the development of a
performing fiscal and budgetary system with an increasing collection rate and which sets
priority to investments, of a modernized systems for education, health, social policy etc. of a
clear view on infrastructure development, on increasing competitiveness, on the national
supply of goods and services, on increasing productivity and exports etc.
Keywords : technical recession, new model of economic development, economic growth,
divestment, geopolitical crisis.
1. Delimitări conceptuale
În analiza evoluţiei economiei unui stat se recurge la o serie de termeni, apropiaţi ca
nuanţă, care se referă la recesiune econmică, recesiune tehnică, depresiune economică, criză,
colaps economic, macrostabilizare, revenire economică etc., meniţi să caracterizeze starea
economiei într-o anumită perioadă.
Dintre termenii menţionaţi, unele controverse stârneşte cel de recesiune economică,
sub aspectul gravităţii sale, chiar dacă majoritatea analistilor acceptă starea de recesiune a
economiei atunci când cresterea produsului intern brut (PIB - gross domestic product - GDP)
este negativă în cel puţin două trimestre consecutive.
Într-o abordare mai largă, recesiunea economică este interpretată ca fiind o fază de
contracție a ciclului economic care urmează unui vârf de crştere și poate sfârși într-o criză. În
acest sens, şi de aici vin unele controverse, termenul de recesiune este folosit pentru varianta
mai uşoară a contracţiei economiei, când rata de creștere a producției este pozitivă, iar
recesiunea este marcată de diminuarea ratei de creștere, fără scăderea absolută a producției.
Pentru varianta severă a contracţiei economiei se folosește termenul de depresiune economică.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Din perspectiva dată, recesiunea economică este o fază de declin sau de diminuare
temporară a activității economice dintr-un stat, generată de scăderea producției, de reducerea
investițiilor şi de stagnarea temporară a afacerilor, mai puțin gravă decât depresiunea sau
criza, dar care dacă se menţine o perioadă mai indelungata duce la aceste forme de
manifestare.
O definiție mai complexă a recesiunii a fost propusă de Biroul Național de Cercetare
Economică (NBER) din SUA1, instituţia care monitorizeată intrarea şi ieşirea din recesiune a
economiei Americii, în accepţiunea căreia, recesiunea reprezintă, "un declin semnificativ al
activității la nivel național, care durează mai mult de câteva luni și este vizibilă prin scăderea
produsului intern brut, a veniturilor reale ale populației, a numărului de angajați din
economie, a producției industriale și a vânzărilor cu amănuntul și cu ridicata‖.
Dincolo de aceste interpretări, trebuie reţinut că, recesiunea economică este dată de
starea de declin generalizat al economiei şi de scaderea semnificativă a activităţii economice
într-o anumita perioada de timp, fiind caracterizată de deprecierea principalilor indicatori
macroeconomici: PIB, ocuparea fortei de muncă, veniturile generale brute, producţia
industrială, cursul monedei naţionale, deficitul bugetar, consumul etc.
Un termen relativ nou şi complementar pentru cel de recesiune este recesiunea tehnică,
care se manifestă când PIB-ul scade doua trimestre consecutiv, sau după Eurostat, care
simplifică modul de abordare, în două trimestre unul lângă altul.
Termenul de recesiune este cel mai bine consacrat în SUA, unde se admite că poate
exista recesiune economică şi fără recesiune tehnică, cum s-a intâmplat in anul 2001 când
Statele Unite au trecut prin recesiune economică, dar scăderile trimestriale ale PIB nu au fost
consecutive şi au oscilat, iar recesiunea tehnică nu s-a confirmat.
2. Cauzele intrării în recesiune economică a României
Din punct de vedere al analizei rezultatelor economice, datele publicate în cinci
septembrie 2014 de către Eurostat, confirmă intrarea economiei Romaniei in recesiune
tehnică, ca efect al scăderii produsului intern brut in trimestrul I al anului 2014 fata de
trimestrul IV al anului 2013 cu 0,2% si in trimestrul II al anului 2014 faţă de trim. I cu 1%. În
condiţiile date, consecinţele se materializează în faptul că, începând cu 5 septembrie 2014 se
revizuieşte in jos cresterea economică din trimestrul I 2014 fata de trimestrul I 2013, de la
3,8% la 3,7% şi in trimestrul II 2014 fata de trimestrul II, 2013 in sus, de la 1,4% la 1,5%.
Aspectele menţionate mai sus sunt remarcate de Prof. univ. dr. Daniel Dăianu, care
constată că economia româneacă nu are un potenţial de creştere durabilă2. Acesta pune starea
de recesiune pe seama anului agricol din trecut, care dacă nu ar fi fost atât de remarcabil,
trim.I in 2014 nu ar fi fost probabil in diminuare fata de trim.IV din anul precedent, dar
recunoaşte că România nu are potenţial de crestere reală durabilă de 4%, dacă fonduri
europene nu sunt accesate in procent de cel putin 3/4 din cele alocate, dacă resursele
financiare publice nu sunt cheltuite eficient, dacă sectorul privat nu dă semne de ieşire din
letargie, etc.
Intrarea economiei româneşti în recesiune îşi găseşte explicaţia în structura creşterii
economice care se dovedeşte dependentă de diferite activităţi economice cu evoluţii
1
Dicţionar juridic, http://www.rubinian.com
2
Daniel Daianu -Cum comentează Daniel Dăianu ‖recesiunea tehnică‖ a economiei româneşti şi care sunt implicaţiile,
http://www.zf.ro/ 15 aug 2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
imprevizibile (agricultură, consum etc.) şi în principal de potenţialul ei scăzut de creştere, care
este influenţat de o serie de cauze dintre care: nivelul deficitului bugetar cu influenţe negative
în evoluţia investiţiior publice, performanţa scăzută a companiilor de stat, ineficienţa
administraţiei publice locale, vulnerabilitatea veniturilor din agricultură, nivelul scăzut al
absorbţiei fondurilor europene, ineeficienţa cheltuielilor publice, finanţarea bancară scăzută
etc.
Deficitul bugetar şi evoluţia în scădere a investiţiior publice, au contribuit la
intrarea în recesiune ca urmare a efortului de consolidare fiscală, proces care, prin
componenta de păstrare a deficitului bugetar sub 2,5% din PIB impune constrângeri
bugetare severe care au afectat negativ sumele alocate investiţiilor publice. În
condițțile date, deficitul bugetar excesiv de scăzut, numai 0,5% din PIB la jumătatea
acestui an, nu poate fi considerată o performantă deoarece a influenţat negativ
dinamica cererii agregate şi implicit o evoluţie mai bună a economiei care să evite
recesiunea economică. Este relevant faptul că investiţiile din bugetul general
consolidat în primele şapte luni ale acestui an au fost de numai 5,9 miliarde de lei (1,3
miliarde de euro), jumătate faţă de aceeaşi perioadă a anului 2008 şi în scădere cu
29% faţă de perioada similară a anului 20133. Această situaţie a accentuat procesul de
dezinvestire, iar investiţiile publice şi private s-au redus cu 9,3% în anul 2013, potrivit
datelor consolidate ale BNR4. Trend de scădere l-au avut şi investițiil străine directe în
România, care după datele comunicate de BCR în primele șapte luni ale acestui au fost
de numai 1,3 miliarde euro, cu 13,8% mai puţin faţă de aceeaşi perioadă a anului
trecut5. Lucrurile sunt greu de acceptat că se vor îmbunătăţii în semestrul II, chiar dacă
există spațiul fiscal necesar, dar apar incertudini date de modificarea legislatiei fiscal
prin aplicarea reducerii CAS-ului şi de alocările bugetare în scopuri strict electorale.
Reducerea activităţii econmice6 , dacă avem în vedere că în primele şapte luni din
anul 2014 s-a înregistrat cel mai scăzut nivel al înmatriculărilor de companii noi din perioada
2009-2014, respectiv 63.331 de persoane fizice şi juridice, în scădere cu 24% faţă de acelaşi
interval din anul 2013. Alt exemplu este starea de insolvenţă înregistrată în mediul de
business, unde peste 100.000 de firme au intrat în incapacitate de plată în anii de criză,
ponderea celor care şi-au revenit sau au şanse să o facă fiind de numai 5%7. Pozitiv este că în
acest an în perioada ianuarie-iulie, numărul de firme dizolvate a scăzut cu 23%, ca efect al
modificării legislației specifice.
Performanţa scăzută a companiilor de stat, care ca urmare a nerestructurării şi
privatizării şi a managementului defectuos practicat continuă să fie în majoritatea
cazurilor o povară pentru buget şi o frână pentru creşterea economică. Acestea
acumulează mereu arierate la buget, chiar dacă au fost anulate de nenumărate ori şi au
beneficiat de un „regim special―, din raţiuni de ordin social şi politic, competiţia cu
companiile private fiind denaturată.
Constatarea este demonstrată de faptul că, companiile cu capital majoritar de stat
(1.086), care au depus bilanţ la finalul anului 2013 au avut o contribuţie de sub 5% la cifra de
3
Analiză zf, http://www.zf.ro11.09.2014
4
http//www.zf.ro/ 08.07.2014
5
capital.ro 12 Sep 2014,
6
http://www.zf.ro din data de 26.08.2014
7
http//www.zf.ro/ 19.09.2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
afaceri totală din economie, iar restanţele acumulate de acestea au ajuns la aproximativ 20%
din totalul arieratelor înregistrate de 112,7 mil. lei8. Datele sunt și mai evdente dacă avem în
vedere că, companiile de stat, deşi deţin monopol în unele sectoare (producţia de energie,
transportul de gaze, transportul feroviar etc.), au datorii mari la buget, comparativ cu firmele
private unde arieratele mai mari sunt la furnizori, urmate de cele de la bănci şi la buget.
Ineficienţa administraţiei publice locale care, cu toate că în anul 2013 a încasat
venituri record de 48 miliarde de lei (11 mld. euro) cu o creştere de 5,5% faţă de anul
2012, au înregistrat reduceri la cheltuielile de capital de 20% faţă de anul precedent
(6,4 mld. lei)9, în consonanţă cu evoluţia de ansamblu a investiţiilor publice. În anul
2013, ca în fiecare an de altfel, resursele bugetare au fost cheltuit în principal cu
salariile (13,3 mld. lei, 24% din bugetul total), cu cheltuielile pentru învăţământ (12
mld. lei) şi în bunuri şi servicii (10,9 mld. lei). Ca pondere, cheltuielile de capital ale
administraţiei locale reprezintă peste 35% din cheltuielile de capital ale bugetului
general consolidat10.
Evoluţia veniturilor din agricultură, dependente de condiţiile naturale şi de evoluţia
pieţei. În acest an, chiar dacă producţia agricolă se estimează că va creşte cantitativ,
scade ca valoare ca efect al reducerii preţurilor. De exemplu, la grâu, preţul a scăzut de
la 180 de euro la 140 de euro pe tonă, reducere care nu poate fi compensată de
creşterea cantitativă cu 2,7% faţă de anul 201311, chiar dacă preţul de desfacere este
relativ controlat prin îmbunătăţirea condiţiilor de depozitare.
Nivelul redus al absorbţiei fondurilor europene, cu efect negativ în susţinerea
creşterii economice şi a creşterii gradului de ocupare, care rămâne o problemă acută
pentru România. În acest an se înregistrează cea mai redusă rată de absorbţie a
fondurilor alocate pentru perioada de programare 2007- 2013 din Uniunea Europeană,
de numai 36%12 ( în iulie ). Procesul de absorbţie este deficitar pentru toate
programele finanţate din fonduri europene, în care rezultate relativ mai bune s-au
înregistrat numai la PO DCA (63,05%). POR 49.01% şi POSCCE 36,01%, faţă de
POS Mediu cu numai 34,07%, POS Transport cu 33,13% şi POS DRU cu 28,75% .
România a ratat din motive subiective, startul absorbţiei de fonduri structurale
europene și pentru perioada de programare 2014-2020. Sumele alocate pentru noua
perioadă de programare sunt importante şi provin din: fonduri structurale, de peste 21
mld. euro, în creştere cu 10% faţă de alocările din perioada 2007-2013 (19,2 mld.
euro).
La acestea se adaugă fonduri în sumă de 17,5 mld. euro pentru Polilica Agricolă
Comună , în creştere cu 27% faţă de alocările din exerciţiul financiar 2007-2020 (13,8 mld.
euro), care finanţează doi piloni:
- plăţi directe către fermieri 10,3 mld. euro cu 47,5% mai mult faţă de 5,6 mld. euro
în 2007-2013.
8
Date Consiliului Fiscal, http//www.zf.ro ,17.09.2014
9
Date centralizate ale Direcţiei pentru Politici Fiscale şi Bugetare Locale (DPFBL) din cadrul M.D.R.A.P http//www.zf.ro/
08.07.2014
10
http//www.zf.ro/ 08.07.2014
11
http://www.zf.ro 27.07.2014
12
http//www.zf.ro/11.09.2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- dezvoltare rurală, peste 7 mld. euro pentru dezvoltare rurală, faţă de 8,2 mld. euro
între 2007 şi 2013 cu un minus de 1,1 mld. euro (- 13,5%).
Pentru creşterea ratei de absorbţie şi pentru creşterea calităţii acestor finanţări, care sa
producă schimbările pozitive aşteptate este nevoie ca managementul finantarilor europene să
fie îmbunătăţit şi simplificat şi de către autorităţilor române, în consonanţă cu măsurile luate
deja de Comisia Europeană13.
În acest demers este important că în exerciţiul financiar 2014-2020 intervin câteva
modificări menite să eficientizeze procesul de accesare, cu precizarea că în cazul
prefinanţărilor condiţiile noi sunt mai dezavantajoase.
Aceste modificări se referă la faptul că:
- sumele alocate vor putea fi cheltuite în intervalul n+3, faţă de
n+2 în exerciţiul financiar 2007-2013.
- TVA-ul pentru proiectele cofinanţate din fonduri europene va fi
cheltuială eligibilă şi va fi plătită din sumele nerambursabile,
bugetul de stat fiind degrevat, iar birocraţia redusă.
- rata de cofinanţare din bugetul de stat pentru fondurile
structurale rămâne de 15% şi 85% din fonduri europene, iar
pentru dezvoltare rurală rata de cofinanţare va rămâne de 25%,
dar este pozitivă exceptarea statelor membre care au acord de
asistenţă financiară cu FMI sau cu UE, caz în care cofinanţarea
naţională scade pentru perioada respectivă la 5% pentru
fondurile structurale şi la 15% pentru dezvoltare rurală.
- prefinanţările vor fi de numai 3% din valoarea unui proiect spre
deosebire de perioada anterioară când aceasta a ajuns până la
30%, excepţie fac statele membre care în 2010 au avut un acord
de finanţare cu FMI sau UE, caz în care prefinanţarea va fi de
4%.
- sumele alocate pe cei doi piloni care privesc Politica Agricolă
Comună, vor avea un grad mai mare de flexibilitate în sensul că
25% din suma totală alocată poate fi transferată în funcţie de
nevoi de la un pilon la altul.
Ineficienţa cheltuielilor publice dată de valoarea mare a neregulilor financiar-
contabile identificate de Curtea de Conturi şi cuprinse în rapoartele anuale. În raportul
Curtii de Conturi pentru anul 2012, se arata că la instituţiile publice controlate s-au
constatat nereguli de aprox. 6,2 miliarde de euro, care provin din efectuarea unor plăţi
pentru lucrări inexistente, din plăţi ilegale şi dintr-un mod defectuos de gestionare a
patrimoniului. Neregulile constatate au condus la pierderi de patrimoniu, la
neîncasarea veniturilor la buget şi, mai grav, sunt generatoare de acte de corupţie.
Aspecte privind ineficienţa cheltuielilor publice sunt semnalate şi de Institutul pentru
Politici Publice, care constată că în domeniul achiziţiilor publice, care sunt de 15
miliarde de euro anual, în multe cazuri valoarea bunurilor şi serviciilor achiziţionate
este de 3-4 ori mai mare decât preţul de piaţă. Instituţia menţionată evaluează frauda
13
http://www.business24.ro, 21 August 2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
din achiziţii publice la aproximativ trei miliarde de euro, la care se adaugă şi alte
cheltuieli inoportune, pe sisteme informatice neutilizate, pe traininguri etc., care în-
seamnă o pagubă anuală de aproximativ 5 - 6 miliarde de euro pentru bugetul de stat .
Finanţarea bancară scăzută, reluarea greoaie a creditării, în condiţiile în care, aspect
pozitiv, creşte creditarea în lei, cu 7% şi scade cea în valută, în iunie 2014cu 12%.
Valoarea creditelor este însă în scădere atât pentru persoane fizice, cât şi pentru
companii, cu 4% în iunie 2014 faţă de iunie 2013, aspect care reduce posibilitatea de
finanţare a economiei, chiar dacă dobânzile la credite sunt scăzute14.
O inadvertenţă este şi faptul că dobânzile la creditele de consum sunt la acelaşi nivel
cu al creditelor acordate firmelor mici şi mijlocii, băncile având un apetit mai mare să cre-
diteze clientela de retail. În unele interpretări15 motivul ar fi că nu sunt mari dobânzile la
creditele pentru IMM-uri, ci sunt mici dobânzile la creditele pentru consum. Desigur
problema este mai complexă și trebuie conexată cu disponibilitatea bancilor de a da credite
pentru investiții, dar cererea este scăzută influențată de gradul de incredere al managerilor in
mediul economic și in dezvoltarea viitoare.
În relansarea creditării este important de urmărit poziţia diferitelor bănci faţă de
consolidarea lor în România. De exemplu, grupul financiar olandez ING va continua să in-
vestească pe piaţa românească pentru a-şi consolida poziţia în ideea unei creşteri a creditării şi
a celei economice, considerând că România are în continuare potenţial de creştere 16, dar alte
bănci ca RBS (fosta ABN Amro) şi Citibank, care au venit în România la mijlocul anilor ‘90
îşi restrâng activitatea locală.
În contextual dat, este evident că aspectele semnalate au favorizat intrarea în recesiune
prin influenţa negativă asupra creşterii economice şi reclamă intervenţia coerentă a statului.
Şansele Romaniei de ieşire din recesiune pot veni din eficientizarea cheltuirii resurselor
financiare publice, din încurajarea investitiilor productive, din accesarea fondurilor europene,
din gasirea unor cai de finantare alternativa la ce ofera sistemul bancar, inclusiv prin piata de
capital, din identificarea unor pieţe în afara UE etc.
3. Creştere economică, venituri bugetare şi evaziune fiscală
Intrarea în recesiune a fost favorizată de gradul redus de colectare al veniturilor
bugetare şi de menţinerea ridicată a nivelului evaziunii fiscale. În sensul exprimat este
relevant faptul că în semestrul I veniturile bugetului consolidat, faţă de o proiecţie anuală de
8,4% au crescut cu numai 3%, care nu reflectă ritmul înregistrat de creştere al economiei17.
Evoluţia favorabilă a economiei ar fi trebuit să se resimtă mai mult în colectarea
veniturilor dacă avem în vedere şi faptul că un aport pozitiv la avansul PIB-ului a venit din
creșterea consumului, care nu s-a reflectat decât parţial în nivelul încasărilor bugetare. Sumele
colectate din TVA au o crescut cu numai 2% faţă de primul semestru de anul trecut, chiar
dacă sistemul TVA a fost reconsiderat la produsele de panificaţie. Dezechilibrul de colectare
este evident dacă este comparat cu anul 2013, când economia a înregistrat în primele şase luni
14
http://www.zf.ro 27.07.2014
15
Stephen Orlesky, CEO al Romanian International Bank (RIB) http://www.zf.ro 27.07.2014
16
Ziarului Financiar din data de 19.09.2014
17
Ministerul Finanţelor a previzionat în acest an pe încasări totale la buget de 216,8 mld. lei, cu 8,4% peste încasările
efective de anul trecut, de aproximativ 200 mld. lei, bazat pe o creştere economică de 2,2%, http://www.zf.ro din data de
28.07.2014.
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un plus de 1,8%, bazat pe exporturi şi venituri din agricultură care are un grad redus de
fiscalizare, în timp ce consumul nu îşi revenise, iar ritmul de creştere al veniturilor bugetare a
fost de aproape 5%.
Situaţia prezentată nu poate fi pusă exclusiv pe seama fiscalităţii, care nu este mare
comparativ cu alte state europene şi din această perspectivă este dificil de redus, din contră
sunt în analiză variante pentru instituirea de noi taxe sau de majorare a celor existente. Gradul
de colectare redus apare mai degrabă ca efect al ineficienţiei administraţiei fiscale de a colecta
veniturile și de a diminua evaziunea fiscală.
După Consiliul Fiscal, evaziunea fiscală este estimată la 16% din PIB, din care
evaziunea fiscală la TVA reprezintă 70%, iar economia subterană la 20% din PIB 18. În
completarea estimărilor Consiliului Fiscal, care nu pot fi suspectate de subiectivism, un studiu
al Comisiei Europene, în raportul Moneyval19, subliniază nivelul ridicat al economiei
subterane în România, care este de 30% în anul 2011, în scădere la 28,4% în anul 2013.
Diferenţa poate veni din sumele realizate ilegal prin munca la negru sau din economia gri, caz
în care pierderea nu este integrală pentru bugetul de stat sau pentru PIB deoarece o parte din
sume se întorc în economie.
În completarea acestei analize este relevantă o evaluare a Ziarului Financiar, care
estimează că neîncasările la bugetul de stat generate de fraude economice și evaziune fiscală
sunt între 10 și 15 miliarde euro20.
4. Inegalitate socială
Recesiunea economică agravează aspectele de inegalitate socială, care persistă şi care
reclamă un nou model de dezvoltare economică.
Inegalitatea social este cauzată de:
menţinerea la un nivel scăzut a numărului de angajaţi,
nivelul scăzut al salariilor21,
diferenţele salariale mari,
discrepanţele majore generate de sistemul de pensii.
Referitor la prima cauză, numărul de angajaţi în România se menţine la un nivel
scăzut, iar după ultimele date comunicate de Eurostat22 este în scădere in trim. II din acest an
cu 3,1% fata de aceiaşi perioadă a anului trecut, înregistrându-se cea mai mare scădere în
rândul statelor membre ale Uniunii Europene23.
Nivelul scăzut al salariilor este constatat de ministerul de resort24, care arată că peste
două treimi dintre salariaţii cu contracte de muncă cu normă întreagă, care reprezintă 73% din
total, ajung la un salariu lunar mediu net de 1.600 lei, iar mai mult de jumătate dintre aceştia,
18
www.zf.ro din data de 28.07.2014
19
www.capital.ro 08 august 2014
20
www.capital.ro 08 august 2014.
21
România are cea mai scăzută pondere a veniturilor din salarii în PIB - 30%, faţă de 50% cât este media Uniunii Europene.
(http://www.zf.ro 25.08.2014).
22
Comunicatul Eurostat,12 Sep 2014.
23
Scaderea următoare a fost inregistrată in Cipru (-1,4%), in timp ce performere sunt Ungaria (crestere de 3,1% si Marea
Britanie (2,7%). Cresterea medie in UE a angajarilor pe trim.II din 2014 fata de trim.II din 2013 a fost de 0,7%, vezi
Comunicatul Eurostat,12 Sep 2014.
24
capital.ro, 26 august 2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
aproximativ 2,5 milioane încasează lunar numai 1.000 lei. Sumele sunt şi mai mici în cazul
celor care lucrează în baza unor contracte cu timp de lucru parţial, în condiţiile în care
aproximativ 650.000 din cei 691.000 de angajaţi cu program redus încasează mai puţin de
1.000 lei lunar.
Inegalitatea socială este adâncită de faptul că, în contrast cu datele prezentate mai sus,
la polul opus se află aproximativ 300.000 de persoane care au salarii de peste 5.000 lei şi
aproximativ 27.000 de angajaţi cu mai mult de 15.000 lei lunar. Potrivit Institutului Naţional
de Statistică, cele mai mici salarii sunt in activităţile de hoteluri şi restaurante, comerţ,
construcţii, agricultură, învăţământ şi sănătate.
În consens cu aspectele prezentate mai sus sunt relevante datele consultate de Business
Magazin, care arată că cele mai mari diferenţe din Europa între salariile executivilor şi cele
ale angajaţilor obişnuiţi cu nivel salarial mediu şi mic sunt în România. În același sens,
potrivit unei analize a Federaţiei Angajatorilor din Europa (FEE) şi a Eurostat25, un angajat cu
salariu mediu din România trebuie să muncească 12 zile pentru a lua salariul şefului
companiei pentru o oră lucrată, în timp ce angajatul cu cel mai mic salariu din firmă are
nevoie de 29 de zile. Rezultă că, între angajat şi şef există în medie un raport de 1 la 100,
adică angajatul munceşte opt ani pentru a câştiga salariul directorului general dintr-o lună
calendaristică.
Nivelul salarizării este influenţat negativ de evaziunea fiscală ridicată în acest sector.
După calculele Consiliul Fiscal26 se estimează că aproximativ 1,5 milioane de angajaţi
lucrează la negru motivat de fiscalitatea ridicată a veniturilor din muncă. Informaţia se
justifică dacă avem în vedere că impozitul pe venit și toate contribuțiile de asigurări,
reprezintă 60% din cheltuiala cu salariile (pentru fiecare leu plătit angajatului, compania
datorează statului încă 0,7-0,8 lei).
Problemele prezentate mai sus trebuie completate şi cu fenomenul de îmbătrânire a populației
în defavoarea populaţiei active, raportul fiind de 1,17 pensionari la un salariat27.
Pentru analiza discrepanţelor din sistemul de pensii este concludentă o analiză făcută
de economica.net 28, care scoate în evidenţă aspecte agravante care privesc ―subzistenţa şi
bunăstarea‖, în funcţie de cuantumul pensiilor plătite. Acestea, înregistrează valori
disproporţionate, de la un leu (4.700 de pensionari ar trebui să primească lunar o pensie de 1
leu, ajustată prin lege începând cu 2010, la 350 de lei), și pensionari care încasează peste
10.000 de lei sau chiar peste 28.800 lei pe lună.
5. Argumente pentru un nou model de dezvoltare economică
România se află in stadiul de integrare în Uniunea Europeană într-un efort de a atinge
convergenţa cu standardele statelor dezvoltate. În acest efort România are nevoie de un alt
model de dezvoltare economică bazat pe creştere economică sustenabilă, pe un sistem fiscal-
bugetar modern în care să primeze investiţiile publice, pe modernizarea sistemelor publice
25
http://www.businessmagazin.ro/analize/resurse-umane/16 septembrie 2014.
26
capital.ro, 26 august 2014
27
Numărul total al pensionarilor în România era, la finele lunii aprilie 2014 de 5.194.900 persoane, iar salariaţii
totalizau 4.423.200 persoane, înregistrându-se, astfel, circa 1,174 pensionari la un salariat, conform statisticilor
publicate de Ministerul Muncii, Familiei, Protecţiei Sociale şi Persoanelor Vârstnice capital.ro, 25 august 2014
28
http://www.economica.net/cum-arata-romania-pensionara--intre-subzistenta-pensiei-de-1-leu-si-bunastarea-pensiei-de-28-
800-lei-lunar_85012.html 06 aug, 2014 | Cristina Şomănescu | ECONOMICA.net
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
din: educaţie, sănătate, asistenţă socială, pe dezvoltarea infrastructurii, pe cresterea
competitivităţii care să îmbunătăţească oferta naţională de bunuri şi servicii şi exporturile.
Procesul de dezvoltare economică va depinde de finalizarea reformelor structurale prin
management performant, transparenţă şi simplificarea procedurilor care pun în balans
interesul public cu cel privat, precum si prin modernizarea administratiei publice centrale şi
locale.
Dezvoltarea economică sănătoasă se bazează pe un sector privat puternic, autonom în
raport de puterile politice, capabil să genereze prosperitate şi să dinamizeze inclusiv reformele
din sfera sectorului public, să susţină creşterea productivităţii printr-o nouă politică industrială
pentru care obiectivul major va fi creşterea competitivitatii economiei românesti. Economia
României trebuie să depăşească stadiul actual de economie complementară cu economiile
statelor membre ale UE la stadiul de economie competitivă cu acestea.
Ieşirea din recesiune a economiei româneşti se poate realiza printr-un nou model de
dezvoltare economică, care să ia în considerare următoarele obiective:
coordonarea dezvoltării economice la nivelul administraţiei locale care ar trebui
stimulată să-şi creeze fonduri de dezvoltare economică, de dezvoltare tehnologică, de
împrumuturi pentru afaceri mici, după modelul statelor dezvoltate (Maryland din
SUA) sau să acorde facilităţi pentru a stimula procesul, prin scutiri de impozit pentru
locuri de muncă nou create, scutiri de la plata impozitelor locale. încheierea unor
parteneriate pentru calitatea forţei de muncă, acordarea unor ―matching grant-uri‖
(împrumut nerambursabil care vine în completarea altei finanţări existente), pentru
programe de instruire, creerea unor zone industriale sau programe de consiliere şi
asistenţă pentru dezvoltarea relaţiilor de schimb internaţionale, facilitatea obţinerii
autorizaţiilor, dezvoltarea forţei de muncă, etc.
creşterea populaţiei active, calificate.
dezvoltarea activităţilor economice în spaţiul rural unde se află 65% din populaţia
României, proces favorizat de finanţările europene.
restructurarea sistemului de educaţie în raport cu cererea din piaţa forţei de muncă
(programatori, softişti, IT-işti, matematicieni, constructori, specialişti în prelucrări pe
maşini CN etc,) pentru care să fie asigurată infrastructura necesară şi burse ca
stimulente.
încurjarea exporturilor către ţările emergente.
dezvoltarea infrastructurii pe baza unor programe pe termen lung în care prioritățile
odată asumate (ex. Programul de autostrăzi) să nu mai fie schimbate in funcție de
oportunități mai degrabă clientelare.
încurajarea conformării voluntare, descurajarea culturii evazioniste, creșterea
predictibilității fiscale și reducerea birocrației în sistemul fiscal.
dezvoltarea industriei, cu suport financiar alocat din finanţări europene prin programe
naţionale, respectiv prin acordarea de facilităţi pentru înfiinţarea de SRL-uri, finanţări
pentru IMM-uri prin ajutoare de minimis, prin programul START etc., care trebuie
derulate pe parcursul mai multor ani, corelat cu o monitorizare atentă a rezultatelor
acestor programe.
dezvoltarea sectorului energetic ca provocare şi condiţie a asigurării independenţiei
energetice.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
dezvoltarea consumului prin reducerea decalajelor dintre venituri şi prin educarea
populației pentru brendul „fabricat în România― după modelele din Europa Centrală,
unde a cumpăra ceea ce este produs local este un act natural.
Concluzii
În context internaţional, perspectivele ieşirii României din recesiune vor fi afectate de
criza geopolitică, din regiune, iar perspectivele de reluare a creşterii sunt incerte şi in anul
2015 pentru cele mai multe state europene, zona euro fiind ameninţată de ―debt deflation‖.
Pentru România ieşirea din recesiune tehnică poate fi conjucturală, dar analiza corectă
a cauzelor intrării în recesiune și implementarea unor politici publice fundamentate pentru
diminuarea dezechilibrelor identificate în lucrare și pentru creșterea încrederii într-o
dezvoltare economică viitoare, pot asigura baza de plecare pentru abordarea unui nou model
de dezvoltare economică în perioada următoare.
Bibliografie
Hyman P. Minsky , Cum stabilizăm o economie instabilă : Ed. Publica 2011;
Stiglitz, Joseph E., Prețul inegalității; Cum societatea divizată din ziua de astăzi ne
pune în pericol viitorul, Publica, București, 2013
Raportul Comisiei Europene pentru Romania publicat in 20 Nov 2013.
Raportul privind evolutia Romaniei in cadrul acordului stand by cu Comisia
Europeana si FMI publicat in data de 20.11.2013.
International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 12/290, România: Sixth Review
Under the Stand-By Arrangement and Request for Modification of Performance
Criteria, October 2012
Raportul anual al Consiliului Fiscal (2013), http://www.consiliulfiscal.ro/
www.http//.zf.ro
www.http//capital.ro
http://www.economica.net/cum-arata-romania-pensionara--intre-subzistenta-pensiei-
de-1-leu-si-bunastarea-pensiei-de-28-800-lei-lunar_85012.html 06 aug, 2014 |
Cristina Şomănescu | ECONOMICA.net
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE SALES ACTIVITY OF A COMPANY
Elena Sima, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu
Abstract: The paper is divided into two parts as follows: a theoretical part in which the
aspects of diagnostic analysis and the sales activity and the second part is applicative and
shows the steps that should be followed to perform such an analysis and the situations that
may arise in this regard.
In the applicative part, the need of an overview of the company, the social and economic
context in which it operates is motivated, the positive and negative symptoms objectively
formulated, stipulating for each of them the causes and the effects that are generated.
The paper ends with several conclusions and recommendations arising from the study
conducted.
Keywords : diagnostic analysis, sales activity, company.
1. Theoretical notions on the diagnostic analysis and the sales activity
The assimilation of diagnostic analysis method in the arsenal used by managers of
organizations is a main argument of the transition from the empirical phase to the scientific
phase of management and also, it allows companies who use it to maintain and even to
improve themselves in an economy based on competition and profitability.
Related to the concept from the medical field, diagnosis in management involves the
need for regular consultation of the organization in order to be able to determine the state of
health, vigor and resilience of predictable environmental changes. Managerial diagnosis
compared to the medical diagnosis does not involve just the research of symptoms occurred
and their causes, but also the identification of treatments that would reduce or remove these
symptoms.
Diagnosis can be classified according to several criteria, among which the most
important are: the scope of the research, objectives, fields researched and diagnostic team‘s
structure.
Diagnostic analysis can be considered as a whole, as a complex technical and
economic analysis, but focused mainly on the problems and issues of organization and
management.1.
Diagnostic analysis basically involves investigating the organization and its
procedural and structural components using specific tools, with the aim to identify the main
strengths and weaknesses of the company and formulating certain recommendations to
enhance the potential of the company.
1
Oprea N., Plesoianu G. – Analiza diagnostic a unitatilor economice, Editura Stiintifica si Enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1975.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Diagnostic analysis method derives from the methods of establishing a medical
diagnosis and requires the coordinated deployment of specific actions related to the following
aspects2:
- study (examination) of the economic body‘s state to identify the problems they face
(system analysis);
- determining causes of the dysfunction;
- prescribing appropriate remedial measures.
To secure the development or simply maintaining its equilibrium, an economic
organism must be able to quickly grasp internal disturbances or latent imbalances and prepare
early actions to adapt to change. In usual practice, the examination of results and events in the
life of an economic unit and evaluating future, probable trends represents the contents of the
management consultancy process3. From this perspective, the diagnosis is considered the
operational phase of any management consulting process, which is usually preceded by a
preliminary diagnosis4.
Diagnosis is twofold: preventive and curative; it aims, based on reported symptoms
and the analysis of found effects, to propose effective, immediate and prospective remedies.
For adjustment systems, diagnosis resulting from economic and financial analysis
involves revealing symptom that the body has experienced and determining remedies
necessary for high performance operation. Such symptoms, to an economic system can be: the
downward trend in profits, decline of the position from competitors, stagnant or negative
economic growth, increased production and sales costs, decreased labour productivity etc.
The most important thing however is that establishing a diagnosis undertakes understanding
the cause-effect relationships, without which any therapy is doomed to failure5.
Characteristic for the diagnostic analysis is that it is done in a short period of time and
does not seek detailed solutions, but global solutions, solutions in the form of
recommendations and an action program which will include further detailed analyses.
In the specialty literature6 it is shown that a thorough internal review of the strengths
and weaknesses of a company is an essential condition for the development of successful
strategies, because only in this way the opportunities can be exploited and the impact of
disturbances can be minimized.
A diagnostic‘s value, whatever its scope, will depend on the compliance with a set of
7
rules :
- establishing as clear objectives as possible;
- existence of a perfectly circumscribed investigation field of these objectives;
- having a rigorous and participatory approach;
- knowledge of all possible variables and factors of development;
- access to all relevant information and the power (ability) to process them;
2
Bîrsan, M., Analiza şi diagnosticul firmei, note curs, Universitatea Ştefan cel Mare, Suceava 2013.
3
Pinder, M., McAdam, S., Consultanţă în afaceri, Editura Teora, 1997.
4
Kubr, M., Management Consulting. Manualul consultantului în management, Editura AMCOR, Bucureşti, 1992.
5
Rue, L., W., Holland, P., G., Strategic Management: concept and experiences, McGraw Hill, 1986.
6
McDonald, M., Marketing strategic, Ediura Codecs, Bucureşti, 1998.
7
Potié, C., Diagnosticul calităţii, Metode de expertiză şi investigaţii, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti, 2001;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- methodical analysis of the results, so that the most appropriate decisions are taken.
Compliance with these rules creates conditions for the development of relevant
diagnoses.
Sales has as main objective the selling of products from manufacturing profile of the
company, in terms of efficiency, assuming specific activities, such as developing marketing
studies in order to provide contracts and commercial orders, knowing the demand the state of
competition, prices, new products that can be assimilated, products whose production should
be stopped or reduced, of those who have to be upgraded.
Sales management must ensure a balance between the financial needs for the
resumption of the productive economic circuit and the financial resources from the sale of
manufactured products, having as main aim the selling of products from their own production
profile in terms of efficiency.
2. Diagnostic analysis of sales activity of a company
The analysis of sales activity within a company highlights a number of strengths and
weaknesses, which are based on a number of causes and which, in their turn create favorable
or unfavorable economic consequences, summarized as follows:
Tabel1
Possible negative symptoms - Causes – Effects
Negative Causes Effects
symptoms
Lack own - Low financial - Insufficient knowledge of
marketing resources allocated customer demands in
departments or for this purpose; terms of quality and
relationships with - Low level of product features;
research institutions importance given - Lack of adaptation to
specializing in to marketing; market requirements;
developing - Low concerns in - Limited number of
marketing studies, this area; contracts and orders;
forecasting, trends - Lack of qualified - Insufficient knowledge of
that may occur in the and trained competition;
sales market personnel to carry - Owning a small market
out such studies. share.
Difficulties in - Insufficient - Loss of customers;
marketing the made knowledge of - Loss of market position of
products customer the company;
requirements; - Worsening of company‘s
- Conducting small image;
marketing - Reducing the
activities; creditworthiness of the
- Failure to comply company.
with contractual
provisions
regarding
deadlines and
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
quality;
- Reduced number
of contracts and
orders.
The existence - Difficult - Reducing the
of a small number of penetration on the creditworthiness of the
internal/external domestic/foreign company.
clients market;
- Inappropriate
quality of products
to their
requirements;
- Lack of
promotional
activities.
The absence Lack of resources - Low level of expansion of
of a well developed for the development of sales and penetration in
tracking product for this system and the other markets;
the users concern of managers in - Failure to adapt products
this area to direct consumer
demand.
Job manning - Lack of qualified Tasks in the sales
is not consistent with personnel; department carried out by staff
the training - Lack of personnel with inadequate training leads to
with necessary the failure of contracts and
training. orders.
Powers Lack of The existence of o a tense
shared unwisely appropriate coordination climate with unfavourable
between the of the department‘s influence on the sales activity
members of the sales activity and the senior
department management
In the Lack of - Making improper orders
coordination of the communication from the and contracts;
sales activity, there is managers at the same - The emergence of
no continuous level of hierarchy but also inconsistency between
correlation between from those situated on production, orders and
the decision factors higher levels contracts that need to be
and the decisions honoured.
transmitted are often
contradictory
There is no - Poor/lack of Low tracking of the
proper collaboration communication production completion of
with production sub- between production during the
units departments; manufacturing process in order to
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- Low level of take preventive measures for
efficiency of the delivery
information
system
Insufficient Lack of an - Mismatch between the
collaboration information system needs to be supplied and
between the sales insufficiently adapted to the requirements for the
structure and the the requirements sales structure ;
supply and - Deficiencies in tracking
production structure the progress of
implementing the orders
and contracts launched in
execution.
The - A small number of - Immobilization of funds,
emergence of the contracts, orders engaged in the storage of
phenomenon of and notes issued finished products that
overstocks or by customers; could have had another
shortages of stock to - Difficulties in profitable use;
finished products selling the prices; - High storage costs,
- Lack of market leading to high production
knowledge, costs, resulting in lower
customer requests incomes and thus the
due to poor or lack profit of the enterprise ;
of marketing - Losses due to
activity deterioration of products
during storage by the
appearance of improper
storage conditions;
- Losses due to products‘
aging which do not meet
customer and market
demands;
- Loss of customer loyalty;
- Losses due to relaunching
of new orders.
Failure to - Unfavourable - Decrease of the
make the correlation dynamics of company‘s payment
between the turnover volume and capacity;
index and the wage efficiency - Decrease of the
fund ICA IFS indicators used in employees‘ motivational
the construction of capacity.
these correlations ;
- Wage pressures;
- Decrease in sales.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Using a small Non-involvement - Failure of creating
number of methods of senior management in prerequisites for economic
and techniques of promoting and using consolidation of the
management advanced management company;
(management by tools - Low degree of
budgets, diagnostics, substantiation of strategic
delegation, and tactical decision;
management by - Improper use of
objectives) managers‘ working time.
Low level of - Still deficient - Difficulties in tracking the
computerization of technical facility evolution of sales on
sales activity in the field; structure, customers and
- The existence of periodically;
other priorities - Difficulties in tracking
regarding the and control of finished
conduct of the products‘ evolution;
company‘s - Difficulties in strategic
activities. and tactical decision
making;
- Often postoperative
information of managers.
Table 2
Possible positive symptoms – Causes - Effects
Positive Causes Effects
symptoms
Upward - Increasing the output - Increase of results
dynamics of the turnover produced; by conducting the
- Reorientation of basic activity of the
activity towards company;
sales; - Improving the
- Reduction of company‘s image
specific difficulties on the market;
of products‘ sales - Financing of
from year to year. refurbishment and
modernization
activities of the
company.
Maintaining - Achieving the - Increased turnover;
traditional customers of desired quality at the - Decrease of
the company deadlines imposed company‘s losses;
by the client; - Attracting new
- Practising affordable customers;
selling prices. - Existence of
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
manufactured
production growth
opportunities;
- Increasing the
creditworthiness of
the company;
- Holding a
representative
market share;
- Reduction in stock
of finished goods.
Diminishing - Partial reduction of - Increased sales
stock of finished goods the products‘ sales volume and on this
at the end of the analyzed difficulties; basis the profit
period - Improving the obtained from year
quality of products to year;
which will attract a - Increased market
greater number of share;
customers; - Improving the
- Maintaining company‘s image
traditional and market position.
customers.
Table 3
Opportunities – Threats
Opportunities Threats
The existence of unused capacities Difficulties in the domestic
that allows a development of future activity commercial activity due to the national
purchasing power and of competition, both
with domestic and imported products
Opportunities to upgrade equipment Increase of excise on fuels,
and technologies through European funding combined with increase of utility tariffs
projects
Possibilieties to make exports Exchange differences
We shall further present the recommendations for improving activities in a free,
competition market, given the lack of financial resources and in particular the currency
needed to modernize the equipments.
Table 4
Recommendations – Causes – Effects
Recommendations Causes Effects
Remodeling the - Failure to use full - Increased company
management system and production capacity; profitability;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
its components - Difficulty in selling - Increased company
the products. creditworthiness;
- Judicious
structuring of
authority on
hierarchical levels.
Rethinking Failure to comply - Increasing the
strategies and company with the main correlations volume of finished
policies between indicators. products;
- Improved company
image.
Penetration in - Difficulties in - Decrease in stock
other markets and selling the products; of finished
production restructure to - Inadequate quality products;
diversify the assortment of certain products. - Improved company
structure. image.
Rehabilitation, Poor management - Improving the
upgrading technology, of assets leading to halting quality of products;
equipment and existing refurbishment. - Increasing the
equipment possibly physical volume of
through EU-funded products.
projects.
REFERENCES:
1. Bîrsan, M., Analiza şi diagnosticul firmei, note curs, Universitatea Ştefan cel Mare,
Suceava 2013
2. Kubr, M., Management Consulting. Manualul consultantului în management, Editura
AMCOR, Bucureşti, 1992.
3. McDonald, M., Marketing strategic, Ediura Codecs, Bucureşti, 1998.
4. Oprea N., Plesoianu G. – Analiza diagnostic a unitatilor economice, Editura Stiintifica
si Enciclopedica, Bucuresti, 1975.
5. Pinder, M., McAdam, S., Consultanţă în afaceri, Editura Teora, 1997.
6. Potié, C., Diagnosticul calităţii, Metode de expertiză şi investigaţii, Editura Tehnică,
Bucureşti, 2001;
7. Rue, L., W., Holland, P., G., Strategic Management: concept and experiences,
McGraw Hill, 1986.
8. Sima, E. – Logistica, Editura BURG, Sibiu, 2014.
78
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE ROLE OF SME IN THE CONTEXT OF A COUNTRY’S ECONOMY
DEVELOPMENT
Maria Carmen Iordache, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Constantin Brâncoveanu”
University of Râmnicu-Vâlcea
Abstract: In the economy of European countries and not only, small and medium enterprises
(SME) are considered to be a key factor for economic growth, innovation, employment and
social integration. Flexibility and adaptability of SME are important features to overcome the
periods of economic crisis, being extremely relevant to the current period of recession.
This study tries to show a conceptual analysis of SME, their characteristics in terms of
globalization, the primary role they have in an economy of a country and the main obstacles
they face.
Keywords : microenterprise, SME, entrepreneurship, development.
1. Introduction
The notions of SME and entrepreneurship development were introduced and
accompanied by policies oriented at this group of companies (grants, subsidized credits,
suitable conditions for fees,etc.) Since the early '40s, their appearance has been supported by
governments by setting up the state agencies to support the SMEs‘-for instance , the publicly
financed agencies in 1948 in Japan, 1953 in USA etc.. (OECD, 2004). In their evolution,
despite development efforts during 1980-1990, SMEs were seen as an artificial product, with
little contribution to socio-economic development and the facilities and the support of
governments was mainly oriented to large companies. This rejection to invest in supporting
SMEs due to their poor results, in spite of significant claims that were received in the 70s.
In regards to the way they are identified starting from the concept of small and
medium enterprise, the specialized literature provides several definitions, due to the fluid and
the development level of the country where these enterprises operate and are located.
Overtime important contributions to the development of the concept brought international
organizations such as the OECD, the European Commission and the World Bank.
According to the OECD definition (OECD, 2005), small and medium-sized
companies without subsidiaries, independent, with a small number of employees. The
number of employees varies from one country to another, the upper limit being 250
employees in case of the European Union. But others have adjusted the limit to 200
employees, while the United States include in the SMEs‘ companies that have less than 500
employees. The same definition states that small firms are those with less than 50 employees
while the majority of micro-enterprises have 10 an, in some cases, 5 employees. Broadly, the
same definition is agreed by the United Nations Industrial Development Organization
(UNIDO)
The European Commission's definition of SMEs defines three categories of SMEs:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
• Micro-enterprises: enterprises with less than 10 employees and an annual turnover
or capital that must not be less than 2 million;
• Small enterprises: enterprises with a number of employees between 10 and 49 and an
annual turnover or capital that must not be less than 10 million Euro;
• Medium -sized enterprises: enterprises with a number between 50 and 249
employees and an annual turnover not more than 50 million Euro (or capital that must not be
less than 43 million Euro).
In the U.S. and Canada, the SME sector refers to the management of small businesses
with less than 500 employees and more than $ 50 million annual revenue in Australia - 20
employees (Beyenne, 2002). According to Prater (2005), small businesses, which constitute
most of the existing businesses have 5 to 50 employees. They are often owner-managed
businesses and controlled by the family and are likely to operate outside the commercial or
industrial spaces.
2. The research methodology
The research methodology is based on three main steps: identification specialized
literature, selecting it, demonstrate and synthesizing data.
The specialized literature is based on a number of researches, mostly conceptual,
international studies that show a fundamental theoretical orientation aboout SMEs‘ . The
methods focus on conceptualization and description of the concept of SMEs, being necessary
to examine closely the concept having regard to their importance in the economy of a country.
I have selected the specialized literature by content, focusing on the elements that
define the term of SMEs and its features. After identifying and analyzing the conceptual
framework based on specialized literature and / or examples of development, I have outlined
the importance of SMEs in the economy of a country and the obstacles encountered in their
development.
In order to achieve the research , there were used quantitative data regarding the role
of SMEs in the economy of EU countries and beyond, which were collected from official
sources such as Eurostat, OECD, UNIDO and UNCTAD. These data were corroborated by
the literature to validate the claims made. I decided to use this methodology research in order
to generate a conceptual framework that could be useful to the decission facts to understand
the role of SMEs, the implications for a country's economic development and to eliminate
barriers that can brake the development of this sector.
3.The analysis of the specialized literature
SMEs are an important factor in the development of each nation's economy. Their
advantages consist in the flexibility of labor, in their close relationship with the local
environment. In a post-industrial global economy, consumers are oriented to standard
products, but at the same time, it can be observed an accentuated inclination to consume
products and personalized services and a growing requirement on the appearance and quality
of products.
In any country, the statistics show that even during the years of economic crisis and
recession, the SMEs have ensured economic growth, productivity and employment (WIPO,
2006). Duarte (2004) stated that the role of SMEs in any society is without doubt important,
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
for example, in Portugal, about 98% of the material is composed of industry SMEs. The same
author describes the role of SMEs as the engine of economic growth and the high proportion
of their industry. Shumpeter (1934) emphasizes the role of SMEs as a major cause of
economic development.
Andersson et al (2007) discussed about the role of women-owned SMEs who help
creating jobs. The authors have declared that women entrepreneurs are more likely to hire
women, providing jobs not only for themselves, but also for other women, which helps to
reduce the effect of discrimination against women in the labor market. In addition, female
unemployment reduction helps in the fight against trafficking in women. Finally, women
entrepreneurs can serve as models for the younger generations, demonstrating that there are
opportunities for new jobs (as self-employment jobs).
According Fadahunsi and Daodu (1997 cited Beyen, 2002, p.131), in Asian countries
such as Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, India and Sri Lanka, 90%
of businesses are small businesses that provide employment rate of 98% in Indonesia, 78% in
Thailand, 81% in Japan and 87% in Bangladesh. Lukasc (2005) studied that SMEs are
recognized as the backbone of the British economy, accounting for more than half of the
turnover of the UK. Most countries, more or less developed, are based on the dynamism and
strength of private enterprises risk (Hallberg, K., 2000). Globally, SMEs account for 90% of
private firms and employs 50-60% of the labor force (UNIDO, 2005).
According to the European Commission, SMEs play a central role in the European
economy. They are a major source of entrepreneurial skills, innovation and employment,
generating most revenue. According to the Annual Report on the situation of SMEs in the
European Union in 2012, out of the 20 million existing businesses in the EU, more than
99.8% are SMEs and they represent the main source of private investments, economic growth
and jobs. Within the SME sector a vast majority (92%) is consisted by micro-enterprises
having less than 10 employees. For 2012, it is estimated that SMEs accounted for 67% (which
represents over 87 million people) of total employment and 58 percent of gross value added.
These numbers indicate that SMEs are the backbone of the EU economy.
In Romania in 2011, the share of SMEs in total enterprises was 99.74%. The majority
state capital and the combined represent less than 2%, so it can be said that the entire SME
sector is private (Statistical Yearbook 2012).
However, the SME sector in Romania has certain features that distinguish it negatively
to the EU-27 (EU-28 currently).Altough, from the employment point of view of local SMEs,
they are in line with the European average share of about two-thirds of the total, however
there is a problem in terms of their contribution to gross value added, which in Romania is
about. 54%, while in the EU-27 is about 60%.
Table 1-Number of enterprises, employment and gross value added in EU-27, by
size-class, 2012 (estimates)
Micro Small Medium SMEs Large Total
UE-27
Number of enterprises
Number 19,143,521 1,357,533 226,573 20,727,627 43,654 20,771,281
% 92.2 6,5 1,1 99.8 0,2 100
Employment
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Number 38395819 26771287 22310205 87477311 42318854 129796165
% 29,6 20,6 17,2 67,4 32,6 100
Gross value added
EUR 1307360,7 1143935,7 1136243,5 3587540 2591731,5 6179271,4
Millions
% 21,2 18,5 18,4 58,1 41,9 100
Romania
Number of enterprises
Number 758286 56117 12617 827020 2150 829170
% 91,4 6,8 1,5 99,7 0,3 100
Employment
% - - - 66,4 33,6 100
Gross value added
% - - - 58,2 41,8 100
Source: Eurostat/National Statistics Offices of Member States/Cambridge
Econometrics/ Ecorys
In addition, the density of SMEs in Romania (SMEs/1000 place) is almost half of the
EU which are characterized by low productivity and profitability, especially among micro and
small enterprises, which represent 98% of registered SMEs (2010). Moreover, international
trade data shows that most SMEs depend only on the internal market of local and have
experience in the sale of products / services across the country.
4.Features of SMEs
Jones and Haven-Tang (2005) studied the most popular features for SMEs: they
generate job opportunities , are easy to set up and enter into business, are more flexible than
the big enterprises and they a closer relationship with the customers. However, the SMEs are
at risk of having business failure (survival depending on the owner's ability to manage
success), there are little proactive innovation and technology are deficient in business
management ideas and management skills, oppose resistance to investing in the training of
management, market research and customer knowledge management, they lack an integrated
approach to planning and business functionality.
Dagmar Recklies (2001) stated that SMEs are characterized by factors such as
company size or independence property (family or small group of people). These features can
lead to disadvantages and advantages in regard to the globalization (Table 2)
Table 2 - The characteristics of SMEs in relation to globalization
Chara
cteristic Avantages Disadvantages
The • Looking forward, •Static thinking ,
dependence on they need long-term limited to the experience and
a limited thinking knowledges of the owner (s)
number of • Stability • Difficulties to adapt to
people (often • No pressure for short-term corporated culture to new
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
owners and success situations and challenges
managers are • Stable managerial culture • Potential conflicts between
the same • Greater commitment company objectives and
person) personal objectives of the
owner
• Stable Base for
business
Strong • The ability to cooperate
relationships successfully to achieve a
with customers mutual benefit The risk of focusing too
and business •Ability and the desire to much on existing
partners enter into partnerships business
The large flexibility
and adaptability • In many cases, they
Short reaction times are not appropriate for complex
inter-functional planning and implementation
communication and of international activities
simple cooperation within the • decreased desire to enter
structures organization more complex structures
The limited resources
(in terms of finance and
employment)
The limited funds for
financing the
investements and the
initial operating losses
to activate others new
The costs of research
and market entry tend
to take a much larger
proportion of total
expenditure in SMEs
than larger companies
The limited number of
staff in order to take
The base of some additional tasks
specialization, often The lack of employees
Small successful with with international
sized niche strategies experience
Source: Dagmar Recklies Article Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and
Globalization, 2001
5. The importance of SMEs in the economy
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The role and importance of SMEs arising from certain traits that make them more
than a " miniature" of large enterprises such as:
►generate most of P.I.B. from each country , usually between 55 % -95 %;
►provide jobs for the majority population and constitutes a climate for employee
development, these gaining the necessary experience to transfer then in large enterprises ,
where the motivation for work is bigger. In recent years ,in most countries , including the
European Union , the SMEs are the only that generating jobs. Most international
organizations support this argument. According to the OECD study in 2004, SMEs in OECD
countries were covering approximately 60-70% of the population in most countries (OECD /
UNIDO , 2004). However , according to a European Commission survey in 2012, 85 % of
jobs created in the EU in the period between 2002 and 2010 were created by the SMEs.
►generates a major proportion applicable Technical innovations in the economy.
Many products and new technological processes have been created in the field of small and
medium-sized enterprises whereas large enterprises, although they have strong research
compartments, they tend to channel their efforts toward improving existing products, on
which to produce then in large quantities, thus obtaining advantages generated by dimensional
economy (UNCTAD, 2001). Large companies do not have the same flexibility as well as
small and medium-sized enterprises. Small and medium-sized enterprises, to be successful,
you need to channel their efforts for the creation of new products and services, thus being able
to adapt their production quickly to changes in demand. According to a study OECD (2011),
between 30 and 60 percent of SMBs may be characterized as innovative, out of which 84,000
are based on technology.
►Stimulates competition, i.e. small and medium-sized enterprises have an active role
in the creation of a healthy economy and competitive. They shall encourage competition in
terms of price, product design and efficiency (Johnson, R. , Soenen, L. 2003). Without
existence of small and medium-sized enterprises, large enterprises would holds a monopoly
on areas of activity. They have the highest dynamism in the context of the market economy, a
situation which attested to take account of changes in their number, the volume of turnover
and the size of employment, significantly higher large enterprises;
►Represents future germ big companies, in particular in the fields of the new
economy, in its branches of-the-art based on technical and complex technology and
performance. At the same time, helps enterprise operation, due to the fact that certain
activities may be better achieved by small and medium-sized enterprises (Stephen Jarvis, R. et
al. , 1996). So if these undertakings would be instantly dismantled, large enterprises will have
to carry out many activities which are not effective for them. Activities that can be more
effectively carried out in small and medium-sized enterprises are supply of raw materials and
sub-assemblies (such enterprises acting as subcontractors for large enterprises), or distribution
of the products manufactured by large enterprises. For example, General Motors in the U.S.
supplies marks, subassembly and services over 37,000 small and medium-sized enterprises.
Italian company Benetton carried out approximately 95 din production process by means of
subcontractors which are small and medium-sized enterprises.
►Products and Services at lower costs than large firms. Main factors that determine
this difference shall be the expenditure smaller conventional constant, the volume and the
intensity of upper work under the conditions of occurrence of present developer in the
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
company and, as a general rule, the reasons for the more intense to the staff. That small and
medium-sized businesses continue to survive in a competitive economic environment
constitute evidence of their efficient operation. If they were ineffective and it would not make
a useful contribution in the economy, then he would be "swallowed" by strong competitors. A
study carried out in the U.S. revealed that small and medium-sized businesses a profit of 4
times on 1 dollar invested from large enterprises.
►Represents one of the main sources of income of state budget (taxes, VAT, etc.);
But all these advantages of SMEs doesn't mean an underestimation of role big companies.
Any countries economy, in order to be performance needs of large enterprises, especially in
industrial and transport. Economic practice shows the existence of strong relations of
complementarity between large firms, on the one hand and SMEs, on the other hand. An
economy is all the more healthy and more performance with as long as it has a balanced
structure not only understanding, but also dimensional circuitry, upper synergistic effects.
Research carried out in the countries with experience in the operation of the market
economy have revealed that small and medium-sized enterprises compete successfully in
many areas of activity. As such, we think that in the future he will emphasize the importance
SMEs due to trend development economy, there is a change in the weighting economic
branches, namely for the provision. Such manufacturing industries in which prevail and have
tradition large enterprises will cut important services, a sector in which predominate SMEs.
However, small and medium sized enterprises encounter during operation with certain
issues that can brake the rhythm of the increases:
►Managers do not have necessary training to cope with multiple problems they face.
In small and medium-sized enterprises usually owners shall designate a person to be manager,
avoiding setting up of a team of managers. This means that the manager must take a wide
variety of decisions which involve multiple knowledge, which brings out mismatch between
complexity of the problems which he is forced to solve and of vocational training which has.
►No financial resources, which limits the opportunities these enterprises for the
purchase of new machinery, proper maintenance of them, hiring a qualified personnel and
give reasons for his employment, studies have been carried out by marketing. EEA Mead and
Liedholm (1998) considers that a frequent cause leading to bankruptcy of small and medium-
sized enterprises is insufficient financial resources.
►Deficencies in pursuit of the business of marketing, in the sense that lack of
experience of managers of small and medium-sized enterprises is that they have difficulties in
setting the amount of expenditure on publicity, in quantifying the effectiveness of the action
advertising, in identifying the most appropriate channels of distribution of the products, etc.
►Difficulties in skilled workers recruitment due to the fact that managers of these
firms do not have sufficient knowledge on the identification of sources for new employees
and the techniques of selection required, as compared with the managers of large enterprises.
6. Conclusions
The SMEs are one of the important players in the development of the economy and
dynamic export, as well as in their share in GDP. Anyway, the SMEs is still limited as regards
technical development or science because it cannot handle alone and isolated this role nor
from the point of view of capital, nor from human point of view, but only in conjunction with
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
other subjects (including those of state or local). Major issues faced by small and medium-
sized in this matter is related to the insufficient liquidity and its own funds for development,
as well as gaining access to credit.
Supporting entrepreneurship and small and medium-sized businesses (SMB) by funds
to start-up, security and initial capital by means of financial instruments, the provision of
support for the business plan, development of new business models, new value chains and
structures for marketing tailored to the specific needs of SMEs, their development on
emerging segments which are related to the evolution of world challenges (products and
services for the aging population, ecoinnovations and the efficiency of the use of resources)
must constitute the basic elements of a national policy to support development of the small
and medium-sized.
References
1. Andersson I, Raihan A, Rivera M, Sulaiman I, Tandon N, Welter F (2007), Handbook
on Women-owned SMEs Challenges and Opportunities in Policies and Programmes,
International Organisation for Knowledge Economy and Enterprise Development
(IKED) and Global Knowledge Partners (GKP)
2. Anuarul Statistic al României, 2012
3. Beyene, A. (2002), Enhancing the Competitiveness and Productivity of Small and
Medium Scale Enterprises (SMEs) in Africa : An Analysis of Differencial Roles of
National Governments Through Improved Support Services, Africa Development,
27(3) : 130-156.
4. Dagmar R. (2001), Article Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and Globalization,
http://www.themanager.org/strategy/global.htm
5. Duarte N., 2004, The role of SMEs for development: a literature review, Paper
submitted to ERSA 2004 Congress: "Regions and Fiscal Federalism"
6. Eurostat/National Statistics Offices of Member States/Cambridge Econometrics/
Ecorys
7. Hallberg, K., Market-Oriented Strategy for Small and Medium Scale Enterprises, IFC
Discussion Paper 40, Washington 2000, p.5.
8. Jarvis, R., Kitching, J., Curran, J. and Lightfoot, G. (1996), Performance measures and
small firms, Certified Accountant Journal , Nov. Issue, pp. 48-49
9. Johnson, R. and Soenen, L. (2003), Indicators of successful companies, European
Management Journal, Vol. 21 No. 3, pp. 364-369
10. Jones, E., Haven-Tang, C., 2005, Tourism SMEs, service quality and destination
competitiveness, CABI
11. Lukacs, E. (2005), The economic role of SMEs in world economy, especially in
Europe, European Integration Studies, Miskolc, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 3-12.
12. OECD, 2nd Conference of ministers responsible for small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs), Promoting entrepreneurship and innovative SMEs in a global
economy: towards a more responsible and inclusive globalisation, Istanbul, Turcia, 2-
5 iunie 2004
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13. OECD/UNIDO, Effective Policies for Small Business, A Guide for the Policy Review
Process and Strategic Plans for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development,
Paris, 2004
14. OECD, SME and Entrepreneurship Outlook, Paris, 2005
15. OECD (2011), Small businesses, job creation and growth: facts, obstacles and best
practices, The Council of Europe Development Bank (CEB)
16. Prater, E.G., Soumen (2005): Current Operational Practices of U.S. Small and
Medium-Sized Enterprises in Europe, Journal of Small Business Management 43, no.
2 (2005): 155-169
17. Recklies D., Article Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and Globalization, 2001
18. Schumpeter, J.A. (1934), The Theory of Economic Development, Harvard UP.
19. See Mead, D.C., Liedholm, C., The Dynamics of Micro and Small Enterprises in
Developing Countries, World Development, Vol.26 (1998), pp.61-74.
20. UNCTAD (2001), World Investment Report 2001. Promoting Linkages, New York
and Geneva,
21. United Nations Industrial Development Organization - UNIDO, (2005), Private Sector
Development: The support programmes of the small and medium enterprises branch,
Working Paper No. 15, p. 8
22. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), 2005, Methodology
Development of SME Supplier Networks, Abridged version, Vienna, p.1-3
23. WIPO, 2006, Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) Division, Creative
Expression, an Introduction to Copyright for Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
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NATIONAL EMPIRICAL STUDY ON ETHICS IN ACCOUNTING, AUDITING
AND FISCAL CONSULTING
Lucia Podoabă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca,
Delia Beatrice Oprean, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Bogdan Vodă” University of Cluj-
Napoca
Abstract: The role of accountants is significant in the currently business environment,
because management decision makers from each company bases its actions on information
provided by accounting. The necessity and the opportunity of decisions designed to ensure the
positive evolution of business depends on the reliability of accounting information. That is
why today, dimensioning of ethics for the accounting profession is a motivation for discipline
committees of the national professional bodies, in their efforts to increase confidence in the
reality of information in the financial statements published by companies. Ethics rules
included in code, does not always offer viable solutions to practical cases, and their existence
does not guarantee an ethical behavior of accounting professionals. There are a number of
factors that influence ethical behavior of professional accountants, given that the customs and
traditions are different from country to country, from a financial situation to another. In this
paper, our goal is to analyze the evolution of the measures taken by the disciplinary
committee of the BELAR/CECCAR Romania (The Body of Expert and Licensed Accountants
of Romania), during the period 2010-2013, in the context of specific effective application of
the existing ethical rules. The accounting profession has relations of mutual interdependence
with the auditor, as well as with the fiscal consultant. That is why, we analyze and evolution
of CFAR/CAFR (Chamber of Financial Auditors of Romania) members and CFCR/CCFR
(Chamber of Fiscal Consultants of Romania) sanctioned by the national professional bodies,
in the conditions of the existence of specific codes of ethics. The similarities and differences
between specific ethics rules for accountants, auditors and tax consultants will be analyzed
(during 2010-2013) through the principles underlying the quotation of the best and most
ethical companies in the world, made by The Ethisphere® Institute (the global leader in
defining and advancing the standards of ethical business practices). Hypotheses that are
tested in our study case concerns the ethical aspects from Romania compared to the
established worldwide, to provide national professional bodies, competent in the field,
reliable solutions designed to provide confidence in the information provided by the
accounting, auditing and fiscal consulting, in the conditions of financial crisis that we all go
through.
Keywords: Accounting, auditing, fiscal consulting, ethics codes, information-decisions.
1. Introduction
1.1. Brief introduction
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Economic and financial decisions taken by market participants rely on information
provided by accounting, which is why, the cooperation between managers and accountants
must be tight, but the trust is given to these latter individuals depends on their
professionalism. However, there are situations where accountants‘ behavior does not meet the
ethical dimensions of their responsibilities. In this case, the disciplinary committees of
professional bodies (BRLAR/CECCAR for expert accountants, CFAR/CAFR for auditors and
CFCR/CCFR for fiscal consultants) which includes them, are invited to apply legal
disciplinary sanctions (moral, material and criminal) set on by the specific ethical codes. In
some companies, the professional side is as important as the legal one, sometimes even taking
the legal form. For example, an accounting company will need to conform to the same extent
both to the Tax Code and to the regulations available to experts accountants (National Code
of Ethics for Professional Accountants, issued by the Body of Expert and Licensed
Accountants of Romania). Also, by Decision no. 53/2013 of the Chamber of Financial
Auditors of Romania (CAFR) was adopted the Handbook "Ethics code for Professional
Accountants‖ 2013 edition prepared by the International Ethics Standards Board for
Accountants (IESBA) of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). By judgment of
Romania Chamber of Fiscal Consultants has been published since 2007 a Code of Ethics and
Professional Conduct in tax advice domain.
Regarding ethical issues, World‘s Most Ethical Companies (WME) are recognized as
companies that truly go beyond making statements about doing business ―ethically‖ and
translate these words into action. WME honorees not only promote ethical business standards
and practices internally, they exceed legal compliance minimums and shape future industry
standards by introducing best practices today. The WME recognition provides companies
with an opportunity to be recognized for their global ethics and compliance programs. These
are the companies who use ethical leadership as a profit driver. At the heart of the evaluation
and selection process for Ethisphere‘s World‘s Most Ethical Companies is Ethisphere‘s
proprietary rating system, the corporate Ethics Quotient (EQTM). The framework of EQ is
comprised of a series of multiple choice questions that capture a company‘s performance in
an objective, consistent and standardized way. The information collected is not intended to
cover all aspects of corporate governance, risk, sustainability, compliance or ethics, but rather
it is a comprehensive sampling of definitive criteria of core competencies. The EQ framework
and methodology was determined, vetted and refined by the expert advice and insights
gleaned from Ethisphere‘s network of thought leaders. The EQ framework consists of five
core categories. The categories and associated weighting for each is defined as follows:
Ethics and Compliance Program (25%)
Reputation, Leadership and Innovation (20%)
Governance (10%)
Corporate Citizenship and Responsibility (25%)
Culture of Ethics (20%)
Unfortunately, in the category of most ethical companies in the world do not enter any
company, of which, main activity is the expertise of accounting, auditing and fiscal
consulting. This is why we want to study regarding ethic issue, its factor of influence and its
consequences. So, taking in consideration the subject of our work, from the beginning we
must emphasize that, in Romanian and foreign literature, we have not found any concern of
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Romanian and / or foreign specialist to this topic. Instead, we found the opinions of experts in
similar topics.
1.2. Literature review
Rahman A.R.A. (2003) emphasized through this study the importance of ethics in
accounting education and evaluates the development of literature in this area. Furthermore,
this research argues for the direction of accounting education to focus on religious ethical
development and values in developing accounting ethics. On the other hand, Fisher G.D.,
Blanthorne C. and Kovar S.E. (2005) have presented in their research the results of
accounting educators‘ opinions about incorporating ethics into the curriculum. From their
results, a profile evolves. Accounting educators believe that ethics coverage should be part of
the accounting curriculum, is encouraged and valued at their institutions, but remains
inadequate. In addition, Koumbiadis N. and Okpara J.O. (2008) have suggested, through their
research that, the business school programs especially accounting, should continue to
emphasize ethical and moral issues into their respective programs. Also, the authors believe
that the accounting professors should devote more time raising the awareness of ethics and
ethical issues in the classrooms.
Based on the P.D. Leake Lecture given at Chartered Accountants‘ Hall in May 2007,
Cowton C.J. (2008) in his paper, revealed that, beyond recent financial reporting ‗scandals‘,
ethics represents an important issue for accountants and the professional bodies that represent
them. The author examined the notion of a profession and argues for a position that
recognizes both the potential benefits of professionalization and the self-serving tendencies to
which professions can be prone. In developing the argument for such position, two major
areas from the business ethics/social responsibility literature, oriented towards business
enterprises but also of relevance to professional bodies, are reviewed: whether being ethical
‗pays‘ in financial terms; and whether formal codes are useful in promoting ethical behavior.
Ethical code includes a group of standards of desirable conduct of functionaries, which to a
great extent contributes to better understanding of the principles of political neutrality,
impartiality, reliability or honesty, by officials and their superiors. Breach of ethical principles
involves not only responsibility inside the organization, but also penal responsibility. Taking
this into consideration, an investigation conducted by OLAF may reveal personal
participation in fraud or offence where penal sanctions shall be imposed by courts of the home
country of the official. This is the reason why, Borowska P.A., Suwaj R. and Staszic S.
(2008), in their study, have focused on responsibility of the official of the European Union, at
first it should begin with indicating the specific character of that function, which was created
in the 1960s, along with first steps taken towards the integrity of Europe. The EU officials
ought to act not only according to the rules established by law, but they should also act in
compliance with the rules of ethics and professional conduct of the specialists they interact.
Recent releases from the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) highlight the
importance of ethics education. Academic institutions employ varying methods and place
varying levels of emphasis on ethics teaching during a business/accounting degree. O'Leary
C. (2009) examined, in his paper, whether or not ethical instruction, employing a range of
techniques, is effective within an accountancy course. The results of this study would tend to
suggest, ethical instruction can indeed impact positively on accountancy students‘ ethical
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attitudes. That is why, a combination of teaching techniques yielded significantly positive
results in the main. The Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm (IPP) is a 450-year old approach to
education. It includes five components that are consistent with many modern pedagogical
approaches: context, experience, reflection, action and evaluation. By using the IPP, Hise J.V.
and Massey D.W. (2010) have developed a course that not only teaches the basics of ethics in
accounting, but also reflects care for each individual student (what is commonly referred to as
―cura personalis‖), focuses on developing the whole student, and not just the intellect,
develops and supports community in the classroom, includes a focus on values, stresses
excellence, and stimulates a desire for life-long learning. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act attempted
to tackle corporate cultures that fostered unethical behavior by legislation that public
companies must disclose whether they have adopted a code of ethics (and if not, why not) for
senior financial officers. Stock exchanges around the world followed suit and now require
companies to disclose codes of ethics for all directors and employees of the firm. Codification
of ethical behavior through legislation may not be sufficient to deter ethical transgressions and
firms are under increasing pressure to implement formal and informal mechanisms to embed
ethical behavior into the ―fiber‖ of the firm. This is the reason why, Abernethy M.A.,
Bouwens J. and Van Lent L. (2012) have examined directly the impact of ethical work
climates on accounting manipulation. The authors have defined accounting manipulation as
including those purposive actions taken to change the reported accounting numbers. Then,
they included manipulation of ―real‖ economic activities (e.g., accelerating sales, reduction of
discretionary expenditure, buying rather than leasing an asset) and classification shifting (e.g.,
shifting funds between accounts). By relying on the membership of the professional
association of financial controllers, the authors were able to base their analyses on a
comparatively large dataset of over 550 observations. Thus, they offered only a first
exploration of the relation between ethical values, choice of performance measure in contract
design, and opportunistic managerial actions such as accounting manipulations. Nevertheless,
their results firmly document that ethical values play indeed the important role in practice that
recent theory has suggested it would. Accounting scandals which we frequently come across
in this century are evidences for human beings‘ violation of the rules established with the
purpose of living in prosperous conditions for the benefit of some individuals or groups.
These violations known as cheat are seen as crime both before the law and in society
conscience. On this line, Güney S. and Bozkurt R. (2012) have reviewed in their research
through questionnaire, views of members of accounting profession about the occupation. The
authors concluded that members of profession have difficulty in collecting payments from
their taxpayers and they experience some problems caused by sanctions of strict laws. These
issues affect the ethical behavior of accountants. Jamshidinavid B. and Kamari F. (2012) have
recognized in their study some of important and influential factors on ethical motivation of
management accountants and explain the relations between these factors and also relationship
between these factors with the motivation in rest‘ model. Akadakpo Bukola A. and Enofe
A.O. (2013) have realized an empirical investigation of the impact of ethical values on the
practice of accounting profession in Nigeria. In order to achieve the purpose of this study,
research questions were raised, hypotheses were formulated, and a review of related literature
was made. The major instrument used by the authors for generating the primary data was the
questionnaire, which was designed in five-response option of Likert-scale. Two hundred and
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fifty (250) questionnaires were administered, from which two hundred and nineteen (219)
questionnaires were completed and returned. The data generated for this study were analyzed
through mean scores while the stated hypotheses were statistically tested with z-test. Their
findings revealed that there are other major influence which accountants believe have impact
on their professional conducts like policies and rules of companies where accountants work,
religion were found not to have major influence in the professional conduct of accountants.
Uyar A.and Güngörmüş A.H. (2013) have investigated the accounting professionals
‗perceptions of importance of education phases and environmental conditions in development
of ethics awareness, approaches in accounting ethics education in university and professional
pre-qualification, and coverage of accounting ethics education. Chelariu A., Horomnea E. and
Tanasă F.E. (2014) grouped the authors from the specialty literature which approach
education regarding ethics in the accounting profession in currents of thought, intrinsic and
extrinsic in order to offer a view on current theories regarding ethics education in the
accounting profession and the ways to improve it.
2. Hypotheses and data resources
Taking into account the important role of professional bodies in maintaining the
ethical behavior of these specialists in accounting (expert accountants, auditors and fiscal
consultants), we have proposed in our paper the following hypotheses:
H1: Are there any common and different principles between ethical codes of
specialists (expert accountants, auditors and fiscal consultants?
H2: There is a direct relationship between evolution disciplinary sanctions applied to
specialists by disciplinary committees of professional bodies and ethical behavior of these
businesses?
3. Common and different principles / specific between ethical codes of specialists
In order to establish the checking or cancellation of the first hypothesis stated above,
we must analyze
the principles of ethical codes for the specialists. In the beginning, we try to establish
some common principles of these codes for the specialists. After that, we try to define specific
principles. In the table (Table 1) we will present the common principles pf codes.
Table 1: Common principles of ethical codes for specialists (expert accountants,
auditors and fiscal consultants)
(Source: http://ceccar.ro/ro/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/Codul_etic_2011.pdf
http://www.cafr.ro/sectiune.php?id=990
http://www.avocatnet.ro/content/articles/id_9964/Codul-privind-conduita-etica-si-
profesionala-in-domeniul-consultantei-fiscale.html
author's own projection)
Common Common Common Common
principle of principle of principle of principle of
ethical codes of ethical codes of ethical codes of ethical codes of
expert expert expert auditors – fiscal
accountants – accountants – accountants – consultants
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
auditors – fiscal auditors fiscal consultants
consultants
Integrity Integrity Integrity Integrity
Objectivity Objectivity Objectivity Objectivity
Competence Competence Competence Competence
Confidentiality
Reputation Reputation Reputation Reputation
/Prestige /Prestige /Prestige /Prestige
Taking into consideration the information from the table mentioned above, we
observed that exist some common principles regarding all these three activities. There are also
some common principles available only for two types of activity (such as: accounting –
auditing, accounting fiscal consulting, auditing – fiscal consulting), but this should not change
the responsibility of these specialists. Besides common principles, we observe that the ethic
codes for these specialists have specific principles, different from one type of activity to
another. In the table below (Table 2) we present these specific principles of ethical codes for
this type of specialists.
Table 2: Specific principles of ethical codes for specialists (expert accountants,
auditors and fiscal consulting)
Specific principles of Specific principles of Specific principles in
ethical code of expert ethical codes of auditors ethical codes of fiscal
accountants consultants
Prudence Due attention Independence
Neutrality
Taking into consideration the information mentioned above, we conclude that our
first hypothesis is verify, so: "H1: There any common and different principles between
ethical codes of specialists (expert accountants, auditors and fiscal consultants". Even so, we
believe that practical application of ethical codes is more important than the existence of the
principles.
4. Evolution of disciplinary sanctions applied to specialists by disciplinary
committees and related consequences
In economic, financial and practical life, the existence of ethical codes and disciplinary
committees of professional bodies is not a guarantee of professional and ethical conduct of
specialists from this field.
Factors that generate the changing of ethical behavior for these specialists are various
(economic, political, social, internal, external, etc ...). But regardless of the manifestation of
these factors, we consider the applicability of the ethical codes by disciplinary committees is
absolutely necessary. That is why we tried to analyze the evolution of disciplinary sanctions
applied for non-ethical behavior of accountants, auditors and fiscal consultants, during 2010 -
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2013. Unfortunately, the official websites of professional bodies, the information regarding
this issue are few.
In Romania, at every BELAR/CECCAR subsidiary a list of sanctioned members is
published yearly. In the following table (Table 3) we gathered the available data from the last
3 years from the BELAR/CECCAR subsidiaries in each county. Every sanctioned member
receives a reprimand (noted R in the table), written warning (W), suspension of the right to
practice the profession of chartered accountant or certified accountant in a period of three
months to one year (S); or prohibition of the right to practice the profession of chartered
accountant or certified accountant (P).
Table 3 - Number of sanctioned members for each BELAR/CECCAR subsidiary
in the period 2011-2013
(Source: http://ceccar.ro/ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/lista-membri-sanctionati-
2011.pdf,
http://ceccar.ro/ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Lista-membrilor-
sanctionati-2012.pdf
http://ceccar.ro/ro/wpcontent/uploads/2014/04/LISTA_MEMBRILOR_SANC%C5%
A2IONA%C5%A2I_2013.pdf
own processing of the author)
Tota 2012 Tota 2013 Tota
CECCAR
2011 l l l
subsidiary
R W S P R W S P R W S P
Alba 1 1
Arad 2 2 4 1 1 2 2
Arges 1 1 2 1 24 25
Bacau 4 1 5 2 2 2 2
1 6 5 12 4 1 1 24
Bihor 9
Bistrita 1 1
2 8 10 1 14
Braila 4 3 5 12 4
Brasov 2 2 4 5 1 6 2 4 1 7
Buzau 2 10 12 1 1
Caras- 1 1
Severin
Cluj 11 6 17 1 1 1 1
Constanta 6 6 7 1 8 2 1 7 10
2 26
Dambovita 3 2 6 11 6
2 2 4 1 18 1 41
Dolj 2 1 6 9 2 1
Galati 2 2 2 2 4 8 1 2 3
Giurgiu 3 3 1 1
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Gorj 2 1 3 1 1
Harghita 4 4
1 19
Hunedoara 1 1 13 15 9
Ialomita 1 1
1 2 1 29
Iasi 3 3 2 8 7
Maramure 4 6 5 15
s
1 1 1 11
Mehedinti 2 1 3 1
4 4 7 1 18
Mures 1
Neamt 1 1 2 1 1
Olt 1 1
3 3 4 3 3 82
Prahova 6 10 26 42 0 9
Salaj 1 1
Satu-Mare 1 1
Sibiu 1 1 1 2 3
Suceava 3 3 1 18 19 1 1
Teleorman 7 7 1 1
Timis 27 1 28 2 1 2 5 1 1 2
Tulcea 18 7 25 6 12 9 27 3 3
Vaslui 15 12 27
62 62 1 4 42
Valcea 11 25 36 1
Vrancea 1 1 5 1 3 9 3 7 10
Bucuresti 9 13 9 31 3 6 3 12 6 5 2 13
Analysing the data from 2011, it can be observed that the counties recording the
highest number of sanctions were Prahova (with 6 reprimands, 10 written warnings and 26
suspensions of the right to practice the profession) and Valcea (with 11 warnings and 25
suspensions). In the capital a large number of sanctions were recorded, however, since the
number of active members of BELAR/CECCAR is larger, this figure is not as relevant as in
the case of the first two mentioned subsidiaries. Also county Timis has a large number of
sanctions, but these are less serious (mostly reprimands) in comparison with the other two that
have a large number of suspensions. Counties Vaslui (27 sanctions), Tulcea (25 sanctions)
and Buzau (22 sanctions) follow on the list. Most of the subsidiaries recorded a small number
of infringements of the principles or laws and counties Dambovita, Braila, Hunedoara and
Cluj are situated in the middle. It is to be observed that some of the counties did not report
any members on this list. In the case of Buzau subsidiary, although it has a small number of
sanctions (12), we can see that 10 from these are prohibitions of practicing the profession, this
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being the only county reporting such cases in 2011. As compared with 2011, in 2012 a
smaller total number of sanctions were recorded, however, the number of sanctions in Valcea
subsidiary is more than double than the following on the list (Tulcea). Also, all out of the 62
infringements are classified as suspensions up to one year. A high number of suspensions
were recorded in Arges (24) and in Suceava (18). The rest of the counties have a equilibrium
in sanctions given for each class (reprimand, warning, suspension or prohibition) and most of
them reported a small number of sanctions. It is also to be noted that no prohibitions of the
right to practice the profession were recorded and also this year some subsidiaries did not
report any sanctioned members. For the year 2013 the counties recording the largest number
of sanctioned members in 2011, Prahova and Valcea, are confirmed. Also, the number for the
two counties is larger than in 2011, in the case of Prahova being almost double. The number
reported by Dolj (41) is very close to that of Valcea (42). In this year only a prohibition of the
right to practice is recorded, this being in Iasi subsidy. Data collected from the three years in
not constant, an evolution is observed in the numbers. Year 2011 recorded a total number of
sanctions of 319, while in 2012 there were less reported cases (245) and the following year,
2013, recorded another increase to 368. The individual cases of each subsidy are generally
constant, the same county recording data in the same level of sanctions during the presented
years. Outstanding is the case of Prahova subsidy that does not comply to this rule, in 2011
and 2013 being the county with the largest number of sanctioned members, while in 2012 the
figures look very good, it is below the average. County Dolj recorded an evolution from the
first two years having a small number of sanctions to the third year when it was the third most
sanctioned county. The case of Timis is the reverse since in 2011 recorded the highest number
(28) whereas in 2012 and 2013 it was located on the other side of the list (with 5 cases in
2012 respectively 3 cases in 2013). Analysing all the information from the table above, we
can see an equilibrium in the punishments each subsidy adopts, there is no tendency of using
the same punishments at a subsidy level which shows the functionality of the current Ethical
Code allowing little interpretation or misuse.
Direct consequences of the sanctions applied affected the work of accountants in
practice to some extent, meaning that only suspended for a period of time caused side effects.
Together with expert accountants, auditors and tax consultants play an important role
in developing appropriate economic life in general, positive course of business in specific
companies in particular. Regarding tax consultants, professional body - Chamber of Fiscal
Consultants - that protects their interests, can apply upon them disciplinary sanctions
established by the existing legislation, if they do not pay professional taxes or conduct
activities contrary to the rules of the professional organizations of public utility. The table
below (table 4) presents the evolution (the period 05.11.2013 - 21.02.2014) sanctions imposed
by the Chamber of Fiscal Consultants of its members who have not paid the legal
contributions.
Table 4 - Number of sanctioned members for each CFCR/CCFR subsidiary
between 05.11.2013 – 21.02.2014
(Source: http://www.ccfiscali.ro/lista-membrilor-exclusii , own processing of the
author)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Withdrawal as a Withdrawal as a Withdrawal as a
CCF member since member since member since
subsidiary 05.11.2013 24.01.2014 21.02.2014
(Number of person) (Number of person) (Number of person)
Alba 1
Arad 1
Arges 2 3 3
Bacau 1 3
Bihor 1
Bistrita 1 1 1
Braila 1
Brasov 1 1 9
Buzau 3 2 7
Calarasi 1 2
Caras-Severin 2
Cluj 2 8
Constanta 7 3 18
Covasna 1
Dambovita 1 7
Dolj 1 3
Galati 1 1 3
Giurgiu 1
Gorj
Harghita
Hunedoara 1
Ialomita 2 1
Iasi 4 3 11
Ilfov 2 2 8
Maramures 1
Mehedinti 1 1
Mures 9
Neamt 1 1
Olt 1 1
Prahova 8 3 11
Salaj
Satu-Mare
Sibiu 1 1 2
Suceava 3 10
Teleorman 1
Timis 1 1 4
Tulcea 2
Vaslui 1 1
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Valcea 1 1
Vrancea
Bucuresti 51 81 213
Analyzing data from the above table (Table 4), we conclude the following:
- the information regarding the sanctions imposed are very few, which did not allow us
a conclusive analysis for a longer period of time;
- there are CCFR subsidiary ( such as: Gorj, Harghita, Salaj, Satu-Mare and Vrancea)
which have not published the applied sanctions, which lead us to believe that they have the
correct fiscal consultants who comply with the dispositions of Code of Ethics;
- lack of a milder sanctions (such as reprimand, provided in the Code of Ethics)
generates the idea that withdrawal apply to members who have not paid their contributions to
the professional body is only a material penalty;
- non-existence of other grounds for discipline provided by the Code of Ethics
generate real suspicions.
Official Site of the CAFR shows very little information on the sanctions applied.
These are shown in the table below (Table 5)
Table 3 - Number of sanctioned members for each CFAR/CAFR Romania
between 25.04.2013 – 15.10.2013
(Source: http://www.cafr.ro/sectiune.php?id=130 own processing of the author)
Written Sanction for Sanction for
warning for some some member since some member since
CAFR members since 25.04.2013 15.10.2013
subsidiary 25.04.2013 (Number of (Number of
(Number of person) person)
person)
Active 62 49 44
members
Non-active 36 37 30
members
Total 98 86 74
members
Analyzing data from the above table (table no ...), we conclude the following:
- information regarding the sanctions imposed are very few, which we did not allow a
conclusive analysis on a longer period of time;
- information are not given on the subsidiary, but only on active and non-active
members;
- withdrawal applicable to members who have not paid contributions to the
professional body is only a material penalty;
- no other grounds for discipline provided by the Code of Ethics generate real
suspicions.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Taking in consideration the information mentioned above, we conclude that there is an
evolution of sanctions applied to specialists by disciplinary committees, but the related
consequences are not serious or not published, which allows to some ―specialists‖ to have
non-ethical behavior, given that by "mild‖ reactions of disciplinary committees. So, we
conclude that our second hypothesis is not verify, meaning that: "H2: There is not a direct
relationship between evolution disciplinary sanctions applied to specialists by disciplinary
committees of professional bodies and ethical behavior of these businesses".
5. Conclusions, limits and perspectives
The ethical aspect for the specialists from this field is a real delicate problem. The high
number of specialist‘s members in professional bodies does not mean the quality of the
profession. Regarding our hypothesis, we mention that only first is verify and the second is
not. However, our research has been subject to certain limits, namely:
- lack of information on the official site of professional bodies regarding the ethical
problems;
- lack of detailed information (on the official site of professional bodies) about
motivations and consequences of sanctions applied by the disciplinary committees.
These limits will become future prospects of our research with the direct purpose of
improving the relationship between academia and business, and to contribute to the efforts of
professional bodies.
6. References
1.Abernethy M.A., Bouwens J. and Van Lent L. (2012), Ethics, Performance,
Measure Choice and Accounting Manipulation, article downloaded from the site
http://feweb.uvt.nl/pdf/2012/ethics.pdf
2. Akadakpo Bukola A. and Enofe A.O. (2013), Impact of accounting ethics on the
practice of accounting profession in Nigeria, IOSR Journal of Business and Management vol.
12, issue 1, pp. 45-51, article downloaded from the site http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-
jbm/papers/Vol12-issue1/ G01214551.pdf?id =1413
3. Borowska P.A., Suwaj R. and Staszic S. (2008), Ethical responsibility of officials of
the European Union of sanctions imposed for unethical conduct, article downloaded from the
site
http://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/dp08/files/pdf/sprava/borowska.pdf
4. Chelariu A., Horomnea E. and Tanasă F.E. (2014), Education regarding ethics in
the accounting profession – a literature review, article downloaded from the site
http://www.proceedings.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/eirp/article/view/1523/1441
5. Cowton C.J. (2008), Accounting and the ethics challenge: Re-membering the
professional body, article downloaded from the site
http://eprints.hud.ac.uk/711/1/CowtonFEGReG_WP_08-01.pdf
6. Fisher G.D., Blanthorne C. and Kovar S.E. (2005), Accounting educators ‗opinions
about ethics in the curriculum: a profile, article downloaded from the site
http://aaahq.org/abo/papers/fisherblanthornekovar2005.pdf
7. Güney S. and Bozkurt R. (2012), The Problems and Ethical Attitudes of Accounting
Professionals Toward Accounting Errors and Frauds: A Model Practice in City of Erzurum,
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International Journal of Business and Social Science vol. 3, no 20 (special issue), pp. 255-
268, article downloaded from the site
http://ijbssnet.com/journals/Vol_3_No_20_Special_Issue_October_2012/29.pdf
8. Hise J.V. and Massey D.W. (2010), Applying the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm to
the Creation of an Accounting Ethics Course, Journal of Business Ethics vol. 96, pp. 453-465,
article downloaded from the site http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10551-010-0477-
2#page-2
9. Koumbiadis N. and Okpara J.O. (2008), Ethics and Accounting Profession: An
exploratory study of accounting students in postsecondary institutions, International Review
of Business Research Papers vol. 4, no 5, pp. 147-156, article downloaded from the site
http://www.bizresearchpapers.com/15%5B1%5D.Nicholas.pdf
10. Jamshidinavid B. and Kamari F. (2012), Ethics in Management Accounting:
Moving toward Ethical Motivation, Research Journal of Finance and Accounting vol. 3, no 6,
pp. 90-96, article downloaded from the site
http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/RJFA/article/view/2404/2403
11. O‘Leary C. (2009), An Empirical Analysis of the Positive Impact of Ethics
Teaching on Accountancy Students, Accounting Education vol. 18, issue 4-5, pp. 505-520,
article downloaded from the site
http://econpapers.repec.org/article/tafaccted/v_3a18_3ay_3a2009_3ai_3a4-
5_3ap_3a505-520.htm
12. Rahman A.R.A. (2003), Ethics in accounting education: contribution of the
Islamic principle of MAêLAîAH, IIUM Journal of Economics and Management 11, no. 1, pp.
1-18, article downloaded from the site
http://journals.iium.edu.my/enmjournal/index.php/enmj/article/viewFile/85/68
13. Uyar A.and Güngörmüş A.H. (2013), Accounting professionals' perceptions of
ethic education: evidence from Turkey, Accounting and Management Information Systems
vol. 12, no 1, pp. 61-75, article downloaded from the site
ftp://ftp.repec.org/opt/ReDIF/RePEc/ami/articles/12_1_4.pdf
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MANAGEMENT OF TRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE: THE NEXT
REVOLUTION IN CLINICAL LABORATORY?
Manole Cojocaru, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Titu Maiorescu” University of Bucharest,
Elena Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Titu Maiorescu” University of Bucharest
Abstract: Translational medicine is a biomedical discipline. Translational medicine
integrates diverse medical and non-medical disciplines to improve health. Translational
research is a major component of translational medicine, is generally interdisciplinary and
often involves a collaboration of researches and physicians from different specialties.
Translational research transforms scientific discoveries found in the laboratory into ways to
prevent diagnosis or treat disease.
Keywords : translational medicine, translational research, clinical laboratory.
Basic biomedical research
Access to the best, up-to-date knowledge and information is being increasingly
recognised as crucial to bridging the gap between what is known and what is actually being
done in health. To improve health, findings from these basic research studies must be
translated into practical applications. For many years, extensive resources have been devoted
to basic biomedical (bench) and clinical (human subject) research; however, significant
barriers continue to exist in moving knowledge bi-directionally between basic research,
clinical research, and applications to improve health outcomes in individuals and the
community. Basic biomedical research is booming its impact, in terms of new therapies and
diagnostics, is growing far more modestly Translational medical research concentrates on the
interface between experimental basic science and clinical medicine (1).
Translational and clinical science
Translational and clinical research is core components of a full-spectrum biomedical
research enterprise. Translational science is the field of investigation focused on
understanding the scientific and operational principles underlying each step of the
translational process. It is used to translate research findings more quickly into medical
practice for the purposes of diagnosing, preventing and treating medical conditions.
Translational science is a way of conducting scientific research to make the results of research
applicable to the population being studied. There has been little investment in methodological
research to improve the tools used by clinical and translational scientists. Clinical and
translational researchers require more dedicated and structured learning time and a clear path
for both promotion and tenure, combined with opportunities for true scientific inquiry in an
intellectual environment conducive to such (1).
Clinical and translational research
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Translational research is seen as a solution to this disparity, ensuring that the bounty of
discoveries is effectively translated into benefits in the everyday world of medicine.
The term translational research has emerged recently as a potentially integrative
description for the various terms that have been used over several decades to capture the need
for greater attention to transforming research and other information into action. The term
appears to be bringing together most, if not all, of the other terms, including research
utilization, knowledge utilization, research transfer, knowledge transfer, implementation
science, and knowledge translation (2).
There is not yet an agreed definition of translational research. Translational research is
the translation of scientific discoveries into practical applications (3).
The term translational research describes efforts directed toward converting basic and
clinical research discoveries into new clinical and research tools, medications, and therapies.
Translational research is a set of processes aiming to bridge the gap between laboratory
discoveries and clinical medicine by harnessing and integrating advances in basic and medical
sciences, and converting them into novel approaches for disease prevention, diagnosis and
treatment, and also to provide feedback from clinical observations to experimental basic
biology research (4).
Translational research transforms scientific discoveries found in the laboratory into
ways to prevent, diagnosis or treat disease. Translational research reflects the desire to test
novel ideas generated by basic investigation with the aim of turning them into useful clinical
applications. Translational research also responds to the need to identify novel scientific
hypotheses relevant to human disease. Translational medicine seeks to coordinate the use of
new knowledge in clinical practice and to incorporate clinical observations and questions into
scientific hypotheses in the laboratory (5, 6).
Translational research includes two areas of translation. One is the process of applying
discoveries generated during research in the laboratory, and in preclinical studies, to the
development of trials and studies in humans. The second area of translation concerns research
aimed at enhancing the adoption of best practices in the community. The first area of
translation, from laboratory findings to clinical practice (and visa versa - from clinical
observations back to the laboratory for further testing) is often called ―bench to bedside and
back‖ or T1 translation. The second area of translation, to the community and back, is called
T2 translation. T2 translation has long been the purview of public health scientists, who study
and facilitate the application of research findings to the community. (7).
The main goal of translational research is to identify scientific, financial, ethical,
regulatory, and legislative and provide creative solutions to facilitate this process. A further
goal is to accelerate the rational transfer of new insights and knowledge onto clinical practice
for improving patient‘s outcomes and public health. Increased complexity in biomedical
research has distanced the laboratory from clinical scientists, and thus there is a need for
clinical scientists who can serve as facilitators of the translational process (8).
Translational research helps turn early-stage innovations into new health products,
advancing the innovation to the point where it becomes attractive for further development by
the medical industry or healthcare agencies. Translation research helps to overcome such
obstacles, bridging the gap between basic research and a deliverable product (9).
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Clinical and translational research using multidimensional data from both molecular
biology and medicine thus accelerates and shortens the process to translate preclinical
knowledge into clinical applications. Translational research also describes the process of
moving knowledge obtained from clinical research into a wider community or practice setting
(10).
Translational medicine
Translational medicine (also referred to as translational science) is a relatively young
area of biomedicine. Translational medicine is the broad term for a relatively new, paradigm-
shifting approach to research and practice. The term translational medicine was introduced in
the 1990s but only gained wide usage in the early 2000s. Translational medicine, also called
translational medical science, preclinical research, evidence-based research, or disease-
targeted research, area of research that aims to improve human health and longevity by
determining the relevance to human disease of novel discoveries in the biological sciences.
Translational medicine is a rapidly growing discipline in biomedical research.
Translational research, a major component of translational medicine, fundamentally
differs from traditional, highly specialized medical research. Its pan-disciplinary ―bench to
bedside‖ approach may include medicine, pharmacology, finance, ethics, regulatory,
legislative and other investigative areas and issues, from research concepts to decisions at
every subsequent stage. Patients, physicians, and other practitioners tend to use the term to
refer to the need to accelerate the incorporation of benefits of research into clinical medicine
and to close the gap between ―what we know‖ and ―what we practice‖ (3).
Translational medicine is focused on ensuring that proven strategies for disease
treatment and prevention are actually implemented within the community (11, 12).
Translational medicine involves the transformation of laboratory findings into new
ways to diagnose and treat patients. Translational medicine, the process in which basic
research moves from discoveries in the laboratory to actual clinical applications, is an
important new field in science that requires collaboration across multiple disciplines.
Translational medicine, has the great potential to develop and deliver new information that
may assist prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of disease (13,14).
Clinical and translational medicine
Clinical and translational medicine plays a unique and critical role in fostering the
flow of bidirectional information between basic and clinical scientists, optimizing new
biotechnologies, improving clinical application of new therapeutic concepts, and ultimately
improving the quality of life for patients. Clinical and translational medicine integrates
clinical research with modern methodologies in systems and computational biology,
genomics, proteomics, metabolomics, pharmacomics, transcriptomics, and high-throughput
image analysis. Clinical and translational medicine is a limiting factor and accelerator in the
process of moving from preclinical discovery and development to clinical application,
validating the application of new technologies in patients, and developing new strategies to
improve the quality of life for patients (3).
Clinical and translational medicine plays a unique and critical role in fostering the
flow of bidirectional information between basic and clinical scientists, optimizing new
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biotechnologies, improving clinical application of new therapeutic concepts, and ultimately
improving the quality of life for patients. Clinical and translational medicine can be used to
understand the mechanisms of clinical variation between diseases, pathogenesis, biomarkers,
and therapies (4).
Clinical laboratory
A clinical laboratory is a laboratory where tests are done on clinical specimens in
order to get information about the health of a patient as pertaining to the diagnosis, treatment,
and prevention of disease. Translational research is often defined at two levels: 1) Applying
and advancing research-generated discoveries in the laboratory to research trials in human
subjects; and 2) Research that promotes the adoption of best practices in clinical practice
settings and the community and policy development. Clinical laboratory is characterized by
its focus on translating research practice into clinical practice. Translation is the process of
turning observations in the laboratory and clinic into interventions that improve the health of
individuals and the public - from diagnostics and therapeutics to medical procedures and
behavioral changes. For clinical laboratory professionals, translational research responds to
the need to accelerate the capture of benefits from research in daily medical practice.
Laboratory diagnostics has undergone relevant changes providing new opportunities. In the
field of laboratory medicine, the transfer may involve many sequential processes:
development and validation of clinical assays, reliable implementation into clinical practice
through training laboratory professionals, refining interpretation and utilization of the new
information by all medical personnel. There is a lack of effective communication between
clinicians, researchers and manufacturers (15).
A growing body of evidence indicates that pre-analytical variables affect test results.
Specimen handling (collection, pipeting, diluting) strongly contributes to pre-analytical error.
Another sources of variation is biological (both between-subject and within-subject variation),
and the effects of variables (including age, gender, common drug ingestion, dietary habits,
and exercise) on results obtained with laboratory techniques. The analytical evaluation
comprises several measures including trueness, accuracy, repeatability, and reproducibility, as
well as the determination of linearity and limits of detection and quantification (16, 17).
Conclusions
Translational medicine is the emerging field which focuses on using what is learned in
pre-clinical studies to do smarter things in the clinic. Translational medicine helps in the
course of predicting, preventing, diagnosing, and treating diseases. Translational medicine
also uses what can be gleaned in clinical studies to sharpen and improve what is done in pre-
clinical efforts to discover new medicines. Translational medicine represents a paradigm shift
in the biomedical research enterprise. Pre-analytical variables can dramatically affect the
results of any laboratory test.
References
1. Fontanarosa PB, DeAngelis CD. - Basic science and translational research. Journal
of the American Medical Association 2002; 287(13): 1728.
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2. Koike H, Murakami H. - Integrative medicine in health science education. Rinsho
Byori 2006; 54(3): 292-4.
3. Abraham E, Marincola FM, Chen Z, Wang X. - Clinical and translational medicine:
Integrative and practical science. Clin Transl Med. 2012; 1: 1.
4. Zerhouni EA. - Translational and clinical science - time for a new vision. New
England Journal of Medicine 2005; 335(15): 1621-1623
5. Woolf SH. - The meaning of translational research and why it matters. Journal of
the American Medical Association 2008; 299(2): 211-3.
6. Zerhouni EA. - Translational and clinical science. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354(9):
978–9.
7. Plebani M, Marincola FM. – Research translation: a new frontier for clinical
laboratories. Clin Chem Lab Med 2006; 44: 1303-12.
8. Plebani M, Laposata M. – Translational research involving new biomarkers of
disease: a leading role for the pathologist. Am J Clin Pathol 2006; 126: 169-71.
9. Sung NS, Crowley WF, Genel M. - The Meaning of translational research and why
It matters. JAMA 2008; 299 (2): 3140–8.
10. Venkat Narayan KM, Gregg EW, Thompson TJ, Williamson DE, Vinicor F. -
Translation research for chronic disease: the case of diabetes. Diabetes Care 2000; 23(12):
1794-8.
11. Sonntag KC. - Implementations of translational medicine. J Transl Med 2005; 3:
33.
12. Lippi G, Plebani M, Guidi GC. - The Paradox in Translational Medicine. Clinical
Chemistry 2007; 53: 1553.
13. Littman BH, Di Mario I, Plebani M, Marincola FM. – What‘s next in translational
medicine? Clin Sci 2007; 112: 217-27.
14. Marincola FM. – Translational medicine: a two-way road. J Trans Med 2003; 1: 1.
15. Lillo R, Salinas M, Lopez-Garrigos M, Naranjo-Santana Y, Gutiérrez M, Marìn
MD, Miralles M, Uris J. - Reducing preanalytical laboratory sample errors through
educational and technological interventions. Clin Lab 2012; 58(9-10): 911-7.
16. Lippi G, Guidi GC. - Risk management in the preanalytical phase of laboratory
testing. Clin Chem Lab Med 2007; 45(6): 720-7.
17. Simundic AM, Lippi G. - Preanalytical phase-a continuous challenge for
laboratory professionals. Biochem Med (Zagreb) 2012; 22(2): 145-9.
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MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE ALIEN SPECIES IN NATURA 2000 SITES
Monica Marian, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca,
Northern University Centre of Baia Mare
Abstract: Natura 2000 is a network of areas aimed at preserving biodiversity, landscape and
natural heritage in general, in the context of sustainable development of human communities
in their respective territories. An important issue of the management of Natura 2000 is the
penetration and proliferation of alien species with invasive potential. These species penetrate
through the human factor. Facilitation is usually unintentional, but economic activities
creates favorable conditions prosperity of these species, which are competing with domestic
ones. Case studies conducted in Natura 2000 sites, both in the north and the south, reveal
mechanisms of these invasive species and the measures that can be adopted to stop them in
the effective management of protected areas.
Keywords : invasive species, protected areas, management, anthropogenic factor,
distribution.
Introducere
Speciile non –native cu potențial invaziv reprezintă una dintre amenințările cele mai
serioase la adresa biodiversității, în special pentru ariile naturale protejate. Ele constituie un
factor contemporan major, care conduce la schimbări cu implicații pentru conservarea naturii
și pentru serviciile ecosistemelor ca producători primari (Penatidou et al., 2012).
Speciile invazive sunt prezente în cele mai variate tipuri de habitate, afectând pajiștile,
pădurile tufărișurile și buruienișurile (Voșgan et al., 2012), agroecosistemele în care sunt
condiționate și interferează cu factorii agroculturali și genetici ai speciilor cultivate (Borș et
al. 2010), precum și ecositemele acvatice și fauna diverselor ecosisteme (Mare Roșca et al.
2012). Invazivitatea plantelor este, prin definiție un fenomen spațial. Plantele dezvoltă o
expansiune a suprafețelor ocupate în zonele în care au fost introduse (Radosevich et al.,2007).
Dispersia, esențială pentru expansiune este ea însăși un proces spațial și calea de dispersie
afectează succesul invaziei. (Wilson et al., 2008). Capacitatea de a gestiona invazia plantelor
este limitată de resursele disponibile pentru aplicarea tehnologiilor adecvate. În mod curent,
resursele sunt inadecvate pentru a acoperi toate acțiunile ce pot fi dezirabile, deci se impune o
stabilire a priorităților, iar invazia trebuie gestionată strategic (Sindel, 2000; Rew et al., 2007).
Este o practică curentă de a stabili priorități printre specii, recunoscând impactul de la
neglijabil la foarte mare. (Di Tomaso, 2005; Richardson et al., 2005; Maynard and Nowell,
2009). Speciile considerate ca prioritare pentru acțiunile de stopare și eradicare sunt
reflectate legislativ, lista speciilor recunoscute ca problematice este doar o fracțiune a
numărului de specii de plante care au fost naturalizate (e.g. Grice, 2000). Convenția
Diversității Biologice ( United Nations Environment Programme, 1992) consideră ca
eradicarea oferă cea mai bună opțiune de management pentru diminuarea impactului acestor
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specii. Eradicarea speciilor invazive este adesea o soluție extremă și are nevoie de sprijin
științific pentru a argumenta beneficiile unui astfel de control asupra biodiversității. (e.g.
Craik, 1998). In Europa există puține exemple de astfel de acțiuni de radicare în comparație
cu alte zone ale lumii , de ex. Noua Zeelandă (Genovesi, 2005). Principalele motive pentru
numărul scăzut de proiecte și acțiuni de eradicare a speciilor invazive în Europa și în
România, includ: lipsa politicilor adecvate, deficiența de conștientizare publică asupra
pericolelor posibile, (Bertolino and Genovesi, 2003), părerea că acest deziderat este imposibil,
(Bomford and O‘Brien, 1995), lipsa de entuziasm printre conservaționiști pentru o activitate
pe care numoroase persoane o găsesc dezagreabilă (Temple, 1990). Managerii implicați în
conservarea biodiversității înțeleg ca suportul public este necesar activității lor și că absența sa
împiedică reușita proiectelor de distrugere a speciilor invazive. Aceasta, în special atunci,
când obiectul eradicării îl constituie specii non-native invazive ornamentale sau drăguțe
(Bremner, A., Park, K. 2007). Un număr din ce în ce mai mare de cercetători recunosc că
managementul speciilor invazive este mai mult o provocare la nivel de atitudine socială,
cuprinzând factori politici și umani, decât una științifică (e.g. Reaser, 2001).
Metoda de lucru:
Descrierea sitului: Ignis
Situl Natura 2000 Igniș este situat în N-V –ul României. Are o suprafață de 19 602 ha.
A fost desemnat ca arie protejată, inclusă în Rețeaua Natura 2000, datorită prezenței speciilor
și habitatelor de interes conservativ comunitar, precum și a peisajului, și posibilităților de
dezvoltare durabilă. Habitatele aflate pe teritoriul sitului sunt diverse, atât păduri, pajiști, cât și
mlaștini oligotrofe, tufărișuri, buruienișuri și stâncării, precum: 9110 Luzulo-Fagetum, 9130
Asperulo-Fagetum, 3220 Vegetaţie herbacee de pe malurile râurilor montane, 7110* Turbării
active, 6410 Pajişti cu Molinia pe soluri calcaroase, turboase sau argiloase (Molinion
caeruleae), 7140 Mlaştini turboase de tranziţie şi turbării oscilante (nefixate de substrat),
91V0 Făgete carpatine, 8220 Versanţi stâncoşi cu vegetaţie chasmofitică pe roci silicioase,
6230* Pajişti montane de Nardus bogate în specii pe substraturi silicioase, 6520 Pajişti
montane, 91D0 Turbării împădurite -Rărişti sud-est carpatice de molid (Picea abies) şi/sau
pin silvestru (Pinus sylvestris) de tinoave, 91EO * Păduri aluviale cu Alnus glutinosa şi
Fraxinus excelsior. Situl cuprinde zone umede (turbarii active, mlastini) cu o mare valoare
ecologică şi ştiintifică, zone cu stâncării, păşuni şi fâneţe montane, păduri naturale de fag şi
păduri de molid. Situl cuprinde 4 arii naturale protejate:
1.Mlaştina Poiana Brazilor, 2. Tăul lui Dumitru, 3. Cheile Tătarului, 4. Mlaştina Iezeru
Mare.
Speciile de interes conservativ sunt atât de floră, cât și de faună: Rosalia alpina,
Ligularia sibirica, Bufo bufo, Bonasia bonasia, Lullula arborea, Carex echinata, Carex
pauciflora, Carex limosa , Gladiolus imbricatus, Pinus mugo, Vipera berus, Pernis apivorus,
Aquila crysaetos, Bubo bubo, Picus canus, Dryocopus martius, Lullula arborea, Aquila
pomarina, Rana temporaria, Lanius collurio, Martes martes, Empetrum nigrum ssp. nigrum,
Molinia caerulea ssp. caerulea, Anguis fragilis, Ficedula albicolis, Cinclus cinclus, Falco
tinnunculus, Nucifraga caryocatactes, Corvus corax, Erithacus rubecula, Dendrocopos
leucotos, Ficedula parva. Din punct de vedere administrativ, situl este situat pe teritoriul a 8
localitati, dintre care doua orase si sase comune: Baia Mare (sub 1%), Câmpulung la Tisa
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(3%), Deseşti (25%), Giuleşti (32%), Ocna Şugatag (33%), Săpânţa (35%), Sarasău (1%),
Sighetu Marmaţiei (39%).
Descrierea sitului Ponoare
Fânețele seculare Ponoare constituie un sit Natura 2000 cu o suprafață de cca 40 de ha
și este situat la coordonatele geografice: N 47034‘23‖; E 26015‘27‖. Desemnarea ca arie
protejată se datorează prezenței speciilor de interes conservativ: Iris aphylla ssp. hungarica,
Pulsatilla patens, Pulsatilla grandis, Fritillaria meleagris, Ligularia sibirica, Crambe tataria,
Echium russicum, Trollius europaeus, Bombina variegata. Habitatele de interes conservativ
sunt de pajiște și de tufărișuri: 40 Tufărișuri ponto-sarmatice, 62 Stepe ponto-sarmatice, 6410
Pajiști cu Molinia caerulea. Situl Natura 2000 se găsește pe teritoriul localității Cumpărătura,
comuna Bosanci.
Descrierea sitului Creasta Nemirei
Este poziţionat la limita vestică a judeţului Bacău, la graniţa cu judeţul Harghita şi cea
nord-estică a judeţului Covasna. Zona a fost selectată pentru includerea în reţeaua Natura
2000 datorită abundenţei şi diversităţii speciilor de vieţuitoare. Endemismele sunt bine
reprezentate în sit, prin 22 specii de plante, 9 specii de nevertebrate şi o specie de reptile. Din
anexele Convenţiei de la Berna în sit sunt întâlnite 9 specii de mamifere, 1 specie de păsări, 3
specii de amfibieni şi 5 specii de reptile. Patrimoniul natural al sitului, menționat în
formularul standard, este constituit din specii enumerate în Anexa II a Directivei Consiliului
92/43/CEE: Canis lupus, Rhinolophus hipposideros, Lynx lynx, Ursus arctos, Triturus
montandoni, Campanula serrata, Cypripedium calceolus, Tozzia carpathica, Iris aphylla ssp.
hungarica, precum și habitatele: Tufărișuri alpine și boreale, Tufărișuri cu Pinus mugo și
Rhododendron myrtifolium, Pajiști montane de Nardus bogate în specii pe substraturi
silicioase, Comunități de lizieră cu ierburi înalte higrofile de la nivelul câmpiilor, până la cel
montan și alpin, Fânețe montane, Păduri de fag de tip Luzulo-Fagetum, Păduri acidofile de
Picea abies din regiunea montana Vaccinio-Piceetea, Tufărișuri uscate europene, Vegetație
herbacee de pe malurile râurilor montane, Mlaștini turboase de tranziție și turbării oscilante
(nefixate de substrat), Vegetație lemnoasă cu Myricaria germanica de-a lungul râurilor
montane.
Descrierea Parcului Natural Portile de Fier
Parcul Natural „Porţile de Fier‖ este situat în partea de sud-est a Europei, în partea de
sud-vest a României, de-a lungul Dunării la frontiera de stat cu Republica Serbia.
Suprafaţa totală a parcului este de 128183,30 ha şi se întinde de-a lungul malului stâng
al Dunării, pe aproximativ 141 km, de la vărsarea Nerei în Dunăre în apropiere de localitatea
Baziaş (km 1073) până la barajul Gura Văii (km 941) în apropiere de Drobeta Turnu-Severin,
acoperind o fâşie de dealuri şi munţi nu foarte înalţi, care este de maxim 27 km lăţime, în
intervalul altitudinal de 65-950 de metri.
Principalul fenomen natural al zonei este defileul de pe fluviul Dunărea, cel mai lung
şi cel mai mare defileu din Europa cu numeroase sectoare cu aspect de chei unde Dunărea
curgea cu o viteză medie de 4-5 m pe secundă şi străpunge, pe o distanţă de 132 km o zonă
muntoasă de tranziţie între Carpaţi şi Balcani. Parcul natural are un important patrimoniu
natural constand in specii si habitate de interes conservativ. Datorita suprafeței mari, a
varietatii reliefului si interferentei zonelor climatice, exista o mare diversitate de habitate, atat
forestiere, cat si praticole, de tufarisuri si praticole. Habitatele de interes conservativ sunt
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
urmatoarele: 40A0* Tufărişuri subcontinentale peri-panonice; 3270 Râuri cu maluri
nămoloase cu vegetaţie de Chenopodian rubri şi Bedentian p.p.; 6110* Pajişti rupicole
calcaroase sau bazofile cu Alysso-Sedionalbi; 6170 Pajişti calcaroase alpine şi subalpine; 6190
Pajişti panonice de stâncării (Stipo-festucetaliapalentis); 6210* Pajişti stepice subpanonice;
6250* Pajişti stepice panonice pe leoss; 62A0 Pajişti xerofile din regiunea mediteraneană
estică (Scorzoneratalia villosae); 6120* Pajisti calcaroase pe nisipuri xerice; pajişti xerofile
calcaroase pe nisip; 6430 Asociaţii de lizieră cu ierburi înalte hidrofile de la nivelul câmpiilor
până la nivel montan şi alpin; 6510 Pajişti de altitudine joasă (Alopecurus pratensis,
Sanguisorba officinalis); 7220* Izvoare petrifiante cu formare de travertin (Cratoneurion);
8160* Grohotişuri medioeuropene calcaroase ale etajelor montane; 8120 Grohotişuri
calcaroase şi de şisturi calcaroase din etajul montan până în cel alpin (Thlaspietea
rotundifolii); 8210 Pante stâncoase calcaroase cu vegetaţie chasmofitică; 8220 Pante
stâncoase silicioase cu vegetaţie chasmofitică; 8230 Stânci silicioase cu vegetaţie pionieră de
Sedo-Scleranthion sau Sedo albi-Veronicion dillenii; 8310 Grote neexploatate turistic; 9110
Păduri tip Luzulo-Fagetum; 9130 Păduri tip Asperulo-Fagetum; 9150 Păduri medioeuropene
tip Cephalanthero-Fagion; 9170 Stejăriş cu Galio-Carpinetum; 9180* Păduri de pantă,
grohotiş sau ravene cu Tilio-Acerion; 91AA Păduri estice de stejar alb; 91I0 Vegetaţie de tip
silvostepă eurosiberiană cu Quercus spp.; 91K0 Păduri ilirice de Fagus sylvatica (Aremonio-
Fagion); 91L0 Păduri ilirice de stejar si carpenErythronio-Carpinion; 91M0 Păduri panonice-
balcanice de stejar turcesc; 91V0 Păduri dacice de fag (Symphyto-Fagion); 91Y0 Păduri
dacice de stejar şi carpen; 91E0* Păduri aluviale cu Alnus glutinosa şi Fraxinus excelsior
(Alno-Padion, Alnion nicanae, Salicion albae); 92A0 Galerii cu Salix alba şi Populus alba;
9530* Vegetaţie forestieră submediteraneeană cu endemitul Pinus nigra ssp. banatica;
În fiecare dintre siturile analizate s-a realizat un inventar floristic cu speciile
identificate și totodată un inventar al speciilor invazive.
În fiecare zonă evaluată s-a urmărit prezența speciilor invazive, în raport cu tipul de
habitat și cu zonele antropizate. Au fost prelevate câte 5 relevee în fiecare dintre habitatele de
interes conservativ ale fiecărui sit și câte 10 relevee situate de-a lungul căilor de acces și în
zonele antropizate. Suprafețele de probă au avut dimensiuni de 200 mp. În fiecare dintre
acestea s-a inventariat speciile native, precum și speciile non-native cu potențial invaziv. Pe
baza acestor rezultate, s-au stabilit zonele de maximă vulnerabilitate față de speciile invazive,
precum și măsuri de stopare a extinderii acestora.
Rezultate si discutii
În ariile naturale protejate, tratate în articol, speciile non-native invazive sunt o
realitate concretă reprezentată printr-un număr care devine semnificativ și un pericol palpabil,
în detrimentul speciilor native și a celor rare. Speciile invazive au fost inventariate, iar în cele
ce urmează sunt prezentate cele situate în fruntea listei de priorități pentru măsurile de
management în scopul stopării sau chiar eradicării lor. Prezența speciilor native și non-native
cu potențial invaziv sunt prezentate în tabelul 1.
Tabelul 1 – Prezența speciilor native și non-native în cele patru situri Natura 2000
studiate
Situl Situl Situl Natura 2000 Situl Natura Parcul Natural
Natura Fânețele seculare 2000 Creasta Porțile de Fier
2000 Igniș Ponoare Nemirei
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Suprafața (ha) 19602 40 3509 128183,30
Inventarul floristic al 920 306 898 1875
sitului
Număr de specii de 907 295 887 1860
plante native
Număr de specii 18 8 12 85
vegetale de interes
conservativ
Număr de specii de 13 11 11 15
plante non-native cu
potențial invaziv
Număr de specii de 6 5 4 11
plante invazive
Ponoare
Nemira
PNPF
Ignis
0,00
16000,00
32000,00
48000,00
Distance
64000,00
80000,00
96000,00
112000,00
128000,00
Figura 3 – Analiza de clustere urmând modelul euclidian privind distribuția speciilor
invazive în ariile protejate analizate
Analiza de clustere realizate după ecuația euclidiană pune în evidență două grupuri
mari ale ariilor naturale protejate: ariile protejate situate in estul țării: Ponoare și Creasta
Nemirei și în nordul teritoriului – situl Natura 2000 Igniș, pe de o parte și Parcul Natural
Porțile de Fier, care se distanțează mult de celelelalte trei. Prin urmare, o concluzie este
scăderea numărului de specii invazive de la sud spre nord și de la vest la est. În cazul
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
teritoriului României, căile geografice de migrație ale speciilor invazive sunt dintre sud-vest,
Carpații Orientali fiind o barieră care încetinesc migrația speciilor invazive spre est.
Tabelul 2 – prezența speciilor invazive în habitatele analizate la nivelul celor patru arii
protejate studiate
Situl Ignis Ponoare Nemira PNPF
Habitat Nr. Nr. Nr Nr. Nr Nr. Nr Nr.
specii specii specii spec specii specii specii specii
invazive invaziv ii invazive invazive
e
9110 1 57 - - 1 63 2 65
specia Impatiens Robinia pseudacacia Pinus strobus
parviflora Erigeron annuus
9130 - 48 - - - 48 1 54
specia Robinia pseudacacia
9150 - - - - - - - 35
9170 - - - - - - 3 50
specia Pinus sylvestris
Phytolaca americana
Pseudotsuga
douglasii
9180* - - - - - - - 65
91AA - - - - - - - 49
91K0 - - - - - - 4 55
specia Robinia pseudacacia,
Ailanthus altissima
Pinus nigra
Phytolaca americana
91L0 - - - - - - - 58
91M0 - - - - - - 3 95
specia Pinus sylvestris
Ailanthus altissima
Robinia pseudacacia
91V0 2 63 - - 1 56 1 47
specia Pinus nigra Robinia pseudacacia Pseudotsuga
Robinia douglasii
pseudacacia
91Y0 - - - - - - 1 26
specia Ailanthus altissima
9530* - - - - - - 2 23
specia Robinia pseudacacia
Ailanthus altissima
9410 - - - - - 31 - -
91EO * 3 63 - - 1 38 5 59
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
specia Helianthus Robinia pseudacacia Gleditschia
tuberosus triacanthos
Rudbeckia Ambrosia
laciniata artemisiifolia
Falopia japonica Robinia pseudacacia
Pinus nigra
Phytolaca americana
92A0 - - - - - - 1 27
specia Populus nigra
6430 3 55 - - 2 59 3 62
specia Erigeron annuus Erigeron canadensis Phytolaca americana
Falopia japonica Erigeron annuus Erigeron annuus
Helianthus Ambrosia
annuus artemisiifolia
40 C0 - - 2 22 - - - -
specia Erigeron
annuus
Erigeron
candensis
40A0* - - 3 31 - - 3 61
specia Erigeron Amorpha fruticosa
annuus Ailanthus altissima
Erigeron Robinia pseudacacia
candensis
Robinia
pseudacacia
3220 - - - - 1 14 - -
specia Erigeron annuus
6230* 1 47 - - 1 39 - -
specia Sisyrinchium Erigeron annuus
montanum
6520 - 37 - - - 41 - -
62 - - 2 7 - - - -
2
specia Erigeron
annuus
Erigeron
canadensis
6410 1 42 - 2 - - - -
8
specia Sisyrinchium
montanum
6110* - - - - - - - 23
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
6170 - - - - - - - 27
6210* - - - - - - - 49
6250* - - - - - - - 53
62A0 - - - - - - - 56
6510 - - - - - - 1 79
specia Erigeron annuus
7110* - 24 - - - - - -
7140 - 20 - - - 18 - -
3270 - - - - - - 3 27
specia Erigeron annuus
Amorpha fruticosa
Oenothera biennis
91 D0 - 38 - - - - - -
8220 - - - - - - - 22
7220* - - - - - - - 9
8160* - - - - - - - 13
8120 - - - - - - - 28
8210 - - - - - - - 22
8230 - - - - - - - 40
*habitate prioritare
Dintre habitatele analizate, cele mai afectate de prezența speciilor invazive sunt
habitatele forestiere și de tufărișuri. Aria protejată cea mai afectată este Parcul Natural Porțile
de Fier. Situația se datorează, pe de o parte influențelor climatice submediteraneene, care
determină o încrucișare a căilor de migrație pe care au pătruns speciile invazive, dar în cea
mai mare măsură cauza o constituie puternica antropizare a zonei. Teritoriul parcului natural a
fost supus unei presiuni antropice puternice prin construcția barajului și a lacului de
acumulare de la Porțile de Fier. În acest interval s-au construit drumuri de acces, circulația pe
acestea s-a intensificat, creiind posibilitatea de avansare a speciilor precum: Ailanthus
altissima, Amorpha fruticosa, Robinia pseudacacia, Ambrosia artemsiifolia.
Cele mai afectate habitate sunt următoarele:
Tufărişurile sud-est carpatice de mojdrean și de liliac, care la nivelul țării au o
distribuție restrânsă în partea de sud-vest a țării; ele întinzându-se la lizierele pădurilor și de-a
lungul drumurilor, ele sunt foar penetrate de specii ruderale și invazive, în special de
Ailanthus altissima și de Amorpha fruticosa. Ambele specii au capacitate competitivă foarte
mare, se înmulțesc vegetativ și elimină alte specii autohtone. Buruienișurile de lizieră,
prezente în trei din cele patru arii protejate sunt semnificativ penetrate de specii invazive. La
fel ca și tufărișurile, buruienișurile sunt habitate de ecoton, de interferență între habitatele
naturale și cele antropice, care creează căi de pătrundere pentru specii invazive precum:
Ambrosia artemisiifolia, Erigeron annuus, Erigeron canadensis, Phytolaca americana.
Pădurile, atât făgetele, goruneto-ceretele, dar mai ales arinișele sunt puternic infiltrate cu
Robinia pseudacacia, în primul rând, dar și cu Pinus sylvstris, Pseudotsuga douglasii, Pinus
nigra, aceste specii find introduse deliberat de om.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Selectând câte trei relevee de-a lungul a patru căi de acces, în fiecare dintre zonele
studiate, s-a constatat un număr similar de specii invazive infiltrate de-a lungul drumurilor și a
văilor. În majoritatea situațiilor speciile alogene pătrund în sit accidental, prin răspândire pe
cale naturală, excepție constituie situl Natura 2000 Fânețele Ponoare, unde contexul istoric al
sitului a generat introducerea deliberată de către om a speciilor alogene care au potențial
invaziv. În studiile de teren, se constată valori semnificative ale indicelui de abundență –
dominanță pentru multe dintre speciile invazive, în special pentru cele lemnoase de la nivelul
Parcului Natural Porțile de Fier. Chiar dacă numărul de specii invazive, este redus, în
numeroase dintre releveele analizate, se găsesc două sau mai multe specii alogene cu potențial
invaziv, a căror AD însumată poate ajunge la valori ridicate, eliminând astfel speciile native.
De asemenea, speciile invazive, în special cele lemnoase, precum salcâmul (Robinia
pseudacacia) și oțetarul (Ailanthus altissima) prin capacitatea regenerativă a mugurilor
vegetativi și prin drajonare se pot extinde anual pe distanțe semnificative de-a lungul căilor de
acces. O amenințare prezentă este și specia Ambrosia artemisiifolia, care la nivelul Parcului
Natural Porțile de Fier este prezentă în special în zona răsăriteană a teritoriului, în toate
localitățile, dar și în habitatele de buruienișuri și în cele forestiere.
Menținerea ariilor protejate, ca rezervoare de biodiversitate, presupune stoparea
speciilor de plante invazive și diminuarea efectivelor populaționale existente. Dintre măsurile
de stopare a lor cele mai accesibile administrațiilor ariilor protejate sunt următoarele:
reglementarea circulației pe drumurile forestiere, înlăturarea periodică a speciilor invazive de
pe marginile drumurilor naționale și județene, interzicerea abandonării terenurilor agricole,
interzicerea menținerii unor terenuri virane.
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NUMERICAL FISCAL RULES FOR FISCAL DISCIPLINE
Mihaela Göndör, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu Mureș
Abstract : This study focuses on fiscal governance from the perspective of numerical fiscal
rules as main elements for strengthen the fiscal discipline. The study defines the numerical
fiscal rules, compares their types, design, properties and objectives in EU countries, analyses
the key features and their reform in responding to the contemporary crisis. The paper uses
official data from EU fiscal rules database, Eurostat, IMF and national authorities (at least
central government), regarding both national and supranational rules, between 1990 and
2012. The main objective of this paper is to provide policy guidelines related to the
appropriate and desirable institutional reforms so as to ensure fiscal responsibility and debt
sustainability at national level.
Keywords : Fiscal Rules, Fiscal Policy, Fiscal Discipline, National Fiscal Framework.
Introduction
The contemporary economic crisis highlighted the importance of fiscal policy as a
macroeconomic tool for dampening the output shock. The crisis has resulted in the adoption
of a large number of fiscal measures expenditures and revenues side, e.g. tax measures both
upwards and downwards or/and cut public spending, revenue-raising measures based on
direct taxes or indirect taxes or both of them or/and measures aimed at granting companies the
possibility to defer tax payments, including VAT. The impact of fiscal measures in response
to the economic and financial crisis widely differs across the European Member States. While
some EU members faced the crises, a number of them continue to experience severe fiscal
crises and the sustainability of their public finances is in doubt. These differences reflect the
national design of discretionary/non-discretionary fiscal policy, based on social policy choices
such as public or private provision of services, the size of Automatic Fiscal Stabilizer, or
technical factors such as the level of the tax-to-GDP ratios, the government size, the
efficiency of tax administration and the domestic fiscal frameworks. The crisis revealed that
the mistakes in fiscal policy can have severe economic and social consequences with high
recovering costs. According our previous research, unstable and unpredictable fiscal policies
have worsened the economic and social system in Romania, thus reducing the government
credibility (Göndör and Özpençe, 2013; Göndör, 2013; Göndör and Neag, 2012). The
unpredictability, the lock of transparence and the arbitrariness of fiscal rules drastically
reduced the government‘s credibility, leading to tax avoidance, tax evasion and corruption.
Thus becomes increasingly clear that the fiscal policy do needs rules for controlling possible
excesses in the management of public finances, because of the dangers of populism and fiscal
irresponsibility that may involves a discretionary fiscal measure.
Given the importance of the public sector in contemporary economies, understanding
the fiscal policy as a factor underlying the cyclical dynamics of macroeconomic aggregates
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
can make a valuable contribution to the design of stabilization program. In this perspective,
the paper intends to explore the numerical fiscal rules from the perspective of fiscal
governance, in order to provide some empirical basis for the argument that fiscal rules sustain
fiscal discipline. The main objective of this paper is to define, characterize, explain, compare
and promote the numerical fiscal rules as elements for strengthen the fiscal discipline to avoid
repeating past policy mistakes.
Based on the scientific literature and empirical evidence on the domestic fiscal
framework, particularly on existing fiscal rules, the present paper firstly study the existing
evidence and then develop the theory‘s implications for these evidence. The paper uses
official data from EU fiscal rules database, IMF and national authorities, regarding both
national and supranational rules, between 1990 and 2012.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 1 presents a brief literature review
regarding the numerical fiscal rules for fiscal discipline. Section 2 provides a brief
characterization of Numerical Fiscal Rules for Fiscal Discipline in EU Member States, using
IMF and EU statistical data. Section 3 focuses on the results of the study and the last section
concludes.
1. Numerical Fiscal Rules for Fiscal Discipline in the Scientific Literature
As Wyplosz (2013) points out, the domestic demand shocks occurred in some
countries in contemporary crisis time, may have different causes but, the common feature is
the fiscal discipline. Fiscal rules are found to be important tools of fiscal consolidations
(Larch and Turrini (2008)) and in fulfilling medium-term fiscal objectives and plans (von
Hagen (2010).)
Defining the fiscal indiscipline as ―the tendency to run deficits year in-year out‖,
Wyplosz (2013) concludes about the ambiguity of the theoretical literature, despite the fact
―this is a very general issue‖ and states that it is caused by ―common problems‖ as ―the need
for democratic governments to spend to cater to pressure groups while avoiding to upset
taxpayers‖.
The scientific literature reveals that the number of countries using fiscal rules as a
fiscal policy device has increased rapidly since the mid-1990s, initially confined to advanced
economies and rapidly outnumbered by developing economies (Schaechter et al., 2012).
According to Symansky and Kopits (1998), a fiscal rule is "a permanent constraint on
fiscal policy, expressed in terms of a summary indicator of fiscal performance such as the
government budget deficit, borrowing, debt or a major component". According to European
Commission, fiscal policy rules set numerical targets for budgetary aggregates which pose a
permanent constraint on fiscal policy, expressed in terms of a summary indicator of fiscal
outcomes, such as the government budget balance, debt, expenditure, or revenue
developments, in order to enhance budgetary discipline and foster policy coordination
between different levels of government. Additionally, fiscal rules may further contribute to
the reduction of uncertainty about future fiscal policy developments. (European Commission,
2014).
As it regards the impact of fiscal rules on pro-cyclicality, the literature reveals some
divergent views, facing empirical limitations. As suggested by Kopits and Symansky (1998),
IMF (2012), Bova et al. (2014), etc., fiscal rules are generally established as part of a broad
reform of the fiscal framework that seeks to support fiscal credibility and discipline,
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
containing pressures to overspend, especially in good times. Bova et al. (2014) find that in
contrast with advanced economies, the adoption of fiscal rules in developing countries has not
been associated with more counter-cyclical fiscal policies and conclude that having a fiscal
rule does not shield developing economies from pro-cyclicality. Debrun et al. (2008) find that
fiscal rules tend to encourage higher cyclically-adjusted primary balances in the EU and may
reduce pro-cyclicality. On the other hand, Manase (2005) claims that fiscal rules tend to limit
the ability of fiscal authorities to react to business cycle fluctuations, thus potentially
exacerbating volatility.
More recent economic literature (European Commission, 2011) and country-specific
policy experiences provide evidence that well-designed numerical fiscal rules (NFR)
significantly enhance fiscal discipline together with independent fiscal institutions (Debrun
(2007).
2. Numerical Fiscal Rules for Fiscal Discipline in EU Member States
2.1. NFR in EU - The empirical evidence
The official data reveals the increasing number of numerical fiscal rules (NFR) used
by EU Member States as fiscal device since 1990s, as shown in Figure 1 and 2. The main
types of NFR in EU Member States are Balanced Budget Rule (BBR), Debt Rule (DR),
Expenditure Rule (ER) and Revenue Rule (RR). In 2008, there were 67 rules in place in EU
Member States, of which more than one third were budget balance rules; debt and expenditure
rules represented about one quarter each and revenue rules accounted for less than
10%.(European Commission, 2014)
Figure 1 Number of NFR in force in the EU Countries, by type, 1990–2012
Source: European Commission
Figure 2 Number of national and supranational NFR, 1990-2012
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Source: IMF Fiscal Rules Database
To capture the influence of the characteristics within the institutional framework of
fiscal policy, DG ECFIN has constructed an index of strength of fiscal rules (SFRI), using
information on (i) the statutory base of the rule, (ii) room for setting or revising its objectives,
(iii) the body in charge of monitoring respect and enforcement of the rule, (iv) the
enforcement mechanisms relating to the rule, and (v) the media visibility of the rule. Based on
the SFRI for each rule, a comprehensive time-varying fiscal rule index for each Member State
was constructed by summing up all SFRI in force in that Member State weighted by the
coverage of general government finances of the respective rule (i.e. public expenditure of the
government sub sector(s) concerned by the rule over total general government expenditure).
In the presence of more than one rule covering the same government sub-sector, the second,
third and fourth rules obtain weights ½, ⅓, and ¼, to reflect decreasing marginal benefit of
multiple rules applying to the same sub-sector. The assigned weights are mainly determined
by the fiscal strength of the rule and its coverage. (European Commission)
The fiscal rules database contains the time series for the fiscal rule index 1990-2012 as
shown in Figure 3 and 4. This corresponds to the quality of rules-based fiscal governance in
EU Member States.
Figure 3 The FR Index (FRI) in the EU and selected groups of Member States, 1990
to 2012
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Source: European Commission
An improvement of the index is achieved by strengthening one or several existing
numerical fiscal rules along either of the above dimensions, by introducing new numerical
fiscal rules, or by extending the coverage of general government by existing or new rules. The
average quality of fiscal governance in the EU-27 has improved during 1990 and 2012,
although 2009 marks a decline in the quality of fiscal governance in several EU countries.
As shown in Figure 4, countries with above-average standards of rules based fiscal
governance include the Netherlands, Estonia, Denmark, Sweden, Luxembourg, Poland,
Germany and Belgium; Bulgaria, Spain and France have joined this group by strengthening
their rules-based framework in the time period under review. Slovenia, Hungary, Slovakia,
Italy, Latvia, Romania, Austria, Ireland and Portugal have maintained rules-based fiscal
governance frameworks with lower than average quality. The Czech Republic, Finland and
the United Kingdom have a tradition of sound rules-based fiscal governance in contrast with
Cyprus, Greece and Malta, continuously characterized by the absence of numerical fiscal
rules.
Figure 4 The fiscal rule index (FRI) in the EU-28 by country, 2011 and 2012
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Source: European Commission
A more direct indication of a systematic relationship between the quality of fiscal
governance and the price of debt – that is determined by the risk of default – can be obtained
by looking at the risk of default in groups of countries distinguished by their fiscal
governance directly. (Table 1)
Table 1 Credit ratings of Moody‘s of EU Member States grouped by their strength of
rules-based fiscal governance, mid-2009
Source: Moody‘s (credit ratings), Commission services (fiscal rule index)
Table 1 provides some support for the relation between sound fiscal governance and
the cost of public debt.
In the Maastricht Treaty, fiscal discipline rests mainly on the excessive deficit
procedure which led to the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP). The EU fiscal framework, as laid
down by the SGP, aims at ensuring fiscal discipline through two main requirements: (i)
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Member States are required to avoid excessive government deficit and debt positions, less
than 3% and 60% of GDP, respectively; (ii) Member States are required by the preventive
part of the SGP to achieve and maintain their medium term budgetary objectives (MTO),
which are cyclically adjusted targets for the budget balance.
The 2005‘s version of the pact strengthens the ―preventive arm‖ by requiring that
budgets be significantly improved during boom years in order to leave enough room for
deterioration in slow-growth years not to result in a breach of the 3% limit. The revised pact
also specifies that the Commission would base its recommendations on cyclically adjusted
budget measures.
The very existence of a public deficit crises doubled by the sovereign debt crisis in the
EU is just the latest available proof that the European model has failed to establish and
enforce fiscal discipline. The 3% and 60% ceilings proved their inefficiency as NFR (shown
in Figure 4 and Figure 5).
Figure 4. Percent of EU countries with deficits above 3% of GDP
Source: European Commission
According to the Commission services' 2011 Spring forecasts, the government deficit
exceeded 3% of GDP in twenty-two Member States in 2010. According to the Commission
services' 2014, the public debt exceeded 60% of GDP in 16 Member States in 2012 (as shown
in Figure 5).
Figure 5. Public debt (% of GDP) during 2007 and 2012 in EU countries
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Source: European Commission
The empirical evidence shows that many governments did not adopt countercyclical
policies before the onset of the crisis and as a consequence, the 3% ceiling rule forced fiscal
policy to turn pro-cyclical during the crisis. Moreover, the enforcement mechanism proved to
be too weak to exert sufficient pressure on national governments.
Figure 6 shows the cyclicality in EU and indicates the weakness of public finances
related to the crisis.
Figure 6. Public Deficit, Public Debt and Output Gap (% of GDP) in
UE
Source: European Commission
These deteriorations in the public finances clearly have difficult political and
economic consequences and for some countries these are particularly acute. An obvious
lesson learnt from the crisis is thus that the SGP was not able to ensure sound public finances
throughout the EU.
2.2. NFR in EU – from SGP to TSCG
From an empirical perspective, lessons learnt from the actual crisis revealed the need
to complement the fiscal rules enshrined in the EU Treaty and SGP with national fiscal rules.
As a consequence, the Treaty on Stability, Coordination and Governance (TSCG or the Fiscal
Compact), seen as a way of strengthening the Stability and Growth Pact, introduces a key
element of fiscal discipline, which is now every national government‘s own legal obligation.
It involves the adoption of a clever fiscal rule, based on the cyclically adjusted budget which
cannot exceed 0.5%-1% of GDP, depending on the share of public debt in GDP, together with
the 3% ceiling. Thus the Fiscal Compact represents a further centralization of fiscal discipline
enforcement (2011). It states that, ―if possible‖, the rule should require that the cyclically
adjusted primary budget be in balance and should be written into the national Constitution. As
states Wyplosz (2013), it is more modern since, instead of involving nominal debt, spending
or deficit ceilings, it focuses on cyclically adjusted figures.
In focusing on national institutions and processes, the Two Pack builds on an approach
that underlies the Directive on national budgetary frameworks, which was introduced as part
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of the Six Pack in 2011. This directive recognized the importance of the role that national
policy-makers have in countries' ability to comply with the European requirements under the
SGP and sets certain minimum criteria for national budgetary frameworks that countries
should comply with. These criteria concern accounting and statistics, forecasts, numerical
fiscal rules, the need to rely on medium-term budgetary frameworks,
coordination arrangements and transparency.
3. Reforming NFR in EU
The findings of this research suggest the key features of NFR as follows: (i) the
statutory basis of the rule, (ii) the monitoring of budgetary developments against the fiscal
targets and (iii) the existence of corrective mechanisms in case of non-compliance.
Monitoring and enforcement could be carried out by an independent body and the actions to
be taken in case of non-compliance should always be defined ex-ante so as to make the rule
credible and enforceable. Otherwise, the cost of non-compliance would be only reputational.
The sanctions must include personal sanctions as dismissal procedures, obligations to resign,
fines, or lower wages.
There are important elements to take into account in the design of NFR in order to
enhance their influence on fiscal policy. The influence of fiscal rules on fiscal outcomes can
be seen under two angles i.e. budgetary discipline and macroeconomic stabilization, as a
consequence, an appropriate balance between these two objectives needs to be sought.
As it regards the NFR by type, the findings of this research suggest as follows: (i)
Budget balance rules (BBR) are by far the most widespread fiscal rules in force across the EU
Member States (Figure 1). They are defined in nominal terms with annual time horizons. A
major criticism of budget balance rules concerns the risk of pro-cyclicality. BBR should be
based on a medium-term perspective. Rules embedded into a medium term budgetary
framework, as a part of a comprehensive fiscal strategy, may better adapt to economic and
country specific circumstances; (ii) Debt rules (DR) suffer the same limit as BBR, i.e. the risk
of pro-cyclicality. DR should be embedded in a medium-term framework in order to limit
their potential pro-cyclical bias; (iii) Expenditure rules (ER) represent around one third of all
fiscal rules and predominantly concern central governments and social security spending.
Most of these rules are embedded into a medium-term budgetary framework (European
Commission, 2010). As suggested by Kopits (2007), binding spending ceilings can play a
crucial role in the functioning of the whole fiscal framework. The main limit of ER is the risk
of negative effect on the quality of public expenditure; (iv) Revenue rules (RR) are not
common rules in the EU. According to European Commission (2012), in 2008, only six EU
Member States had such rules.
The main weakness of NFR in EU countries are, in our opinion, the absence of
independent monitoring and regular reporting, together with the absence of corrective
mechanisms. All these shortcomings should be addressed in order to increase the
effectiveness of NFR.
Given the variety of national situations and institutions, a one-size-fits all policy
would not have been warranted. The large specificity of institutional environment, fiscal
policy and economic development across the EU Member states requires specific adapted
design features; it means more flexible numerical fiscal rule adapted to the practical reasons
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of member states, but defined at EU level. Effective and timely monitoring of the rules by
independent bodies must be ensured. Overall Member States must transpose the fiscal rules
into their national legal order as to strengthen the enforcement mechanism. This requires that
Member States adhere to certain minimum standards for domestic fiscal frameworks.
Research has shown that the best performing countries meet certain minimum standards.
(European Commission, 2011) The use of a directive rather than a regulation is in recognition
of the fact that the optimal procedural and institutional set-up for fiscal policy- making will
depend on the different characteristics of Member States, meaning that there is no one model
that can or should be applied in all cases.
The interaction and mutually reinforcing provisions of EU fiscal rules on national
budgetary frameworks (NFF) are presented in Figure 7.
Figure 7. Main requirements for NFF by legal instrument and degree of specificity
Source: European Commission
By requiring that all Member States adhere to them in their specific way, the quality of
national fiscal policy can be enhanced even for the worst performers. It is true that fiscal
policy is supervised at European level, but it is set at national level. As the total fiscal
harmonization remains an impossible goal at EU level, by adhering to certain minimum
standards for domestic fiscal frameworks can also foster policy coordination between
different levels of government depending on their institutional coverage. Additionally, fiscal
rules may further contribute to the reduction of uncertainty about future fiscal policy
developments. However, fiscal rules can only yield these benefits if appropriate institutions
for monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are in place, or if they are supported by strong
political commitment.
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4. Concluding Remarks
The traditional domestic fiscal framework based on simple numerical fiscal rules is
discussed in the recent literature in relation to its limitations when used as a measure to
strengthen the fiscal discipline. Proposals in the literature go in the direction of using more
complex approach for numerical fiscal rules, together with stronger enforcement mechanisms.
Based on the literature review and empirical evidence, the present paper suggests that
compliance with a well-designed fiscal framework contributes to the policy credibility, to
boost economic growth and to dampening the output volatility. More complex and flexible
rules, multiannual medium term national fiscal framework and more supportive institutional
arrangements could help reduce the pro-cyclical bias associated with rules. Such flexible rules
also call for higher-quality institutional arrangements that strengthen monitoring and
enforcement mechanisms.
Reaching these ends will require improvements along the whole gamut of the fiscal
framework.
The need to minimize and enhance the government intervention into the economy and
the need to ensure fiscal discipline imply that the public policies of adjustment become more
non-discretionary, which requires reducing the weight of discretionary macroeconomic
adjustment and introduction of fiscal rules. Numerical fiscal rules together with monitoring
and enforcement mechanisms provide non-discretionary government intervention with the
lowest public cost and highest effectiveness. Sufficient and necessary attributes of NFR
identified in the study could help design comprehensive, coherent and consistent NFR to be
taken for the institutional structure of national tax policies at national level.
References
Bova E., Carcenac N. (2014), Guerguil M., Fiscal Rules and the Procyclicality of
Fiscal Policy in the Developing World, IMF-Fiscal Affairs Department, WP/14/122,
Washington, USA.
Debrun X. (2007), Tying hands is not commitment: can fiscal rules and institutions
really enhance fiscal discipline? Bruegel working paper no. 2007/01.
Debrun X., Moulin L., Turrini A., Ayuso-i-Casals J., Kumar M. S. (2008), Tied to the
Mast? National Fiscal Rules in the European Union, Economic Policy, pp: 299–362.
European Comission (2013), Report on Public finances in EMU, European Economy
4, Bruxelles.
European Comission (2011), Report on Public finances in EMU, European Economy
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tm
Göndör M., Özpençe Ö., (2013), An Empirical Study on Fiscal Policy in crises time:
Evidence from Romania and Turkey, International Conference "Emerging Market Queries in
Finance and Business", Tirgu-Mures, Romania
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Göndör M., (2013), Sustainability In Fiscal Policy In Boom And Recession-The Case
Of Romania, European Journal of Accounting, Finance and Business, Volume (Year): 1
pp: 61-80
Göndör M., Neag R., (2012), Discretionary Fiscal Policy and Going Concern
Principle for SMEs in Critical Economic Environment, Romanian Journal of Economics,
IMF Fiscal Rules Database (2012), http://www.imf.org/
Kopits G. (2007), Fiscal Responsibility Framework: International Experience and
Implications for Hungary, Magyar Nemzeti Bank, Budapest, Hungary.
Larch M., Turrini A. (2008), Received wisdom and beyond: lessons from fiscal
consolidation in the EU, European Commission, European Economy - Economic Papers 320,
Brussels.
Manasse P. (2005), Deficit Limits, Budget Rules and Fiscal Policy, IMF Working
Paper 05/230, Washington
Symansky S., Kopits G. (1998), Fiscal policy rules, IMF Occasional Paper 162,
Washington.
Schaechter A., Kinda T., Budina N., Weber A. (2012), Fiscal Rules in Response to the
Crisis—Toward the ‗Next-Generation‘ Rules. A New Dataset, IMF Working Paper 12/187,
Washington.
Von Hagen J. (2010), Sticking to fiscal plans: the role of institutions, Public Choice
144, pp. 487- 503.
Wyplosz C. (2013), Europe‘s Quest for Fiscal Discipline, European Commission,
European Economy -Economic Papers 498, Brussels.
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PREREQUISITES FOR THE ENERGY INDEPENDENCE OF ROMANIA
Iosif Moldovan, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu
Abstract: Energy independence for Romania, member state of the European Union, as part of
national security, earns new dimensions in the context of the regional geopolitical crisis. The
prospects to meet this approach may come from the efficient employment of existing energy
resources that have a high degree of diversity but also predictible limits of exhaustion, from
engaging alternative energy resources in compliance with the requirements of sustainable
development and from energy efficiency. The enunciated approach requires effective public
intervention in the energy sector by encouraging and implementing of consistent and
predictible public policies in compliance with the European Union recommendations for
updating the national energy strategy as part of a new model of economic development. The
entire process should provide clear prioritisation of projects in which state is involved
through a regulatory and institutional framework that is responsible how the investments in
the energy sector are supported and approved and furthermore how financial resources are
allocated and spent on public sector.
Keywords: energy sector, energy resources, effective public intervention, increasing energy
efficiency, framework for economical development.
1. Aspecte privind situaţia actuală din sectorul energetic în România
Evaluarea corectă a posibilităţilor de asigurare a necesarului de resurse energetice a
României pe termen mediu şi lung, presupune inventarierea rezervelor certe şi estimarea
realistă a resurselor potenţiale, în corelare cu previziunile privind evoluţia consumului de
energie.
Această abordare se justifică dacă avem în vedere că sectorul energetic în România
suportă în prezent mutaţii importante pe fondul epuizării rezervelor aflate în exploatare, al
creşterii producţiei realizate din surse alternative şi al scăderii consumului de energie electrică
comparativ cu ritmul de creştere al economiei.
Din punct de vedere al rezervelor aflate în exploatare, România dispune de o gamă
diversificată de resurse de energie primară epuizabile ca, ţiţei, gaze naturale, cărbune, minereu
de uraniu, şi de un important potenţial valorificabil de resurse alternative de energie. Diferite
studii1, arată că rezervele de energie primară în România, au o perioadă apropiată de epuizare
impunându-se identificarea unor surse alternative de energie şi descoperirea de noi resurse.
Astfel gazele naturale au o perioadă estimată de epuizare 9,3 ani, cele de petrol 19 ani, iar
cărbunele în actualele condiţii de producţie de 9 ani. Excepţie fac rezervele de lignit, care pot
asigura exploatarea pentru încă aproximativ 40 ani la un nivel de producţie de circa 30 mil.
1
BP, Agenţia Naţională pentru Resurse Minerale în Strategia energetică pentru perioada 2011-2035, vezi
gandul.info,publicat la: 30.12.201gandul.info,publicat la: 30.12.2013.
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tone/an şi rezervele de huilă, unde numai circa 30% din totalul rezervelor geologice se
regăsesc în perimetrele aflate în concesiunea CNH-SA.
Producţia de energie din surse alternative s-a dovedit un sector care în perioada
criză-postcriză a înregistrat o evoluţie pozitivă2, care în prezent înregistrează un trend în
scădere sub aspect investiţional3. Rezultatele bune obţinute au fost favorizate de schemele
mobilizatoare de acordare a certificatelor verzi, justificate de faptul că România şi-a asumat
ţinta ca pînă în anul 2020, din consumul final brut de energie 24% să provină din surse
regenerabile, ţintă care, după datele comunicate de ANRE a fost atinsă ianuarie 2014.
În contrapondere cu rezultatele bune atinse, trendul de scădere investiţiilor în proiecte
din surse alternative este consecinţa intervenţiei puterii executive pentru a tempera creşterea
valorii facturilor. Intervenţia publică a fost criticată sub aspectul predictibilităţii legislative
deoarece s-a aplicat şi capacităţilor în funcţiune, cunoscut fiind că Guvernul a decis în 1 iulie
2013 amânarea acordării unor certificate verzi pentru perioada 2017 - 2020, cu efecte în
creşterea datoriei4 şi reducerea numărului de certificate verzi acordate. În baza OUG 57/2013,
proiectele fotovoltaice primesc doar patru certificate verzi pe MWh, faţă de şase certificate
cum era până la 1 iulie 2013, proiectele eoliene un certificat din două, iar
microhidrocentralele două certificate din trei. În acelaşi demers, conform H. G. 994/2013,
proiectele noi, funcţionale după 1 ianuarie 2014, primesc şi mai puţine certificate verzi,
parcurile fotovoltaice noi primesc trei certificate din şase, parcurilor eoliene li se reduce
numărul certificatelor cu 0,5 până în 2017 şi cu 0,25 începând cu anul 2018, iar
microhidrocentralele primesc cu 0,7% mai puţine certificate verzi pe MWh, respectiv doar 2,3
certificate verzi.
În sectorul energetic din România un element noutate este scăderea consumului de
energie electrică comparativ cu creşterea economică a cărei evoluţii în perioada 2004-2013,
este redată în graficul de mai jos.
2
Datele comunicate de către Transelectrica arată că, în luna mai 2014, proiectele de energie din surse regenerabile
înregistrează o capacitate totală de 4.689 MW în următoarea structură: proiecte eoliene cu o putere de 2.829 de MW,
parcuri fotovoltaice 1.200 de MW, microhidrocentrale 560 de MW şi proiecte din biomasă cu o putere cumulată de 100
de MW. http//www capital.ro, accesat 14 iulie 2014
3
După datele publicate de Transelectrica, energia din surse alternative a atras în primele cinci luni din anul 2014 investiţii de
570 mil. euro, în proiecte noi de 341 MW de aproape cinci ori mai mic faţă de prognozele avansate pentru acest an de către
ANRE, care estima proiecte de peste 2.000 MW a căror valoare de peste 3 miliarde de euro, vezi http://www.zf.ro/ 29.07.14.
4
Datoriile generate de certificatele verzi amânate la plată pentru perioada 2017-2020 sunt de aproape 200 de milioane de
euro, vezi http://www.zf.ro 20.06.2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Din grafic se observă că, dacă în perioada 2004-2009 exista o corelație directă între
consumul de energie și creșterea economică, în anii 2010 şi 2011 consumul de energie
electrică a depăşit creşterea economică, iar începând cu anul 2012 acest raport se modifică în
favoarea creşterii accentuate a PIB-ului, care în anul 2013 a înregistrat o creștere de 3,5%, iar
consumul intern brut de energie a scăzut cu 4,5%.
Reducerea consumului comparativ cu creşterea economică este pozitivă şi se datorează
următoarelor cauze:
- economia nu mai este o consumatoare mare de energie electrică, înregistrând scăderi
de aproape 10% în anul 2013 faţă de nivelul raportat pentru anul 20125;
- industriile energofage identifică tehnologii noi mai eficiente, atât prin efort propriu,
dar şi ca efect al directivelor UE care reclamă retehnologizare;
- creşterea costului energiei electrice la consumatorii industriali a dus la întreruperea
activității unor mari consumatori în anul 2013,
- scăderea consumului populației cu 1,3%, ca efect al anvelopării clădirilor şi a
consumului pentru iluminatul public cu 12,6%6.
Efectul scăderii consumului de energie la care se adaugă producţia suplimentară
obţinută ca urmare a anului hidrologic bun, a punerii in functiune a centralelor eoliene etc. a
făcut ca România să redevină în anul 2013 exportator de energie electrică față de anul 2012
când a fost importator net. Producția de energie electrică a crescut cu 3,2%, pe seama creşterii
producţiei în hidrocentrale cu 24% în anul 2013 față de anul 2012, a creşterii producţiei în
centralele electrice eoliene care aproape s-a dublat, ajungând la 4,69 TWh şi a creșterii cu
1,3% a producţiei la centrala nucleară de la Cernavodă. Aceste creşteri au acoperit deficitul
înregistrat de termocentrale, care au produs cu 18,5% mai puțin decât în anul 2012, dar au
asigurat peste 44% din producția totală de energie electrică7.
În acest context trebuie spus că procesul de reducere a consumului de electricitate
comparativ cu evoluţia PIB-ului este o caracteristică și a economiilor dezvoltate. După
estimările Administrației pentru Informații Energetice din Statele Unite pe termen lung, rata
de creștere a consumului de energie electrică va reprezenta mai puțin de jumătate din rata de
creştere a PIB. În România, strategia energetică, actualizată în 2011, estimează creșteri ale
consumului în perioada următoare, între 1-2%, comparativ cu o creşterea economică aşteptată
de 3-4%.
2. Independenţa energetică a României în context european
Independenţa energetică a României este favorizată de gradul redus al dependenţei de
importul de energie (22,7%), faţă de celelate state ale Uniunii Europene, aspect ce rezultă din
graficul de mai
5
www.zf.ro 20.06.2014
6
www.zf.ro 20.06.2014
7
www.zf.ro 20.06.2014
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jos.
Din grafic se observă că o poziţie mai bună decât România o au numai două state,
Danemarca (-3,4%) exportatoare netă de energie şi Estonia (17,1%), iar din această
perspectiva asigurării independenţei energetice în UE se impune un efort conjugat al tuturor
statelor membre.
Pentru România se estimează asigurarea independenţei energetice până în anul 2020
condiţionat de finanţarea unor investiții de aprox. 4-5 miliarde de euro pe an în sectorul
energetic, pentru modernizarea sistemelor de productie, de distributie si transport şi pentru
gasirea de noi resurse energetice, după poziţia exprimată de ministrul delegat pentru energie8.
Raportat la dependenţa de importul de energie şi a evoluţiei producţiei de energie
electrică în Uniunea Europeană în perioada următoare este relevantă o analiză diagnostic pe
care o face Agenţia Internaţională a Energiei, care reţine următoarele puncte vulnerabile:
- Evoluţia în scăderea a producţiei, care potrivit estimărilor Agenţiei se va reduce în
următorii zece ani cu 25% din cauza închiderii centralelor vechi, nerentabile şi
poluante.
- Structura inadecvată a mecanismelor de stabilire a preţului energiei, cu efecte
negative asupra furnizorilor de energie, care nu-şi pot finanţa proiecte noi de investiţii9.
Aspectul reţine atenţia, potrivit aceleiaşi surse şi la nivel mondial, necesarul total de
investiţi fiind estimat la 48.000 de miliarde dolari până în 2035 pentru a se evita o criză
a energiei.
- Poziţiile diferite ale unor state europene faţă de poltica energetică europeană,
influenţate de resursele interne de energie şi de demersul Uniunii Europene de a obţine
livrări de gaze naturale din SUA prin acordul de comerţ liber transatlantic în scopul
reducerii dependenţei energetice de Rusia. În acest sens este relevant cazul Franţei care
se bazează pe energia nucleară şi a sugerat că acordul va fi în pericol dacă
Washingtonul îşi va pune în aplicare decizia de a amenda cu 10 miliarde de dolari BNP
8
Ziarul Bursa a treia editie a conferintei "Finantare prin piata de capital", 9.IX. 2014, World Trade Center Bucharest.
9
După Fatih Birol, economistul-şef al AIE„ Preţurile energiei sunt cu 20% sub costurile de revenire, astfel că nu există apetit
pentru investiţii. Europa trebuie să verifice foarte atent arhitectura pieţei energiei―vezi http://www.zf.ro/business-
international din 05.06.2014.
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Paribas, al Austriei si Germaniei care inchid centrale nucleare sau al Poloniei care are
resurse de carbune mari si o industrie minieră dezvoltată. De asemenea, Bulgaria se
află în poziţia de stat dependent de energia Rusiei, de care este legată nu numai
economic şi câreia i s-a cerut de către CE sub sancţiunea unei proceduri de
infringement să suspende lucrările pentru construirea gazoductului rusesc South
Stream10 până când se va evalua dacă proiectul respectă sau nu legislaţia europeană.
Faţă de punctele vulnerabile identificate, specialiştii AIE apreciază că soluţiile în
perioada următoare sunt finanţarea unor cheltuieli pentru dezvoltarea energiei din surse
regenerabile (solare, hidro et.) care ar trebui să reprezinte 60% din investiţiile noi şi din
eficientizarea consumului de energie.
3. Implicațiile intervenției publice în sectorul energetic
Asigurarea independenţei energetice a României reclamă intervenţie publică care
trebuie să facă parte din registrul bunei guvernari şi se poate realiza prin politici publice
responsabile şi transparente susţinute prin dialog şi prin comunicare corectă în spaţiul public.
Politicile publice trebuie să ia în considerare faptul că, ―un sistem economic nu poate
functiona fără pieţe, pentru că fără pieţe care asigură libertate economică nu avem creatie,
dezvoltare si nici democratie‖11. În acelaşi sens, „răspunderea politicilor publice trebuie să
asigure realizarea interesului public general pentru a contracara fenomenul de alunecare a
politicilor publice în favoarea interesului de grup, influenţat de diverşi factori economici şi
chiar ideologici‖12.
În România modul defectuos şi nefundamentat al comunicării în spaţiul public crează
suspiciuni asupra politicilor publice promovate în sectorul energetic. Este cazul explorărilor în
vederea exploatării gazelor de şist şi a modului de acordare a certificatelor verzi etc.
Intervenţia autorităţilor publice de reglementare în sectorul energetic este importantă
prin impactul asupra funcţionării pieţei specifice care influenţează economia în ansamblu. In
acest sens, este importantă o evaluare permanentă a formei, limitelor şi scopului intervenţiei
publice prin acte riguroase de reglementare în consens cu reglementările, recomandările şi
comunicările Comisiei Europene, care deşi nu se caracterizează prin pragmatism şi
rigurozitate oferă un cadru important de orientare.
În sensul exprimat, Comunicarea Comisiei Europene din noiembrie 2013 pentru
realizarea pieţei interne a energiei electrice prin măsuri justificate, stabile, proporţionale,
transparente şi previzibile conţine următoarele recomandări de principiu ale intervenţiei
publice în sectorul energetic:
reducerea impactului asupra concurenţei şi eliminarea subvenţiilor disimulate,
încurajarea concurenţei între tehnologii,
analiza impactului asupra costurilor pentru consumatori,
10
Proiectul South Stream a fost îngheţat după izbucnirea crizei ucrainene, iar poziţia Bulgariei în acest conflict a fost
exprimată în 27 mai, când s-a acordat contractul pentru construcţia sectorului bulgăresc al South Stream consorţiului rusesc
Stroitransgaz cu acţionar majoritar Volga Group. CE consideră că Bulgaria nu a respectat şi nu va respecta regulile UE
privind acordarea contractelor publice, favorizând companiile bulgăreşti şi ruseşti pentru lucrările la South Stream.
http://www.zf.ro/business-international/05.06.2014.
11
Vezi si The Economist din 21 ianuarie 2012, ca analiză a capitalismului de stat in economiile emergente.
12
Robert Lieberman, ―Why the rich are getting richer.‖, Foreign Affairs, January, 2011, articol despre ―policy drift‖
(alunecarea politicilor publice), determinata de influente ideologice si capturarea politicii publice de grupuri de interese
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monitorizarea, evaluarea şi eliminarea treptată a sprijinului când motivele pentru care
acesta a fost acordat nu mai există.
Faţă de principiile enunţate prin Comunicarea CE trebuie spus că o parte din măsurile
recente de intervenţie publică în sectorul energetic din România nu au răspuns acestora.
Cu titlu de exemplu, măsurile de intervenţie asupra acordării certificatelor verzi, au
fost resimţite de investitori, care au suportat schimbarea regulilor în timpul jocului, prin
modificarea planurilor de investiţii şi de afaceri la proiectele finanţate şi aflate în
implementare, afectând negativ încrederea investitorilor în stabilitatea şi predictibilitatea
reglementărilor. Aspectul devine agravant pentru că se prefigurează noi intervenţii în sectorul
producţiei energiei alternative, prin exceptarea marilor consumatori de electricitate de la
suportarea costurilor cu certificatele verzi pentru o parte din energia electrică achiziţionată de
aceştia.
Alt exemplu relevant, care afectează negativ încrederea în respectarea principiilor
enunţate, care cresc percepţia privind riscul de denaturare a pieţei şi a concurenţei legat de
intervenţia publică, prin nerespectarea reglementărilor U E13, este garantarea accesului la reţea
a termocentralelor Hunedoara şi Oltenia în perioada 15 aprilie 2013 – 1 iulie 2015,
complementată cu contractarea de la societăţile menţionate a unor servicii tehnologice de
sistem pentru anumite puteri minime „garantate‖. Această garantare este percepută ca un
avantaj comercial acordat în mod discriminatoriu celor doi producători.
Nerespectarea principiilor din Comunicarea CE sunt evidente şi în cazul măsurii
fiscale prin care în anul 2012 s-a instituit impozitul asupra veniturilor suplimentare obţinute
ca urmare a dereglementării preţurilor din sectorul gazelor naturale, precum şi instituirea
imprevizibilă a impozitului pe construcţii speciale. Prima măsură dispusă a condus la
limitarea liberei concurenţe prin alinierea preţurilor de vânzare pe piaţa concurenţială cu
preţurile practicate pe piaţa reglementată şi a făcut necesară o intervenţie de corecţie
ulterioară, iar a doua a afectat planurile de investiţii a operatorilor de profil.
4. Creşterea eficienţei energetice
În analiza premiselor ce privesc asigurarea independenţei energetice în România este
nevoie de luarea în considerare a posibilităţilor de îmbunătăţire a eficienţei producţiei,
transportului şi consumului de energie, un domeniu în care spaţiul de valorificat este deosebit
de generos. Se estimează14 că eficienţa energetică poate fi îmbunătăţită în România cu 16-
24%, pierderile de energie fiind estimate la 30-35%, în principal la blocurile de locuinţe
(40%) şi în industrie (13%). În acelaşi sens, există opinii care susţin că, „eficienţa energetică
poate fi îmbunătăţită prin reducerea consumului de energie şi prin utilizarea fondurilor UE
pentru a creşte eficienţa energetică în zonele în care potenţialul de economisire este cel mai
mare‖15. Acelaşi opinent identifică riscurile sectorului energetic date de liberalizarea
preţurilor la energie într-un sector energetic nesustenabil cu pierderi şi presiunea preţului
energiei asupra consumatorilor, dar şi măsurile necesare de luat, care vizează o reducere a
consumului de energie prin eficienţă energetică şi a pierderilor de energie prin modernizarea
infrastructurii învechite.
13
Comunicarea CE din 5 noiembrie 2013, atrage atenţia că, atunci când Statele Membre reglementează pieţe de
echilibrare şi de servicii tehnologice de sistem, trebuie să garanteze accesul tuturor producătorilor la acestea
14
Capital.ro 24 aprilie 2014
15
prof. univ. dr. Aureliu Leca, Capital.ro 24 aprilie 2014
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Opiniile exprimate se justifică referitor la ineficienţa infrastructurii de producţie şi
transport în condiţiile în care centralele pe gaz si carbune nu realizează profit, Hidroelectrica
estimează 1 miliard profit în acest an, Nuclearelectrica are rezultate bune, iar sursele
alternative de energie se dezvoltă.
Pentru creşterea eficienţei energetice pot fi luate o serie de măsuri dintre care:
intervenţii la clădirile publice şi rezidenţiale, care sunt identificate ca având cel mai
mare potenţial de economii nevalorificat (40-50%),
stimularea investiţiilor la locuinţe prin programe naţionale (casa verde),
implementarea sistemelor integrate de gestionare a energiei la consumatorii mari,
permanentizarea impozitării profitului pentru venituri în exces rezultate ca urmare a
liberalizării preţului în scopul creşterii predictibilităţii politicilor fiscale şi a colectării
unor venituri suplimentare la buget pentru sprijinirea consumatorilor cu venituri mici.
5. Premise ale asigurării independenţei energetice, variante de lucru posibile
Având în vedere potenţialul energetic important al României, pentru asigurarea
independenţei energetice pot fi luate în considerare următoarele variante:
Dezvoltarea producţiei de energie eoliană, existănd deja turbine eoliene funcţionale
de peste 1.000 MW în valoare de peste 1,5 miliarde de euro 16, cu menţiunea că sunt
identificate anumite riscuri (energia din această sursă poate destabiliza sistemul
energetic pentru că este neprevizionabil şi energia din această sursă are prioritate la
intrarea în sistem).
Dezvoltarea producţiei de energie solară, care necestă o schemă de sprijin stabilă
pentru a nu produce disfuncţionalităţi în sistem,
Continuarea explorării gazelor de şist, estimate la 1.444 miliarde metri cubi, care,
dacă avem în vedere un consum mediu anual de 14 miliarde metri cubi pot asigura
autonomie energetică României pentru 100 de ani17.
Asigurarea condiţiilor pentru derularea celor 59 de acorduri de concesiune
petrolieră pentru perimetre de explorare, dezvoltare sau exploatare, acorduri aflate în
diferite stadii şi care presupun atât căutarea şi extragerea de ţiţei cât şi de gaze natural.
Explorarea şi exploatarea gazelor naturale, în zona de mare adâncime a Mării
Negre, unde, Sonda Domino-1 a identificat o acumulare de gaze de aprox. 42-84 de
miliarde de metri cubi, iar producţia ar putea începe în zece ani.
Continuarea programelor privind energia nucleară şi hidro, prin Nuclearelectrica
şi Hidroelectrica care sunt cei mai ieftini producători de energie. Nuclearelectrica este
unul dintre cei mai mari producători de energie din România, operatorul centralei
nucleare de la Cernavodă şi singura unitate de acest tip de pe piaţa locală. Primul
reactor al centralei de la Cernavodă a intrat în exploatare în anul 1996, iar al doilea în
2007 având o capacitate instalată de 720 de MW fiecare şi au asigurat în anul 2013
aprox. 20% din întreaga energie produsă în România. În Strategia Energetică 2011-
2035 se are în vedere că România va continua programul nuclear, prin construcţia
reactoarelor 3 şi 4 ale centralei nucleare de la Cernavodă, cu o investiţie de aprox. 4
miliarde de euro.
16
Raport Transelectrica, la data de 12 decembrie 2012.
17
Studiul Agenţiei americane pentru informaţii din sectorul energiei (EIA). www.mediafax.ro, 11 iun. 2013.
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Încurajarea consumului de cărbune prin noi tehnologii nepoluante, chiar dacă sunt
scumpe, pentru reducerea emisiilor şi având în vedere că la nivelul UE se prevede o
reducere anuală a consumului cu 2,5%, până în anul 203518.
Utilizarea gazului lichefiat, având în vedere că acesta a reprezentat circa 20% din
consumul total al Uniunii Europene, principalele surse fiind statele din nordul Africii
şi din SUA, iar „UE are capacitatea de import de GNL necesară pentru a-şi acoperi
necesarul în perioadele de vârf de consum, însă în majoritatea anului instalaţiile sunt
utilizate puţin sau deloc―19. În acest demers ete nevoie de construcţia unui terminal de
mare capacitate în protul Constanţa.
Atragerea surselor din Asia Centrală, prin eforturi internaţionale susţinute, pentru
susţinerea unei politici energetice europene comune. Realizarea gazoductului, care să
aprovizioneze România din rezervele de gaze din Azerbaidjan, Irak sau Turkmenistan,
ca efect al renunţării la proiectul Nabucco, poate fi o variantă în perioada următoare.
Încurajarea exporturilor de energie electrică, pentru a stimula producătorii locali şi
având în vedere că de la 1 iulie 2013, exporturile de gaze sunt permise, însă, România
nu are posibilităţi tehnice de export.
Reconversia CET-urilor care azi funcţionează (şi) pe bază de gaze naturale şi
trecerea la alţi combustibili (cărbune, păcură, biomasă etc.).,
Descurajarea consumului de gaze prin preţuri şi stimulente de stat anti-gaz pentru
reconversie la alte sisteme de încălzire (cu lemn, electricitate de la reţea sau produsă
de panouri fotovoltaice, panouri solare, pompe de căldură etc.).
Concluzii
Dezvoltarea sustenabilă a sectorului energetic în scopul asigurării independenţei
energetice, impune un model nou de dezvoltare economică, care trebuie să fie rezultatul unei
abordări strategice integrate şi al unui management public eficient, care să stabilească
prioritatile naţionale raportat la resursele naturale, minerale, energetice, infrastructura de
transport etc. În acest demers este important că România are un potenţial energetic deosebit şi
se află într-o poziţie favorabilă în comparaţie cu alte state din Europa având premise sigure
să-şi asigure independenţa energetică, condiţionat de îmbunătăţirea intervenției publice în
sectorul energetic, de creşterea eficienţei energetice şi de încurajarea producţiei de energie din
resurse alternative.
Managementul public din România va trebui să ia în considerare faptul că sectorul
energetic naţional în perioada următoare are nevoie de investiţii importante, iar din punct de
vedere al încurajării afacerilor în sectorul energetic, va trebui să rezolve o serie de probleme
care privesc :
Actualizarea strategiei energetice a României care sa stabileasca obiective reale pentru
2020 si obiective intermediare ca puncte de referinţă.
Imbunatatirea cadrului institutional prin înfiinţarea Autorităţii Naţionale pentru
Eficienţă Energetică şi înfiinţarea unui departament pentru sistemele energetice urbane
si rurale in cadrul Ministerului Dezvoltarii Regionale si Administratiei Publice în
vederea susţinerii proiectelor energetice;
18
Strategia industriei miniere pentru 2012-2035
19
studiu al Congressional Research Service din Washington
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Optimizarea unei scheme stabile de sprijinire a energiei verzi prin acordarea unor
facilităţi fiscale sau subvenţii, compatibile cu principiile promovate de Uniunea
Europeană;
Implementarea sistemelor integrate de gestionare a energiei la toti marii consumatori
industriali;
Utilizarea fondurilor europene pentru a creşte eficienţa energetică la clădirile publice
şi rezidenţiale, care au fost identificate cu cel mai mare potenţial de economisire (40-
50 %).
Comunicarea eficientă în spaţiul public a problematicii referitoare la politica
energetică, pentru a dezvolta o cultură a eficienţei energetice, prin campanii mass-
media de informare, prin discipline predate in şcoală etc.
Liberalizarea preţurilor în ritm cu eficientizarea producţiei şi consumului, având în
vedere că, în Romania, electricitatea este mai ieftină cu peste 30% decât media UE, iar
gazul cu 150% la consumatorii casnici. La consumatorii industriali mari, preţul a
crescut în anul 2014 aliniindu-se la nivelul din Europa de Vest, convergenţa fiind
atinsă, iar aceştia nu mai beneficiază de energie ieftină comparativ cu cei din restul
UE, care le conferea un avantaj competitiv care era interpretat ca ajutor de stat. De
altfel, Consiliul European din februarie 2011 a stabilit termenul limita pentru
finalizarea pietei interne a energiei electrice prin procesul de liberalizare, care se va
finaliza pentru populatie în perioada 2012-2018 si pentru companii în perioada 2012-
2014, termene care în prezent sunt în curs de revizuire pentru dazele din producţia
internă.
Bibliografie
De Bry, F., Igalens, J., Pereti, J-M (sous la dir), ―Etique et la responsabilite sociale‖,
EMS, 2010.
Carmen Reinharrt si Kenneth Rogoff, ‗This Time Is Different‖, Princeton, Princeton
University Press, 2009
Robert Lieberman, ―Why the rich are getting richer.‖, Foreign Affairs, January, 2011
Hyman Minsky, ―Stabilizing an Unstable Economy‖, New York, McGraw-Hill, 2008
.(1986)
Dr. Ecolog M, Nistorescu, ş.a , Raport de mediu - Strategia energetică a României
pentru perioada 2007-2020 actualizată pentru perioada 2007-2020, Ministerul
Economiei, Comertului şi Mediului de Afaceri -2011.
M. Of. nr. 0118 din 01 Martie 2013 Ordin nr. 8/27 Februarie 2013 privind stabilirea
cotei obligatorii de achiziţie de certificate verzi, aferentă anului 2012 Autoritatea
Națională de Reglementare în Domeniul Energiei
Pachetul legislativ „Energie – Schimbări Climatice‖ adoptat în cadrul reuniunii
plenare a Parlamentului European din data de 17 decembrie 2008;
Strategia energetică pentru perioada 2011 – 2035 Direcţii şi obiective strategice în
sectorul energiei electrice;
Legislaţie naţională şi europeană.
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DIAGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF THE SUPPLY ACTIVITY OF A COMPANY
Elena Sima, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu
Abstract: The paper is divided into two parts as follows: a theoretical part in which the
aspects of diagnostic analysis and the supply activity and the second part is applicative and
shows the steps that should be followed to perform such an analysis and the situations that
may arise in this regard.
In the applicative part, the need of an overview of the company, the social and economic
context in which it operates is motivated, the positive and negative symptoms objectively
formulated, stipulating for each of them the causes and the effects that are generated.
The paper ends with several conclusions and recommendations arising from the study
conducted.
Keywords : diagnostic analysis, supply activity, company.
1. Theoretical notions on the diagnostic analysis and supply activity
The evolution of management scientifically speaking is based largely on the use, in a
systemic manner, on the diagnostic analysis method.
The enterprise, regarded from the systemic point of view, is a complex social
economic organism, composed of subsystems which have multiple dynamic links between
them. The systems‘ and its subsystems‘ activity is influenced by many factors, whose action
needs to be known to ensure a stable and optimal functioning, in a constantly dynamic
economic environment. In the process of ensuring normal operation of the private enterprise
as a system, an important role is played by the diagnostic analysis.
Diagnosis requires the research of both the operation of the whole system and also of
the system‘s structure and is based on their information status. Generally, in any company,
between predetermined objectives and actual achieved ones, discrepancies may occur that
lead to impaired functioning of the whole system. Based on the analysis, deviations from the
terms of reference are determined, possible points of imbalance are established; the factors
and causes that led to the disruption of the system are set.
The essence of the method consists in identifying and assessing the cause-effect
relationship. In fact, the quality of diagnosis depends precisely on the extent to which the
roots of the failures are being objectively identified, thus of the negative aspects and positive
aspects and subsequently on linking the recommendations to those causes.
"Therefore, the aim of the diagnostic analysis is that, after adjusting the system, an
optimal order is reached, so that the maximization of the function is ensured objectively."1
1
BRAN F., MARIN D., SIMION T. - Economia turismului si mediului inconjurator, Editura Economica, Bucuresti, 1998
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The participatory character is characteristic to the diagnostic analysis. The complexity
of the companies‘ activity requires, for a correct and comprehensive diagnosis, the
involvement of several employees of different specialties, according to the nature of the
problem investigated, among which there should not miss the managers and contractors
directly involved in carrying out such activities. Making diagnoses by teams correctly
dimensioned and judiciously structured is the indispensable prerequisite to collecting all
significant information and then to interpret them in terms of complexity, multidisciplinarity,
according to their multidimensionality.
Another feature of the diagnostic analysis is to complete the diagnostic analysis
through recommendations. Diagnosing in management, similar to the situation in medicine,
precedes treatment, i.e. taking the corrective decisions concerning the dysfunctions and the
development decisions regarding the positive aspects determined. Recommendations are
forwarded to the preset management factors to further capitalize them on the decision and
operational plan.
Etymologically speaking, diagnosis involves the ability to discern and is organically
involved in the theory and practice of medicine, and by analogy in the activity of the
enterprise as a social organism.
The word diagnostic comes from the Greek word "diagnostikos" which means able to
discern, to delimitate objectively any subject after its manifestations. In terms of economics,
the diagnostic analysis involves determining the positive and negative symptoms of the
analysed enterprise, the research and analysis of the facts and responsibilities, identifying the
causes that determined them, developing action programs to ensure the recovery and
improvement of its performance.
Making a company‘s diagnosis can be made not only when it has problems, and also
when "the company has a good health, but wants to improve it."2
Specialists in the field such as: Fayol H., Oscar J., Norbert Wiener, G. Plesoianu
defined the diagnostic analysis as a step, a process, a method or a result.
By analogy with medicine, the diagnosis requires a study of the patient‘s status
(symptomatology), determining their cause (etymology) and prescription of appropriate
remedial measures (therapeutics).
The block diagram of a diagnostic analysis is shown in figure 1.
Resour Combin Results
Upstrea Downstream
ce ation ouputs market
m market (distribuţion)
entries and (outputs
(resource
(inputs) consump )
s)
tion
processe
s
Trainig capacity and achieving the
economic and financial effects
Fig. 1. Block diagram of a diagnostic analysis
2
CHIOU D. - Dictionar economic, Editura Bucovina, 1995
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Any organization needs, along with the technical and labour equipment, raw materials,
finished products and semi-finished products, electricity and heat that it gets from the
environment, and that it submits to a more or less complex, modern, traditional or original
transformation process, obtaining products or services that it makes available to consumers in
a certain amount, of a certain quality, at a certain price and for a certain period of time3. The
"supply" means the entry of materials‘ flows into the enterprise from the outside.
Currently, the share of costs for raw materials in total costs is generally high,
representing 60% -70%, in some cases even more, justifying the consideration that providing
the raw materials in all activities of an enterprise is of a strategic nature4.
2. Diagnostic analysis of a company’s supply activity
Diagnosis of supply activity is an integral part of the commercial diagnosis.
Commercial diagnostic targets the operations with ―merchandise‖, meaning both the
selling market of the company‘s products and its supply market. The main objective of
commercial diagnostic analysis is to establish the current market and future market of the
company and its place in the market.
In this respect, we shall analyze the internal and external factors affecting the studied
company's business activity.
The analysis of the company is necessary so that the threats and opportunities that
may affect the company can be identified and the factors that can help to achieve the
objectives or those that can act as a barrier to achieve them. The success of environmental
analysis is determined by its characteristics: complexity, quantity and quality of information
regarding the environment etc.
The analysis of the external environment refers to the four forces that act on a
company in general, namely: economic, technological, political and socio-cultural influences.
With regard to the external factors acting on the activity of a company, they can be
divided into four broad categories:
- competition;
- customers;
- suppliers;
- substitutes.
Each of these factors can act on the activity of companies influencing their results.
In a first stage, a preliminary documentary is provided, that aims to determine and
acknowledge the main characteristics of the field of activity and the company analysed and
includes issues related to:
type and legal form of the company;
strategic objectives (establishment, development, privatization);
object of activity;
departments of activity, existence and functioning;
technical-material characteristics;
material, financial, human resources.
Identification of significant symptoms represents another step, and it refers to
deviations of some synthetic indicators such as: profit, the rate of profit, turnover, physical
3
CRIŞAN, S. - Strategii în aprovizionarea materială a întreprinderii industriale, Editura Continent, Sibiu, 2001.
4
SIMA, E. - Logistica, Editura Burg, Sibiu, 2011.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
production, labour productivity. Thus, a company that does not achieve the required level of
profit can not sell the programmed output, systematically exceeding the programmed
production costs, does not achieve the proposed labour productivity and has therefore no cash
and is therefore in an obvious state of imbalance.
Overall, the activity of current Romanian companies is carried out rather slowly, given
the insufficient financial and human resources, rather high workforce costs compared to the
qualification they need, reason why turnover is constituted mainly of revenues from
manufacturing, services to third parties and other service activities.
In their action, operators must consider the domestic and international economic
context of addressing specific material supply issues so that the process becomes more
complex and difficult since the objective of any economic agent is to achieve a maximum
profit from the work that it performs. Achieving this objective requires that, even from the
stage of the supply with materials and equipment, all the methods that will lead to achieving it
is driven. Already at this stage, the prerequisites for achieving the profit are created, knowing
that any reduction in the purchase means profit to the buyer. Care should be taken in this
context because usually reductions are granted under purchase of a larger quantity of material
resources. In most cases, these reductions may be lost due to inventory maintenance costs,
which can exceed these reductions.
Technological changes have a significant impact on companies, due to the rapid pace
of innovation.
The activity of Romanian companies was and is hampered by shortcomings in the
medium and long term forecast generated by the permanently changing legislation, yet
inconsistent, with many areas discovered and cumbersome banking environment.
The significant symptoms are of two types: positive, such as exceeding profit,
profitability rate increase, and negative, such as failure to achieve the plan according to the
indicators, which is reflected in the economic and financial results of the company.
In the Romanian economy, there is a constant volatility in price trends, frequently
occurring in true explosions, meaning that they increase uncontrollably, simultaneously with
the weakening of the domestic currency market representation in relation to those in the
international movement of values.
Analyzing the evolution of costs with raw materials and materials required for the
execution of production/works/services compared to the turnover of the last three years, it can
be seen that although turnover is declining from year to year and the number of
products/works/services performed/rendered retain the same decreasing trend, the share of
expenses incurred by purchasing raw materials show a slight upward trend in the last three
years.
The positive and negative aspects of the supply activity are presented systematically as
follows.
Table 1
Possible main positive aspects identified in the analysis of expenses with raw materials
and materials
Positive aspects Causes and effects
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Providing transport of The existence of a proper car park that allows
products with own transportation transportation to the headquarters of most materials
means purchased from suppliers and that significantly
reduces their purchase price
Purchase of materials from The vast majority of providers have offices
local suppliers or places of business in the immediate area, which
significantly reduces transport distances and
therefore the acquisition costs of goods
Purchase of good only if Obligation to show the beneficiaries of the
there are documents that prove their work, which leads to additional costs elimination
quality due to the partial or total damage in the warranty
period, of the equipment put in operation
Table 2.
Possible main negative aspects identified in the analysis of expenses
with raw materials and materials
Negative Causes and effects Remedies
aspects
Complete or Because of downloading the Direct delivery
partial damage of delivered products in the office, of products from
certain raw materials followed by their subsequent loading suppliers when they are
or materials and transport results in additional funds needed
for replacing the products
Periodic Because of the existence of Performing
variation in prices of fewer competitors in the market, there negotiation activities
products with high can sometimes occur quarterly and with suppliers in order
shares in total weekly price changes to obtain lower prices,
expenditure stable for a long period
of time
Useless Materials are supplied and kept Transport of
expenses with the in stock in the company‘s office, then products from suppliers
transport of goods they must be recharged in the directly to orders when
company‘s cars and taken to other they are required
places where they are needed, hence
additional costs to transport the goods
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Table 3.
Possible main positive aspects identified in carrying out the activity
of providing material resources
Positive aspects Causes and effects
Ensuring Establish collaborative relationships based on providing
collaboration with main timely information to other departments and receiving
departments of the necessary information and funds required from them to develop
company the necessary materials, supply plan and purchase of goods
Establishing The use of quality materials at prices as low as possible,
lasting relationships with which leads to the development of long-term relationships with
key suppliers of materials suppliers to gain from those benefits embodied in lower prices
and high payment terms, maintaining the quality conditions
Carrying out the Due to the need of setting exact goals to ensure the
specific objectives of the optimal conditions of having raw materials so that there are no
activity to ensure with delays in completing the orders.
material resources
Table 4
Possible main negative aspects identified in carrying out the activity
of providing material resources
Negative aspects Causes and effects Remedies
The possibility of Due to the More intensive
staff disruptions in the specialization of those cooperation of members of
department responsible responsible on specific the department so that
for providing the material categories of materials in everyone can replace their
resources the specificity of the colleagues for a short period
departments‘ activity, of time
which leads to difficult
filling someone responsible
in case of sick leave,
holiday or layoff
The material supply plan is generally drafted at the beginning of each quarter by the
chief of supply-management department, together with the department members, who are in
direct collaboration with both the production department employees, who provide, based on
technical projects and lists of the amounts offered, information on the amount of materials
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required for the work to be performed during the year, as well as with the accounting
department which provides information on the financial resources that will be used to
purchase the materials.
Table 5
Possible main positive aspects identified in the substantiation of the supply plan
Positive aspects Causes and effects
Studying both The lists of amounts offered in tenders, technical
documents certifying the projects, etc., must be consulted with colleagues from the
quantities of materials to production department, to determine the exact quantities
determine material required within one year
requirements and the schedule
for implementation
Preparation of a Because of the multiple deadlines in different orders,
necessary of materials for all it implies knowing all quantities on each order and
orders, prior to the preparation establishing a necessary of materials to facilitate the
of a supply plan preparation of the purchase plan
Table 6
Possible main negative aspects identified in the substantiation of the supply plan
Negati Causes and effects Remedies
ve aspects
Quarte Because of keeping the old A monthly supply plan should
rly update of methodology of planning the be prepared, containing materials
the supply materials, without being properly needed weekly in order to make orders
plan adapted to the current need of the to suppliers, so that they are delivered
company to reduce costs, so this directly to orders once they have been
planning does not produce changes put into practice
in the costs of materials
In order to provide materials for carrying out products/works/services, the companies
are continuously developing long-term relationships with major suppliers in the industry,
trying to maximize the potential of resources, in terms of lower costs.
Table 7
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Possible main positive aspects identified in the supply,
evaluation and selection of suppliers market
Positive aspects Causes and effects
Continuous research Due to the existence of a variety of materials necessary
of the supply market for the execution of orders, those responsible with ensuring
them must have information about the products on the market,
prices, technical characteristics, quality, in order to conduct
negotiations with current suppliers
Establishing correct The company‘s specific activities involves the use of
evaluation criteria products that must comply with all quality requirements, in
terms of reduced costs, leading to the identification, evaluation
and selection of the most suitable suppliers
Establishing lasting Thanks to the experience of the members of the
relationships with key purchasing department, they have the skills needed to develop
suppliers long-term relationships with suppliers in order to obtain from
them some advantages such as low price, longer payment
terms, etc.
Management of materials and raw materials is done differently, depending on the
specificity of the business segment.
Table 8
Possible main positive aspects identified in stock management
Positive aspects Causes and effects
Application of management Due to the production of equipment being
system (S,s) combined with the supplied, when the start of orders takes place only when
method of two containers, as a a storage area is emptied
stock control system for certain
raw materials
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Using a groupware system Because of developments in computer-aided
(server) to record information field, supply-management department members can use
about raw materials and materials a groupware system, leading to better collaboration,
even if they are in remote offices, editing files in
parallel and reducing data storage costs.
The main opportunities that may arise from the external environment for the work of
supplying companies are:
1) The introduction of multinational companies opening their branches in Romania
increasingly leading to lower market prices;
2) Continued development of technological equipment that makes products have more
efficient technical features and better quality;
The main threats that may arise from the external environment for the
supplying activity of the companies are:
1) Reducing the number of orders may indirectly influence the suppliers, some of them
entering insolvency or reshaping their production, migrating to another area; in both
cases there remain few competitors on the market, which would automatically imply
rising prices for those products.
2) Increasing the excise on fuel, combined with the increase in utility tariffs has direct
implications in increased production costs, thus increasing prices of materials.
3) Increasing taxes directly influences the rising cost of all the companies involved and
of suppliers, leading to price increases of materials on the market.
Conclusions
1) The expenditure of material resources compared to the turnover may be in a
continuous rise for the reasons outlined above;
2) The continuous positive evolution of the share of material resources expenses is a
negative effect of the company‘s supply activity, proving that the company failed to set off
this situation through decisive measures, because it applies the same methods of purchasing,
unsuitable to the conditions of the market;
3) To eliminate this continuous increase of the share of expenses with materials in the
turnover there should be:
taken measures to reduce waste obtained after unloading-loading the materials;
carried out more effective negotiating approaches with suppliers;
taken measures to reduce transportation costs of materials.
4) The activity of ensuring material resources in companies having a specialized
department in this regard is generally performed under normal conditions, because the people
responsible:
develop relationships with key departments of the company;
prepare supply plans in accordance with the execution schedule of works;
select suppliers and establish long-term relationships with them;
satisfy all the specific objectives of this activities.
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5) Substantiating the supply plan is carried out properly in companies that promote a
scientifically-based supply management, because quarterly, in general, supply-management
department members prepare this plan correlated with execution graphs of orders and quantity
of the materials of the works contracted during the year.
6) This kind of substantiation does not help reduce costs because the materials
purchased are stored initially in the office and subsequently transported to the works.
7) A monthly supply plan should be prepared, including all of the materials needed for
each week so that materials are delivered directly to works when they need to be used.
8) Evaluation criteria chosen to select suppliers are properly established in companies
promoting scientific management, given the specifics of the company.
9) Stocks management of companies which promote a scientific supply management is
differentiated by the business segment and there can be:
type of inventory management with variable demand at unequal intervals combined
with the red-line method, as a control system for the stocks of materials that need to be
put directly into practice;
the type of inventory management adopted is the (S, s) type, in conjunction with the
method of two containers as inventory control system.
inventory management type with variable demand at unequal intervals, for the stocks
of materials to be put directly into practice is difficult to apply and there should be
applied a management system similar to the "Just in time" system, together with safety
stock
For the (S, s) management type, a study of previous productions should be done, to
determine the exact amount of material required as safety stock, to avoid overstocks.
To improve the supply activity, the following can be proposed:
1) making a monthly supply plan structured on weeks, so the materials are delivered
directly to works, as close to the time when they should be put into practice;
2) transport for most materials should be made directly on order, significantly reducing
the possibility of partial or total deterioration of raw materials or equipment;
3) introducing data on materials into a single file for each material, enabling the
permanent knowledge of the amounts taken from the suppliers, of those taken for
works and the real stock of materials;
4) Conducting a study on the production of the last 24 months, to determine the
minimum amount of raw materials necessary for a safety stock.
REFERENCES
1. BRAN F., MARIN D., SIMION T. - Economia turismului si mediului inconjurator,
Editura Economica, Bucuresti, 1998
2. CHIOU D. - Dictionar economic, Editura Bucovina, 1995
3. CRIŞAN, S. - Strategii în aprovizionarea materială a întreprinderii industriale, Editura
Continent, Sibiu, 2001.
4. SIMA, E., - Logistica, Editura BURG, Sibiu, 2011.
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HOLISTIC STUDY ON DYNAMICS OF FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN
ROMANIA
Simona Moise, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University of Bucharest
Abstract: The global economy is oriented FDI in major proportion to developed countries ,
but interest in this type of investment is particularly the case in developing countries who
need not only foreign capital inflows but also modern managerial experience of know-how
and access to markets. On the other hand, between globalization and foreign direct
investment occurs increasingly a two-way relationship , foreign direct investment as well as
being one of the causes / factors that stimulate the deepening of globalization , and effect /
manifestation in economic globalization . However , often foreign direct investment has
played an important role in the transformation of developing countries to developed countries
and thereby in shaping a new world economic order characterized by other relations of
power and participation of old and new global economic actors .
Keywords: foreign investment, global economy, strategies, companies, markets, investors,
investment flows .
1. Foreign direct investment (FDI ) - dynamics and their distribution
Assuming that FDI is probably the most complex segment of international openness,
which dominated and influenced the structure of the world economy lately, it is clear that the
development of modern national economies can not take place outside the framework of
international and only internal resources are insufficient to reach a level of development and
prosperity that we now have modern countries1.
Awareness of this fact was already widespread in recent decades : developing
countries even the most reserved and skeptical politicians concluded that adverse economic
isolation is reflected in the living conditions of people and opening their economies and
attract foreign direct investment is accompanied increase the living standards of their peoples.
The overall objective is obviously attracting a larger volume of investment.The biggest
obstacle faced by foreign investments come from economic uncertainty (44 %), followed by
political instability (27 %), and the sovereign debt crisis (21%).
Strategies pursued by companies will depend on the maturity of each market.
Emerging markets, innovation of product is a development strategy with the highest potential.
But more importantly, is always determined to what extent the key competencies of a
company respond opportunity and if there is willingness to expect that investment to generate
profit.
1
Moise Simona,Strategii holistice de atragere a investițiilor străine în industria de automobile din Romania, Editura Sitech,
2014, Craiova, ISBN 978-606-11-4169-2
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Foreign direct investment (FDI ) in Romania at the end of July 2013 exceeded the
threshold of 60 billion euros, the balance has nearly 24 years of transition to market economy.
Statistical survey conducted by the central bank and INS recorded a balance of 59,126,000
euros at the end of 2012, an amount that added another 946 million euros in the first seven
months of this year.
The analysis of the two institutions based on relevant final last year showed that about
two-thirds of FDI recorded at December 31, 2012 were equity, including reinvested earnings,
while the remaining third was composed of net credits received from foreign investors.
It should be noted that last year amid the diminishing trend of the amounts entered in
the country , the flow of FDI has changed the structure appears opposite of hip . Almost two -
thirds of the money were net credit received from foreign investors and only slightly more
than one third were listed as equity.
Significance of these inversions in the structure caused by the more pronounced
reduction in investment in new business and develop existing ones than the amounts that are
in line financing activities already in progress are lower stability of involvement in the
Romanian economy a reluctance on the prospects for economic and social development of the
Romanian market.
2. Distribution , quality and dynamics of foreign investment
Foreign investments have been directed mainly towards industry ( 46,5 % ), in which
the top stood the electricity, gas and water (9,7 % ), petrochemicals (6,7% ), mining and
quarrying (5,5% ), transport (5,4 % ) and metallurgy (4,9 %). In the second set of financial
intermediation - banks, insurance companies, investment funds etc. - (18,5 % ) and in third
place the wholesale trade and retail trade ( 11,4% ) . Construction (9,2 % ) and information
technology (4,8 % ) completes the top 5 foreign investment.
Alarm signal: industry back into negative territory in May 2014 , while exports
remained unchanged from last May. Industrial production , one of the most important
indicators of the economy to fall back on in May, and its performance reflected in exports ,
which have remained unchanged from May 2012, after a significant increase in April. Some
analysts believe, however, that evolution was Opportunistic and expects a recovery in these
indicators over the coming months. Industry, which represents about a third of Romania's
GDP , is considered one of the main drivers of growth for the economy this year, while
domestic demand shows no signs of recovery. Industrial production fell in May by 1.2 %
compared to May 2012, while in April jumped 8,5 % in annual terms as series adjusted
growth rate are no longer recorded in 2011.
Compared to April, the drop in industrial production in May was 10,7%, the adjusted
series, all components with a negative contribution. High growth of industrial production in
April was a special case since usually industrial production fell in April , as indicated by the
unadjusted data , which has happened over the last nine years.
Branch The amount %
invested of total
(EUR million) FDI
1. Industry 27.455 46,5
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- Ind. mining 3.225 5,5
- Ind. manufacturing ( of which ) 18.509 31,3
- Food , beverages and tobacco 2.160 3,7
- Cement, glass , ceramics 1.684 2,8
- Manufacture of wood products , including 1.090 1,8
furniture
- Computers , prod.electronice electric 1.051 1,8
-machinery, equipment 1.114 1,9
-metallurgy, 2.899 4,9
-transportation, 3.173 5,4
-processing crude oil, chemicals, rubber and 3.962 6,7
plastic
- textiles, clothing, leather 834 1,4
- other manufacturing industries 542 0,9
electricity, gas, water 5.721 9,7
Activities professional, scientific, technical and 2.843 4,7
support
Agriculture, forestry and fishing 1.402 2,4
Commerce 6.714 11,4
Construction and real estate 5.466 9,2
Hotels and restaurants 348 0,6
Financial 10.914 18,5
Information and Communication Technology 2.854 4,8
Transport 876 1,5
Other 254 0,4
Table no.1. Distribution and dynamics of foreign investments
(Source : Www.cursdeguvernare.ro )
Note the importance of FDI to integrate all circuitry stronger global economy and the
development of foreign trade . Thus, firms that worked with ISD gave 70,3 % of exports,
underlining that 60,6 % returned to the industry (58,1 % manufacturing, reflecting improving
the structure of value added exports segment medium and large).
Regarding imports financed by foreign investment companies totaled 62,6 % of the
total, of which only 43 % in the industry. Contrary to appearances, the commercial sector
accounted for only 17,7 % of the total Romanian imports . Negative difference between this
weight and the 8,1% recorded in the export trade was covered by the positive spread on the
industry. If national foreign investment had a positive influence on volume and structure of
the national economy, the profile they have had the effect of widening the disparities between
the regions.
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Over 60% of FDI was made in the Bucharest- Ilfov, between 7% - 8% were placed
the Central, West and South - Muntenia and about five percent appear South-East and North-
West .
The poorest regions of Romania are the ones that have benefited the least attracted
funds from abroad , namely South West (3,5% ) and North East ( 3% of total FDI) . Of course
, one could argue that statistics was made after the headquarters of businesses that do not
correspond exactly to the place of economic activity, but gaps remain suggestive .
However, the same remark may be made in respect of the countries of origin of FDI.
The first two are the Netherlands (22,4 % of total FDI) and Austria (18.5 % ), which are in the
transit countries for capital originated elsewhere, in addition to certain of their equity interests
in Romania . Then appear in the top FDI major European economies Germany (11%), France
(8,9 %) and Italy (5%).
FDI by country of origin
Country Am % of
ount total FDI
invested
Netherlands 13.2 22,4
29
Austria 10.2 18,5
90
Germany 6.49 11,0
9
France 5.27 8,9
2
Italy 2.93 5,0
0
Cyprus 2.68 4,5
7
Greece 2.52 4,3
9
Switzerland, 2.19 3,7
4
USA 1.80 3,1
9
Luxembourg 1.36 2,3
8
Spain 1.09 1,8
1
Belgium 1.06 1,8
9
Czech Republic 1.02 1,7
5
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Great Britain 976 1,7
Hungary 963 1,6
Table no.2 Distribution and dynamics of foreign investment
(Source . Www.cursdeguvernare.ro )
The largest economy in the world , USA, appears hardly new place with little more
than three percent of the total, and the United Kingdom appear just 14th place , surrounded by
our former colleague the Eastern bloc, the Czech Republic ( heavily involved in energy ) and
Hungary (with investments located in Transylvania). Cyprus and Luxembourg are rather
places to locate the headquarters of firms in search of more favorable tax conditions2.
3. Foreign investments and their impact on key macroeconomic indicators
Indicators of the real economy and the financial economy witnessed mixed
developments in the world , an expression of the fact that the adjustment of the global
economy after the Great Depression waves is far from over. Basically, the first half of the
current global economy continues to evolve at a pace below potential , unprecedented
monetary expansionism failed to pass in the real economy .
Also, persistent economic divergence between the major economic blocs in the world ,
but also within them . Last but not least , remain a number of risk factors (for both sides of the
economy), and the perception of these uncertainties shows high volatility, which is confirmed
by the evolution of the commodity during the month of April.
In the sphere of the real economy we have seen a deterioration in the environment in
the first quarter, driven mainly by the slowdown of the American economy (the first economy
in the world, accounting for over 20 % of global GDP ).
Baltic Dry Indicator (barometer of international trade flows ) shrank by 5% in April ,
863 p ., remaining near historic lows.
This trend expresses the fact that we have not seen yet on a sustainable recovery in the
real economy investment flows worldwide. Basically, private companies Aman investment
recovery amid high perceptions on maintaining macro - financial risks (including on the
economic potential).
2
Moise Simona, Studiu integrativ privind investițiile străine în industria de automobile din România, Editura Sitech, 2014,
Craiova, ISBN 978-606-11-4170-8
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Graph No. 1 Global macroeconomic analysis
(Source "Short macroeconomic analysis at mondial- April 2013 " )
Wors- ening attention from the real economy indicators in the United States and China
(the two biggest economies in the world in size). Both advanced indicators and assumptions
express the deceleration coincidence of these economies in the second quarter of 2013. For
example, in the United States both manufacturing and service sector continued to decelerate
in April, according to the indicators reported by the Institute for Supply Management. Also
advanced economic indicators were contracted in March , and the real estate market we saw
new signs of moderation in the process of recovery. In China most macroeconomic indicators
recorded in April communicate unfavorable developments ( in deceleration), invalidating
scenario of the economy turning.
However, euro area macroeconomic indicators persistent economic contraction in the
first quarter and the probability (up ) on its extension in the second quarter. Internally we
witnessed mixed developments of macroeconomic indicators , pointing out , the exporter with
immediate positive implications for the industry. On the other hand, domestic demand
remains a difficult environment, expression of the continuing process of adjustment (both
private and public) .
In the coming months the global economy continues to evolve at a pace below
potential , increasing the likelihood of a soft patch in the second quarter. Moreover , until we
witness the sustainable recovery of the investment in the real economy in the world, we can
not consider the convergence rate of evolution of the economy to its potential level.
Conversely, delaying investment flows causes a deterioration of the economic potential in the
world, more pronounced within developed economies.
Recent developments in key macroeconomic indicators continue to express
preconditions global benign/negative for equity markets in the short term perspective,
especially given the recent incorporation of expansionary monetary measures ( changing tone
FED monetary policy meeting, reducing the benchmark interest Eurozone and non - standard
monetary measures in Japan), and the closeness of the final season on the first quarter
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
financial reports also draw attention to the fact that developments in the property market in
recent years could be amplifying signals on volatility capital markets in the coming quarters.
During the last years, Romania has undergone a comprehensive process of
macroeconomic adjustment (both private sector and public sector), the Great Depression
Following the incident wave. In terms of aggregate demand variable investments were most
affected by this process : the share of gross fixed capital formation in GDP has declined from
33 % in 2007 ( record ) at only 26 % (in 2009 and 2010 ) , stagnating at 28 % in 2011 and
2012.
Basically, Romania has faced since the second half of 2008 with an unfavorable
investment climate , led to the phenomenon of " sudden -stop" external financing (which
triggered deleveraging), and the drought of capital (foreign investment flows decline reduced
rate of absorption of European funds, low domestic capital).
However, recent developments in the macroeconomic and financial indicators
expressing the fact that 2013 was a year seems to be turning for the investment climate in
Romania . I mean that from 2013 Romania began to reap the benefits of macroeconomic
adjustment efforts in previous years , in a context characterized by increasing international
financial macro- environment ( prerequisites for accelerating real economy in the world in
2014 and 2015).
Basically, in 2013 the Romanian economy has achieved an important gain macro -
financial stability , a trend driven by both external factors ( inflection Eurozone positive
climate in international financial markets ) and internal ( low political risk, further reforms
agreed with financial institutions international agricultural production record, the impact on
inflation).
The current account deficit recorded the lowest in the history of post -revolutionary
(about 1% of GDP to 11 months ), evolving mainly determined by the balance of trade in
goods and services. Exports registered a record level in 2013, a trend supported by the
inflection of the Eurozone (the main economic partner ), and the reorientation of companies to
markets outside the European Union. On the other hand, imports difficult climate experienced
in the field of domestic demand. The record level of Romanian exports premise expresses
better future investment plans of companies with exposure to foreign markets , especially in
the context of signals of economic recovery in the Eurozone ( the region's GDP will increase
in 2014, after two years of decline).
Also, there was a favorable trend in foreign direct investment in Romania in the
second half of 2013.
For example , in November FDI stood at EUR 572 million, the best monthly trend in
recent years. At 11 months FDI rose by over 20 % year / year to about 2.4 billion. These
developments expressed a high probability in the gross fixed capital formation increase in the
coming quarters .
However, in 2013 Romania out of the excessive deficit procedure , and public finances
have continued to adjust ( the budget deficit was around 2.5 % of GDP last year , the
minimum of the last seven years) . Including Romanian government securities in the indices
JPMorgan , combined with a favorable feeling in financial markets has contributed to
substantial capital inflows in the bond market , as reflected by the decline in the funding of
the state (currently at historic lows) a barometer for cost private sector funding .
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
This was determined by the monetary policy decisions of the National Bank of
Romania. NBR has initiated a new cycle of monetary policy normalization (reducing
benchmark interest since July 2013, a gradual lowering of reserve requirements as of January
2014) attenuation due to pressure on financial stability and inflationary pressures (in
currently, inflation is at historic lows amid record agricultural harvest in 2013).
Foreign investment fell by 40 % over the same period last year and the account
balance of payments remains plus . This year Romania returned the current account surplus
for the first time since 1990 return to current account surplus was characterized by analysts as
" a pleasant surprise " , "good news " in the context in which Romania has registered last three
years, on average, a current account deficit of 4.2 % of GDP.
For the full year 2013, analysts adjusted their forecasts for the current account deficit
of 4% of GDP to 3% of GDP. Romania remains the country from Central and Eastern Europe
with the highest dependence on portfolio investment to finance the current account deficit.
And foreign direct investment are in free fall, while the absorption of European funds is not
very encouraging. In the first five months of 2013, foreign direct investments in Romania
amounted to only 414 million. Euros, 37% below the same period last year.
Romania recorded the highest inflation rate in the 27 EU Member States in June,
4,5%, while the inflation rate rose to 1,6% in the euro area and from 1,7% the European
Union, according to revised estimates released Tuesday by the European Statistical Office
(Eurostat).
Inflation in the euro area is below the target envisaged by the European Central Bank
(ECB), which wants to keep price increases below, but close to, two percent. The lowest
annual inflation rates were registered last month in Greece (0,3%), Latvia and Poland (both
0,2%) and the highest was in Romania (4,5%), Estonia (4,1%) and the Netherlands (3,2%). In
June, compared with the previous month, the annual inflation rate rose in 18 EU Member
States fell in six countries and remained stable in two. Despite the vast majority of price
stability, Romania is the middle of 2013 in the top European countries where annual inflation
4,5%.
More than 2% theoretical desideratum, which falls two thirds of the EU and European
environments far away from the reference (1,7% in EU, 1,6% in the Eurozone and 1,5%
required for compliance with Maastricht criteria).
External debt decreases slightly, foreign investment decreased by 40% and the balance
of payments account remains plus. The current account of the balance of payments has
managed to remain in the first five months of surplus, while foreign investment plummeted by
almost 40% over the same period last year, while external debt fell slightly below the 100
billion. euros. The current account of the balance of payments recorded during January to
May 2014 a surplus of 314 million euros. Contrasted with 2,3 billion deficit. Euros in the
same period in 2012.
Development was influenced by reduced trade deficit and revenue, and the surplus of
the services balance.In this year Romania returned to current account surplus for the first time
since 1990 return to current account surplus was characterized analysts as "a pleasant
surprise", "good news" in the context in which Romania has registered in the last three years,
on average, a current account deficit of 4.2% of GDP. For the full year 2013, analysts
adjusted their forecasts for the current account deficit of 4% of GDP to 3% of GDP. Romania
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remains the country from Central and Eastern Europe with the highest dependence on
portfolio investment to finance the current account deficit. And foreign direct investment are
in free fall, while the absorption of European funds is not very encouraging. In the first five
months of this year, foreign direct investments in Romania amounted to only 414 million.
Euros, 37% below the same period last year3.
4. The implications of foreign investment in the domestic market
Economic effects on foreign direct investment have had in the economies in transition
90 can be traced macro and micro. Transition economies needed a greater investment than
savings strengthened. This is explained by the fact that transition economies have been facing
since 1990 with a structural crisis that necessitated the creation of new production capacity or
upgrade existing ones.
In this context, foreign direct investment would have positive implications at the
macroeconomic level by stimulating domestic investment activity and improving the quality
of investment. FDI had in countries that have achieved significant levels and effects on
macroeconomic balances4.
Reducing domestic investment financed by the state, and the takeover by foreign
investors of part of these investments contributed to a better situation of the balance of
payments by reducing the amount of imported capital goods. However, a large volume of
foreign direct investment led sector and changes to the structure and to improve the technical
level.
Another positive implication of FDI on transition economies is determined by their
contribution to economic growth. This occurs in different ways, as foreign investment in the
form of new investments (greenfield) or a foreign investor participation in privatization,
where new investment contribution to growth is evident, in that it creates a new production
capacity of new jobs, a new consumer and taxpayer in the economy.
If participation in privatization, the positive effect on economic growth remain, even
though most of the time, taking a foreign investor enterprises has meant fewer jobs. The
reason is that the foreign investor, even restricting activity has maintained an economic viable
that otherwise probably would not have survived long in the new competitive economic
climate.
For transition economies FDI has a direct impact on the process of privatization.
Given the large amount of capital involved in the privatization process in each country, it is
obvious that in the absence of foreign investors can not actually speak of a widespread
privatization. This is particularly evident in the case of privatization of public utilities
(telecommunications, energy, water, mail, etc.) or large firms, the multibillion dollar values
virtually eliminates the possibility of participation of local investors.
The immediate effect of foreign investment in privatization is complex and dual. Thus,
beyond the collection of large amounts of the State, less pleasant effects occur and drastically
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reduced staff and reduced production capacity. Looking at things from a historical
perspective, the effect of foreign investment in privatization is clearly positive because, on the
one hand, there is an increase in productivity and quality in privatized companies and on the
other hand, there is a real alternative to keeping businesses and staff as inherited from the
central planning system.
FDI direct effects on the trade balance. The practical realization of investments
determined at baseline, import of machinery and equipment, financed by foreign investors in
this kind of resolve deadlock caused on the one hand the lack of currency in the state or the
local entrepreneurs to achieve those imports and on the other hand, the lack of domestic
produc If the foreign investor produces primarily for export, then, depending on the
destination of the proceeds, there is a potential positive effect on the trade balance. All
positive effect can be achieved and the production for the domestic market if this type of
import substitution is made. FDI caused by participation in the privatization process may have
favorable effects on the balance of payments, providing significant amounts of capital in
critical periods. FDI impact on revenues.
The net effect is difficult, if not impossible, to quantify, however we will mention
some of the possible effects. Providing tax incentives have an immediate effect of reducing
revenues. This effect should not be calculated mechanically, because it is not clear how many
companies (and thus how taxpayers) would have occurred in the absence of facilities.
On the other hand, business development driven by providing incentives or a low tax
makes the number of enterprises and their business volume increase, which means more
revenue to the budget.
Provide financial incentives (cover part of the investment) is certainly a way out of
the budget, as rising unemployment due to privatization (including foreign investors) means
extra costs to the budget. But making viable businesses as a result of privatization, the
establishment of foreign-owned companies competitive qualifying facilities but may involve
horizontal industry companies increases revenue means budget.
Microeconomic effects of FDI are more concrete and visible, especially in economies in
transition. Access to modern technology and management know-how, the markets were
strongly felt old and outdated companies in transition economies, in addition, modernization
of enterprises with foreign capital usually has a driving effect among domestic enterprises.
For the case of foreign investment in productive enterprise modernization effect is
transmitted to subcontractors at local distribution network, marketing techniques.
Analysis of the transition economies has shown that restructuring and modernization were
more intense in companies with foreign capital. Also, virtually all cases, capital investments
were accompanied by modernizing management, manufacturing nomenclature change and
staff training.
Another specific feature of enterprises with foreign capital is that, in their case,
restructuring and reorganization have been decided and the more quickly even if they were
social costs involved. The explanation can be found in both market experience greater foreign
investor and the fact that it operates in terms of financial and time constraints clear, unlike
governments that are more susceptible to social pressures and the implications of effector
thereof.
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Foreign direct investment can generate a variety of positive effects, but the specific
conditions of transition economies are not excluded and some negative effects. These negative
effects can be even more significant as the receiving countries do not have well-structured
economic policies and sectoral options farms.
To understand the relationship between the existence of economic policies and the
impact of foreign investors take the hypothetical case of an economy in which investments
were made a number of traditional societies. Each of these companies has complex
programming models for planning and optimizing profit to the entire society.
Under these conditions, each of transnational corporations investing will determine a local
optimum market, optimal set not by state interests, especially as result of these decisions
taken by different companies in various fields to match the overall optimum the economy.
This should not be understood as a possible antagonism investor - the receiving country, but
the situation must be understood in the context of the negotiation classic seller - buyer each
pursues its own interests to go out a balance.
The conclusion is that, in the absence of clear economic policy, the receiving country
may face economic distortions as net investments in the national economy declined in 2013
and 2014, the most pronounced trend was recorded in the segment of equipment (including
vehicles) .
Thus, if the overall decrease was about 10% both last year and the first quarter of this
year, the equipment she approached 14% in 2013 and 11% in the first quarter of 2014.
However, regardless of the percentage progress overall share of industry remained quite high
(you can only see a reduction of about one percent from 2011 to 2013), with a local maximum
in the first quarter 2014. There is continued growth of interest in agriculture sector with high
potential to increase labor productivity. Investments in construction are those that have been
hit hard in 2013 and has not returned any in the first part of 2014, after the 2012 comeback
attempt anticipated resumption of trade and consumption remains an attractive area for capital
investment, but keep weight close to one third of last year after deposit5.
Obligations to international institutions gradually reducing the budget deficit and the
continuation of a mix of left and right side indexing social policies, combined with the
reduction in the tax business for decreasing public investment.
It became a pressure valve in the budget resolution, while the receipts have not kept
pace with economic growth. The steepest decline was recorded on the expenditure
reimbursable financing programs. This not only significantly decreased, but the decrease rate
itself has increased from 2011 onwards. No national grant programs have continued growth,
but this positive outlook. It was reduced in 2013 to enter into negative territory in the first half
of this year due to the action of foreign investors (with the competitive technical parameters).
5.Conclusions
XXI century has been characterized by a deepening economic globalization process
accelerated, global flows of foreign direct investment is one of the main manifestations of this
process. Between 1987 - 1997 global FDI flows have seen a doubling every five years.
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Meanwhile, since 1999, global sales of subsidiaries of transnational corporations have always
been more than two times higher than world exports, making FDI is more important than
trade in terms of providing goods and services to foreign markets.
The first decade of the new century has been characterized by tortuous developments of
global FDI flows.
From a peak in 2000, was passed during 2001-2004 to reductions in volume of global
foreign direct investment flows, and in 2007 to exceed the 2000 global economic crisis
manifested in 2008 and 2009 temporarily halted this trend, but in the medium term it will
certainly be resumed. Overcoming the crisis will bring about a change in the world economic
order, but this will not only positively influence the role of foreign direct investment in the
global economic cycle. The importance and effects of FDI attracted, rightly, attention all
states and resulted in a fierce competition to attract mobile capital. An economic stakes so
high it could not be left solely to market forces or the level of microeconomic decision
specific to each investor.
Currently, foreign investors assess the investment climate in a country, not only
through foreign investment policies, but also in terms of organizational macroeconomic
policies. Among the policy measures that may have a direct effect on foreign investors
include membership in regional integration organizations, since this has an effect on a key
economic factor or market size and its growth prospects. In fact, these factors belonging to
such an organization could be considered as an economically determining itself. Regional
integration organizations can cover a wide range of integration measures, which include the
reduction of duties among the members, to harmonize policies in various fields.
In fact, what are the criteria on which stops a foreign investor for its decision making?
Since growth can be achieved only through profitable operations market is influenced by
factors that are dependent on the investor, or are beyond his control, investors seek to reduce
any element of uncertainty and always seek information and documents necessary
predictability in decision making.
They also appreciate the existence of a healthy economic environment, welcoming. It
is also important to investors the government's attitude (courtesy, reserve, indifference) and
his commitment to support, to some extent almost but not necessarily the reality of the
"perception" that attitude matters and central concern of observations is usually "political
stability". It extends to the macroeconomic and regulatory environment in the country.
At the macroeconomic level, the foreign investor seeks free trade and economic
environment, low domestic inflation (or control), free foreign exchange market and the
possibility of transferring profits outside freedom to trade, freedom to invest abroad and
freedom to repatriate capital.
At the microeconomic level, is concerned more skilled labor availability, cost and
labor productivity, attitude of trade unions, the cost of rent, energy and transport, disposal of
materials and costs, transport infrastructure, costs, telecommunications and relative
independence from the bureaucracy.
Decision of transnational corporations, the banks, private individuals to invest in
Romania, keep their strategy on medium and long terme is based primarily economic
considerations but also political and even military.
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Actual location country investment occurs to the specific country or another, the
extent to which factors present in the country are in line with investors' interests and
availability. Romania has outstanding location advantages to attract foreign investors,
including:
- Domestic appreciable size (more than 22 million consumers);
- Higher labor abundance enhanced by a high degree of preparation and low
cost than the European average;
- Has the widest range of raw materials and natural resources in the area and
maybe even in Europe; it has oil, natural gas, coal, ores diverse, iron, copper, lead, gold, salt
etc .; even if some of these resources are in insufficient quantities (the necessary imports),
their great diversity to maintaining the active state of production and in terms of a likely
collapse in international relations as happened during the two world wars:
- Fertile soil for agriculture, large wooded areas, hidrodensă network and considerable
tourism potential and diversified (mountains, seaside sanatorium) are attractive sources for
foreign investors;
- Dense network of inland transport and communication and its connection to the
European system, the proximity of new transport routes and bus waterway that links the Black
Sea and the North Sea and crosses eight European countries, the ports (port of Constanta - the
first largest between the Black Sea ports);
- Geo-economic location very favorable at the intersection of international roads,
Romania being like a net cast into the center of economic circles, the first access to a market
of 200 million consumers, the latter reaching China relations are consistent with and
systematic;
- Favorable institutional framework is complemented by other economic factors
although not have a stimulatory action: political stability and uniformity of the state, which
excludes the risk of territorial disintegration of the kind that occurred in Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia and the USSR in particular ;
- Romanian culture and civilization modeled after Western and Latin origin the same
as France, Italy, Spain, Portugal founding members of the European Union is a not
insignificant advantage.
Besides the above is given by law a number of facilities that can have a positive
influence in their decision to invest6.
Bibliography:
Anghelache C. – „România 2005. Starea economică în an electoral‖, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 2005
Cazan E. – „Managementul producţiei‖, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara,
2002.
Cistelecan L. – „Economia, eficienţă şi finanţarea investiţiilor‖, Editura economica,
Bucureşti, 2002.
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Moise Simona,Strategii holistice de atragere a investițiilor străine în industria de automobile din Romania, Editura Sitech,
2014, Craiova, ISBN 978-606-11-4169-2
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Constantinescu N.N. – „Reformă, redresare economică‖, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 1995;
Crudiu G., Cornescu V., Bucur I. – „Economia‖, Editura ALL BACK, Bucureşti,
2003.
Dăianu D. – „Inter-enterprise Arrears in a Post-command Economy‖, Polirom, Iaşi,
2000.
Dăianu D. – „Încotro se îndreaptă ţările post-comuniste‖, Polirom, Iaşi, 2000.
Dăianu D., Vranceanu R. – „România şi Uniunea Europeană‖, Polirom, Iaşi, 2002.
Dinu M. – „Criza Reformei‖, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 1999;
Dinu M., Mereuţă C. – „Economia României, 1990 - 2000, Compendiu‖, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 2001;
Fota C. – „Comerţ internaţional şi politici comerciale internaţionale‖, Manual
universitar, Editura ALMA, Craiova, 2000.
Hindlez B. – „Foreign Direct Investement: The Effects of Rules of Origin‖, Discussion
Paper No.30, Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 1990.
Iancu A. – „Politică şi Economie - repere ale unui sistem economic performant‖,
Editura Expert, Bucureşti, 2000.
Moise S., ‖Strategii holistice de atragere a investițiilor străine în industria de
automobile din Romania‖, 2014, Editura Sitech, ISBN 978-606-11-4169-2
Moise S., „Studiu integrativ privind investițiile străine în industria de automobile din
România‖, Editura Sitech, 2014, ISBN 978-606-11-4170-8
Negriţoiu M. – „Salt înainte-Dezvoltarea şi investiţiile străine directe‖, Pr&Expert,
Bucureşti, 1996.
Niculescu N.G., Adumitrăcesei I.D. – „Eficientizarea economiei româneşti
postdecembriste. De ce? Se poate? Cum?‖, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000;
Pârvu Gh. (coordonator) – „Microeconomie‖, Editura Literară, Craiova, 2003.
Pîrvu, Gh. (coord.) – „Economie politică‖, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2000;
Pohoanţă I. – „Capitalismul - Intinerare economice‖, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 2000.
Radu F., Buşe L., Dincă M. – „Analiza economico-financiară a firmei‖, Editura
Scrisul Românesc, Craiova, 2001.
Rusu M. – „Investiţiile străine directe‖, Editura „Secolul XXI‖, Craiova, 2000.
***www.ase.ro
***www.mfinante.ro
***www.npd-solutions.com
***www.tribunaeconomica.ro
***www.valuebasedmanagement.net
***www.zf.ro
http://www.zf.ro/opinii/cum-comenteaza-daniel-daianu-recesiunea-tehnica-a-
economiei-romanesti-si-care-sunt-implicatiile-13096615
http://cursdeguvernare.ro/
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DIRECTIONS AND ARGUMENTS ON THE INTERNATIONALIZATION
PROCESS OF ENTERPRISES
Simona Moise, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University of Bucharest
Abstract: The internationalization process is closely related to the degree , constantly
increasing integration of national economies into the global economy. This trend can be
observed at both the macroeconomic and the company's activity. Therefore we can say that
globalization , as a process of deepening economic interdependence , covering both
macroeconomic structures and on the microeconomic companies.
Orientation companies , whatever their size , to seek new business opportunities outside the
national perimeter , even large geographical distances , is widening. The motion tracking
trends in international trade scene become indispensable business successful management of
any company .
The concept of internationalization of the business of an has acquired multiple meanings, as
understood in various ways: from the entry ways of a company in a foreign market, the
relationship between company management "mother" on the domestic market, and companies
―daughter‖ from abroad and to the abstract concept of economic activities undertaken at a
company across national borders.
Keywords: international business, transactions, internationalization, competition,
enterprises, monopoly market.
1. Introduction
The internationalization process is closely related to the degree, constantly increasing
integration of national economies into the global economy. This trend can be observed at both
the macroeconomic and the companies' activities. Therefore we can say that globalization, as
a process of deepening economic interdependence, covering both macroeconomic structures,
and those micro firms. Orientation companies, whatever their size, to seek new business
opportunities outside the national perimeter, even large geographical distances, is widening.
The motion tracking trends in international trade scene become indispensable successful
management of any business enterprise.
There are numerous definitions of internationalization.
Understood as a function of marketing, the concept of internationalization of
businesses responding to the question of alternatives penetration of foreign markets. This
meaning, however omits significant areas involved that process, as supply and research -
development, production and funding to support economic activity abroad.
The purpose integrator, business internationalization is the body of methods,
techniques and tools in the service of the company's strategic approach to active abroad.
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Affairs were defined as "all transactions involving two or more countries." Business
relationships can be private or governmental1.
Another definition considers that international business is "business whose activities
involve crossing national borders2." Affairs have been defined and as "those business
activities of public or private companies involving movement across national borders
resources, goods, services and skills." Resources involved in the transfer are the raw
materials, capital, labor and technology. The assets transferred include semi-finished and
finished products, and services transferred include activities such accounting, legal advice,
banking, etc. Skills refers to the managerial and technical skills3.
The internationalization of firms can be defined as a "process of increasing
involvement in international operations company."
• Firstly, the definition suggests a distinction between inward business strategy (for
local businesses) and business strategy oriented towards the external environment
(environment outside the company, global); domestic orientation is conservative, closed,
specific national economy, "unmarketized" the second orientation towards the external market
is open and the market economy, capitalist.
• Secondly, the definition implies a frame of reference - the national economy; global
business environment is defined in terms of national space policy; therefore, from this point
of view, interior orientation requires firms conduct their business in the national business;
outward orientation characterize firms operating in the international environment that is more
diversified compared to the national meeting; conditions within the external environment -
physical, social, competitive - affects how business functions are performed.
Based on this definition we can determine the degree of internationalization of a firm,
the ratio of the value of sales abroad and turnover. In terms of the pace and direction of the
internationalization process in the literature opinions were divided, with many controversies
and scientific controversy.
Has been much discussion whether firms internationalize their activities through a
gradual process, covering a specified number of stages of development and that this pattern of
"internationalization stages" available to large companies, operating well established markets,
or only for companies small, not much international experience. Also, the question arose
whether companies using their experience may avoid certain stages of the internationalization
process. These are just some of the questions that arose during the study of the
internationalization process.
The difference in approach to internationalization is caused by the different ways of
understanding the nature of this process: as an evolutionary process and that one accident,
undetermined factors. Between these two theories, one that seems to be required in the
literature is evolutionary, but within it there are several approaches. Some authors consider
that all companies follow the same process of internationalization and that it is possible to
return to the succession stages of development (evolution theory Unilin).
1
Pop Nicolae, Al. Dumitru, Ionel, ―Maketing internaţional‖, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti, 2001.
2
Besancenot D., Vranceanu R. – „Macroeconomic conseqences of voucher privatization in a model with incomplete
information‖, Policy Reform, 2000.
3
Cazan E. – „Managementul producţiei‖, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara, 2002.
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Others think that the internationalization process of evolving stable periods alternate
with those in which, in order to further develop the company, necessary transformations of
business strategy. Firm internationalization process is not strictly determined, organized linear
stages known beforehand (cyclical theory of evolution). Internationalization is a reversible
process. Once company engaged in the internationalization of its activities, there is the
inevitability of continuing the process.
Reverse internationalization - or "de-nationalization", namely decreasing involvement
in international operations - can occur at any stage of the process. Most approaches tend to
recognize this side flexible and comprehensive internationalization and interdependence
between environmental factors and the strategy adopted by the company for the deployment
and maintenance of this process.
2. The context of internationalization of companies
Motivations of internationalization of firms can be grouped into two categories:
reactive and proactive. Reactive motivations are a response to internationalize the company at
various pulses and pressures coming from the business.
• Minimize risk of competition - the contemporary economy, companies are
constantly under pressure from local competitors and generally locals as well as foreign ones.
Statements that a company may face are diverse: loss of market share in favor of a competitor
who has the advantage of economies of scale due to international activities or loss of foreign
markets for competitors who specialize in these markets.
Companies that exhibit passivity declines sooner or later. Companies that operate
internationally switch to defensive reasons related to competition trying to counteract the
advantages that competitors or potential competitors might gain from operations abroad,
advantages that can be used, then against them internally4.
For example, a company believed that another company could get big profits in a
given foreign market, if left to operate alone in the market. These profits could then be used in
various ways (for example, additional advertising or for developing better products in terms
of quality) to improve competitive position. The company that manifest this fear can enter
foreign markets primarily to prevent a competitor to gain such advantages5.
• Reduction in domestic sales (measured as sales volume or market share form) or
reducing their perspective - if the products sold on the domestic market is declining stage of
their life cycle, rather than extend the lifecycle domestic product, companies can opt
concurrently or not this effort to extend the life cycle through market expansion.
Overproduction usually occurs when the domestic market is in a decline and then the
foreign market is the key to selling existing stocks due to over-firm internationalization is not
usually the involvement of management, but a solution security company, because when
demand returns to previous levels, international activities are restricted or even abandoned.
• Proximity to customers in neighboring countries - sometimes the distance to them
is much lower than from buyers in the country. Most European companies are internationally
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Research Centre for Business Administration and Managerial Studies, Editura Reprograph, Craiova, ISBN: 978-973-671-
162-6, 2011
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Băbeanu M., Stănescu D.C – „Piaţa. Principii şi sistem‖, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2002
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because their customers are located in geographically close countries.
Proactive motivations involve voluntary engagement in international affairs firm, in order to
capitalize and create comparative advantages and competitive strategy.
• Access to resources is a common motivation for internationalization decision. It is
the possibility of supply, on a stable, natural resources: minerals (especially zinc, copper,
bauxite), raw materials (especially oil), agricultural products (eg rubber, tobacco, sugar,
bananas, pineapple, oil palm, coffee, tea, etc.) and also the possibility of access to
intermediate goods (materials, parts, assemblies) resources and technological know-how,
managerial, organizational and marketing and financial resources by harnessing opportunities
offered by the global market or governments where businesses are located.6
This rationale is based on commercial operations (eg long-term contracts), and some
forms of strategic alliances and cooperation, as well as subcontracting, joint ventures etc.
Creating competitive advantage through cost reduction is another motivation for
internationalization very common. This can be achieved through a favorable balance between
the costs and labor productivity in different countries where they are located assembly or
production units also cost reduction can be achieved through economies of scale and scope,
which contributes to lower costs production and reduce transaction costs7.
• Facilities granted to certain countries for foreign investment and production
located in those countries exert a favorable influence on costs (reduction of customs duties
for products imported under industrial cooperation agreements and production development in
the host country, reducing or eliminating income tax reinvested etc.).
Example can be taken Disney relying on cheap production bases in China, Taiwan,
which provides clothing to souvenirs markets. The potential benefits of this practice are
obvious: profit margin can be increased and cost savings can be passed on to consumers
(through lower pricing), consumers who in turn buy more products, leading to increased
profits, through a higher volume of sales.
• Using comparative advantage to expand business and increase profits by
capitalizing on technology benefits, salaries, endowment of natural resources, know-how
commercial advantages due to brands.
For example, technological advances available to the company can be better exploited
by internationalization (especially technical innovation capability of the company in the
production, which allows the company to launch the market superior products in terms of
quality and functional products that can be better capitalized on various international markets
over their whole life).
Also internationally may be better capitalized and the company's ability to have a
diversified and can adapt to different markets (capacity obtained all through advanced trading
technology and production flexibility).
• Reinforcement of the company, both in foreign markets and the internal and export
becoming a business card recognition prestige of a firm. Also permanetizarea foreign trade
activity, increasing the share of the world market in one area or another allows companies to
6
Cazan E. – „Managementul producţiei‖, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara, 2002
7
Cistelecan Lazăr – „Economia, eficienţă şi finanţarea investiţiilor‖, Editura economica, Bucureşti, 2002.
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set the tone in price thrive to become the characteristic markets, benchmark, which is
beneficial for those units.
• Another motivation is the attitude prointernationalization, proactive
management of internationally oriented entrepreneurship. To explain this rationale, must
be considered promoters of internationalization forces. Some authors talk about the "material
determinism" (he considers internationalization are based on objective factors outside the
firm, which requires the company to adapt to survive and grow), while others adopt the
principle of behavioral determinism "(these authors believe that internationalization is a
product of the decisions they adopt the company's management in order to develop it, the
opportunities available, adaptation to the environment).
Both visions stresses, however, the necessity of internationalization and that this
process is the result of a complex set of objective and subjective factors. The two approaches
differ in the importance they attach to the role of the two categories of factors: material
(environment) and behavior (the decision).
External market orientation of management (export - import) can be explained by the
fact that, using international experience, companies can develop strategies for diversification
and hedging, which is of great importance for the stability and business development8.
• Extension of information and communication in the context of globalization is
another proactive internationalization motivation, but at the same time a condition of
international expansion.
A communications network tidy allow faster development of business, establishing
contacts with market participants, enabling contact deepening business relationships and
improving them, especially the need to consider the current phenomenon of globalization, the
information becomes a true source of power9.
Also be considered and the benefits obtained monopolistic multinational companies to
"newcomers" who have not developed network of information technology and does not have
control spending must be important to study the existing environment in the countries where
they want to work, to know the needs and preferences of consumers and to impose products in
new markets.
At the same time, it is impossible to more complex stages of internationalization
process with continuous accumulation of information (learning by doing), without the
development of knowledge concerning the characteristics of the international business
environment, efficient methods of operation, etc. Also, in the later stages of increasing
internationalization and the need for control over the process control can not be achieved in an
efficient manner with a developed network of information.
3. Cooperation and international alliances
The internationalization of business activities can be achieved through various forms
of strategic alliances and international cooperation, which can be framed in terms of
internationalization intensity between commercial operations and foreign implantation10.
8
Ciucur D., Gavrilă I., Popescu C. – „Economie, manual universitar‖, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2001;
9
Voinea L. – „Corporaţiile transnaţionale şi economiile naţionale‖, Editura IRLI, 2001
10
Dăianu D. – „Inter-enterprise Arrears in a Post-command Economy‖, Polirom, Iaşi, 2000
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Alliances and cooperation aimed at establishing sustainable relationships in order to
achieve a common strategy in the areas of asset management. These relationships may have
an informal (managerial level agreements) may be based on contracts or cooperation can be
achieved within institutional structures.
In relation to commercial operations, alliances and cooperation to customize the
subject of complex, cooperative spirit and character of the stability of relations between
partners, creating and developing complementarities technical, commercial, financial,
between the parties.
On the other hand, in relation to the forms of implantation abroad, alliances and
cooperation has a lower degree of integration and institutionalization, preserving the partners
and decision-making autonomy and legal identity. The main forms of alliances and
international cooperation are:
• working on a contractual basis, which may include licensing agreements, franchising,
subcontracting, etc., all are forms of international transfer of production technology
(licensing, subcontracting) or marketing (franchising);
• strategic alliances in the form of associations, consortia, etc. on building common
goals, turnkey, consulting - engineering etc .;
• institutionalized cooperation, represented by joint ventures;
4. Operations technology transfer
In relation to the international sale of these operations do not involve export of
manufactured, but use a strategic advantage resulted in marks, patents, technical expertise. It
follows that the relationship between the parties no longer stands, or lies not only in the
sphere of trade, but they involve production systems of the partners.
Therefore, we need another approach to business cooperation issues (based on the
common interests of the partners) tend to overlap with specific elements relations debtor -
creditor. Licensing is selling the right to use patented technical knowledge by an exporter to a
foreign customer, at a price to be paid in a lump sum, in periodic payments (royalties) or by
combining the two formulas.
The licensor - owner licensing law - less risk penetrate foreign markets and exploit
their strategic advantage, and the licensee - the owner the right to use - benefit from the
experience of production or product, but also a learning process, which permitted to provide
or to increase their competitiveness.
Unlike export, if the license product or service is done abroad and not in the home. By
using the license as a form of entry into foreign markets, a company can ensure the presence
in certain markets without capital investment in these markets.
We can therefore say that the license transfer has advantages, but it has also some
drawbacks. Thus, the assignment of licenses in high-tech industries has a double advantage:
rapid penetration strongly competitive environment, which allows the licensor to define
technology standards and driving rapid return on research expenditures - development
(Japanese company "Motorola" for example, has licensed the technology to achieve its
microprocessors company "Toshiba" precisely for this reason).
Assignment of license can be used successfully by companies that do not have the
knowledge required active involvement in the international market. Also, licensing is an
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appropriate strategy in those markets that do not have a high enough potential to justify the
actions of scale or have not been tested enough. In this way, the license provides a good
opportunity to test those markets without capital investment.
In some countries the political and economic situation seems uncertain license
agreement avoids the potential risks associated with foreign investments.
In some countries where domestic markets are highly protected, license transfer may be the
only form of penetration in those markets, thus, as many countries have imposed monopoly
on tobacco company "Philip Morris" could not get in six European countries such West and
four in Eastern Europe by the governments of these countries licensing the production and
sale of its marks11.
Also, licensing creates the possibility for the licensor to negotiate parallel agreements
that are not directly related to the supply of custom license materials and components, thus
expanding market presence. Assignment of License has some drawbacks. One of these is the
strong dependence of activity licensor has not always able to successfully run their
businesses.
What fees are usually charged as a percentage of sales, the licensor may suffer
financial losses. Also, licensed product quality may suffer. And licensor image may be
affected if the product deviates quality standards. License agreements usually ends for a
period of time. While the assignment may be extended, some governments do not allow this.
Licensee may become, in this case, the competitor of the licensor. This is the reason why
Japanese companies, for example, are reluctant to enter into license agreements with Chinese
companies. Because of lower wages in China, the Japanese license transfer would create
strong competitors not only in China but in markets which Japanese companies are currently
present.
A special form of licensing is the franchise. The franchise is a commercial technology
transfer, the beneficiaries receive the right to carry out economic activities (manufacturing
and services) under a recognized brand belonging to the exporter. As with licensing, business
success for both parties depends on whether they manage to establish lasting relationships
with cooperative character. The franchise is a growing form of licensing in which the
franchisor provides a standard package of products, systems and services management and
franchisee providing market information, capital and management personnel. Combining
abilities allow flexibility in dealing with local market conditions and at the same time provide
a degree of franchising firm control. The franchisee can track marketing process, which runs
until the final point of sale. This is an important form of vertical integration marketing. The
franchise can be achieved effectively combining centralization with decentralization of
operations capabilities and become an important form of international marketing.
Underproduction or subcontracting goes primarily to the requirements of creating a
competitive advantage by enhancing complementarities between partners: the exporter
transfers the production of a final product (underproduction of capacity) or of components and
subassemblies (underproduction specialist ) the importer company benefiting from more
favorable production conditions (lower costs of labor, access to material resources, facilities
investment); access importer exporter manufacturing technology (technical documentation,
personnel training, etc.), and may assert inputs.
11
Negriţoiu M. – „Salt înainte-Dezvoltarea şi investiţiile străine directe‖, Pr&Expert, Bucureşti, 1996
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5. Strategic alliances
The 90s were characterized by using a new way of internationalization listed as
competitive strategies. Thus, one of the most significant trends in this area is the development
of strategic alliances established between various multinational companies operating in the
global market, strategic alliances are a component of marketing strategies aimed at entering
the market and represent agreements between two or more companies that intend to compete
in a particular market or foreign. Partners of such an alliance convinced combine their efforts
to achieve a common goal. One of the essential conditions for the conclusion of such an
agreement is that companies have the resources and forces comparable 12.
The objectives of companies by creating strategic alliances are:
• maintaining global competitiveness by bringing together research efforts aimed at
development by several companies, which reduces individual costs considered very high in
contemporary economy;
• economies of scale resulting from increased production, possibly obtained through
such a partnership;
• the experience, technology and know-how of each company, joint service strategic
alliance.
Factors that may make the success of strategic alliances are generated by: purpose,
strategy to achieve the objectives, decision making position equal to participating companies,
subject to a set of cultural values mutual proper organization of management structures.
Depending on the purpose, strategic alliances can be divided into three categories:
• alliances formed to develop production, which aims at improving the efficiency of
production or recovery advantages held by each company (e.g., the "General Motors" - USA -
and "Toyota" - Japan - have signed an alliance in which they made the point producing small
capacity cars for the American market: those from "General Motors' successful Japanese
experience in manufacturing small cars," Toyota "making penetration much easier on the
American market);
• alliances formed to develop distribution through which experience is used in the
distribution of one of the firms (e.g., the alliance concluded between the companies "Hitachi"
- Japan - and "Fiatallis" - Italy - Italian company allowed to sell Japanese excavators
exchange possible use distribution network of Japan); this form of strategic alliances is called
piggy-back and can have many forms, depending on the range of products accepted by the
partner to be distributed and the number of foreign markets that are contained in that
agreement;
• alliances formed to develop technology for reducing costs and risks of scientific
research; These alliances are based on technology transfer (this was the case of companies
"Phillips" and "AT & T" which have concluded such an arrangement that allowed mutual
transfer of digital technology, with direct effects on the expansion of markets).
Outside this group, one can form strategic alliances and develop marketing mix
components for one of the target markets. As part of the category strategies penetrating
foreign markets, strategic alliances, joint ventures may be mistaken.
12
Moise S., ‖Strategii holistice de atragere a investițiilor străine în industria de automobile din Romania‖, 2014, Editura
Sitech, ISBN 978-606-11-4169-2
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Characteristic elements of strategic alliances, joint ventures which separates are:
• strategic alliances ends usually between companies that have close economic power
and part of industrialized countries, unlike joint ventures in which it is performed and
agreements between partners situated at different stages of development;
• companies that make strategic alliances are at the same time, partners and
competitors in certain markets;
• to joint ventures where there is a gap between capital contribution component firms,
strategic alliances equity participation is substantially close;
• an essential purpose in establishing strategic alliances harnessing knowledge partners
intended not covered, usually in joint ventures.
In addition to the benefits they generate, to create a strategic alliance involves a
number of potential risks:
• safety alliance may be endangered cultural and organizational differences between
firms;
• making decisions in a strategic alliance is difficult because it is a process involving a
large number of factors involving the top management of companies and causes a slowdown
in decision-making flow operation;
• disputes may arise in relation to the sharing of profits;
• can create a dangerous addiction for companies involved: if one company has
trouble, they are sent to the alliance.
Consortia are similar to joint ventures and can be classified and distinguished by two
features:
• involves a large number of members;
• operate in a country or market in which none of its members is not present.
Consortia are developed for the purpose of financial and managerial resources
together, but also to reduce risks. Often construction projects are achieved through
understanding the type consortium, the Contracting Parties, who come from different fields,
forming a separate company to make a deal. Usually, the head is one of the companies, but
the new corporation can exist independently of those who founded it.
Exports of industrial facilities - contracts "turnkey" - have features that distinguish
them from simple exports, even if the basic contractual relationship is one such creditor-
debtor.
When an international company is committed to achieve export of industrial, it is
responsible for the design and construction of the entire operation, and once the project,
depending on the company that taught the entire management staff. In return for the project,
international company receives an amount of money that can be quite substantial.
International companies are involved in the construction of electric power stations, the
construction of streets, and the complex of factories, and oil refineries, chemical plants,
automotive plants.
The joint venture is a form of cooperation between the parties, by which two or more
partners from different countries jointly conducted under an independent entity with legal
personality, production activities, marketing and distribution, financial etc., by sharing the
benefits and risks of the business.
Features cooperation through joint ventures are:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
• relations between the parties are long-term partners jointly participate in
management affairs and jointly liable;
• cooperation is organic in nature (institutionalized) in the sense that partners hold
parts of a society, which can be newly created or resulting from the conversion of an existing
company (the acquisition of shares by one of the partners);
• cooperation is a complex object and evolutionary in that it can refer to both
marketing activities and marketing (marketing joint ventures as a form of distribution (and
productive activities (form of cooperation in production) or banking (banks combined).
A joint venture thus differs from other types of strategic alliances or collaboration in
that it is a partnership of two or more companies that have joined forces to create a separate
legal entity.
Cooperation through joint ventures is an evolutionary form of internationalization, can
lead to business development through direct investments or mergers and acquisitions in the
global market13.
Joint ventures are a form commonly used for penetrating international markets as it
offers important advantages for all partners. The first advantage is the sharing of risk, which is
of great importance as political and economic conditions in many countries are still volatile.
Joint ventures also allow, maintain better relations with governments, local authorities and
trade unions.
Favorable relations with local governments is actually the main reason for the
establishment of joint ventures in developing countries (some governments provide incentives
to foreign partners in joint ventures). Another advantage is the local partner familiarity with
the economic and cultural center of the country, which allows a better perception of the
changing conditions and market needs. Not all joint ventures are successful, this is due to the
disadvantages involved in the formation of a joint venture.
Thus, among the major issues that may arise are related to the maintenance of good
relations between partners. Causes that can lead to this are conflicts of interest, disclosure of
sensitive information, complaints regarding distribution of profits, lack of communication,
cultural differences.
The joint venture "AutoLatina" established firms "Ford Motors Co." and "Volkswagen
AG" in Latin America dissolved after seven years, despite the fact that it was profitable until
the last moment, due to cultural differences between American managers and German.
Implantation is done the way foreign direct investment, which implies a long-term
option in the management company investing and participating in society in the third country.
Unlike commercial operations, the internationalization process refers to the activities of
supply - selling, in this case it is the internationalization of the firm itself, which creates its
own foreign market organizational structure ("internal growth") or participate in structures
background ("external growth")14.
Implantation of a structure aimed own abroad can be achieved only through the efforts
of the investor (by opening commercial offices, branches or creation of subsidiaries) or by
association with a local partner (creation of foreign companies).
13
Dinu M., Mereuţă C. – „Economia României, 1990 - 2000, Compendiu‖, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2001
14
Dobrotă N. (coord.) – „Economie politică‖ Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000
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The main features of implantations abroad as a form of internationalization are:
• create new entities (organizational structure) abroad, which is owned by the
originator company (trade offices, branches) or are autonomous legal entities (subsidiaries);
• internationalization process has an institutional basis and involves activities
indefinitely, certainly in relation to profit opportunities in the host country;
• implanted structures abroad can conduct foreign trade, but it may equally involve in
production operations.
The main forms of foreign direct investment are representative office, branch and
subsidiary, which are highlighted in direct proportion to increasing financial effort required
for their activity.
The Bureau of representation (also called commercial office) is an operational
department implanted abroad, which has no legal personality and can not perform acts of
commerce. Office undertake business on behalf of the manufacturer's representative and has
the following main functions:
• ensuring regular contact with foreign markets in order to identify business
opportunities and sales promotion;
• provide support to open negotiations in conducting negotiations;
• monitoring on-site mode of doing business agreements;
• coordination of service;
• gathering information and making real short term studies to help the manufacturer to
correct grounding of business.
Bureau of representation is created whenever conducting foreign trade operations
smoothly requires tracking the delivery of goods to the end user and making operational
products require technical support and service from the manufacturer.
Often sales office is a form of temporary implantation with exploratory, allowing evaluation
of the chances of success and profitability of a definitive implantation through branches and
subsidiaries.
Branch is a service company relocated abroad without legal personality. It depends
entirely, in terms of financial and administrative, the company that created it, and its scope
must be identical to the parent.
Branch is organized, registered and operates under local law and operates based on
economic self-management - financial and currency. In this regard, it has the income and
expenses whose balance is reflected in the economic - financial results of the parent company.
Conclusion of contracts with individuals or legal entities can only occur based on data
representation empowerment parent and applicable law. Branch has two main functions:
commercial and administrative.
From a commercial perspective, the presence of branch sales market allows to define,
together with the parent company, the company's commercial policy and its implementation.
From an administrative viewpoint, branch transmits commands to the parent company,
provides clearance of goods exported, making local deliveries, shall monitor the proper
conduct of the operation. The main advantages of implantation through branches are
providing continuous information on the status of outlets; carry out prospecting operations;
follows the course of the contract.
The disadvantages include:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- requiring a significant investment;
- financial risks are the responsibility of the parent;
- the selection of local presents a number of difficulties.
Branch (subsidiary) is a company incorporated abroad, which has legal personality,
but is controlled by the parent company, which has part of its share capital.
The establishment and operation of branches based on the following characteristic features:
• organizational structure and leadership are determined by the conditions of the legal
and economic environment that exists in the host country;
• branch integrates economic mechanism of country of residence;
• favorable image and prestige trading subsidiaries are crucial to establishing lasting
relationships with valued partners;
There are several ways to create a subsidiary abroad.
Taking over an existing structure is achieved by making ventures, ie a local firm.
This participation may be majority when the investor controls all decisions subsidiary
(more than two-thirds of the share capital), absolute majority (more than half) or blocking
minority (over a third). Taking control of foreign companies is a very common practice today
in the context of the wave of mergers and acquisitions in the international capital market and
the extensive privatization programs in transition countries.
Creating a new structure (ex nihilo) is a more expensive and takes more time to be
implemented. It is preferred, however, companies that want to create and develop the country
to implant a structure that fully meet the requirements of the parent company. Pair with a local
partner (who may have a minority contribution to capital) allows the parent to take advantage
of its experience and reduce installation costs. The joint venture is a business presence abroad
which combines some features of implantation with aspects of the strategic partnership of
cooperation15.
6. Conclusions
Finally, it explains why there are so few Romanian companies internationalized.
In the European Union, Romania has the second lowest level of FDI stocks abroad, by
$ 1,4 billion in 2012; worse we'll only Latvia, with $ 1,1 billion. Malta we exceeded in 2009
and Bulgaria in 2010 Bulgaria, a country with one-third of the population has a volume of
FDI abroad 1,8 billion. In Romania there are only 24 firms per thousand, while the European
average is 42 firms. Companies are suffocated by taxes and bureaucracy. Only 118 tax
witnessing changes in the last 10 years.
Expand activities abroad is a great investment for companies that require additional
resources. Government support is crucial because companies lack the resources and
information to expand operations abroad. But most importantly, companies could benefit
disproportionately competitive effects resulting from the internationalization and a large
number of companies will not take this step without Government support.
Successful policies require the involvement and coordination of all participants,
including business associations, export agencies and banks. They can provide support to
15
Moise S., „Studiu integrativ privind investițiile străine în industria de automobile din România‖, Editura Sitech, 2014,
ISBN 978-606-11-4170-8
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
companies avoiding unnecessary programs and resource allocation. Policies need to raise
awareness of the need for internationalization of companies. Ideally, it will be coupled with
easy access to support from the institutions. It is difficult to separate from the context of
internationalization principles: competitiveness and growth.
This requires a more careful approach to all areas related to support for the company's
competitiveness, particularly in the areas of innovation and internationalization.
A long-term political thought should be given to actions that lead to internationalization
positive entrepreneurship and international activities that require specialist involvement in
education. Immediate support should support companies in areas where they reported
difficulties: lack of management resources and skills for the internationalization, lack of
financial resources and useful information.
The most efficient way to ensure long-term success of internationalization is to
provide individual support for each company. The success of this support is based mostly on
skills development within companies. To increase competitiveness and development
programs need to support internationalization, not just exports. Is required contribution in aid
and promoting business networks at all levels.
Development is directly related to the competitiveness of companies in the
international market. Single Market potential is far from being exploited, but maybe it can
become a springboard for companies globally. Direct support to companies and promoting
their cooperation in the European market could lead to growth and competitiveness.
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Economică, Bucureşti, 2005
2. Blanchard, Olivier J., Macroeconomics, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall 2003
3. Cazan E. – „Managementul producţiei‖, Editura Universităţii de Vest, Timişoara,
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4. Gheorghe Ciobanu (coord.): Microeconomie. (Manualul Catedrei de Economie
Politică, Facultatea de Ştiinţe Economice, Universitatea Babeş-Bolyai), Editura Risoprint,
Cluj-Napoca, 2010
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universitar, Editura ALMA, Craiova, 2000
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Editura Expert, Bucureşti, 2000
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13.Matei V., Constantinescu M., Iacobescu A., (2006), Economie Internaţională, vol.
I, II, Editura Universitaria, Craiova
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automobile din Romania‖, 2014, Editura Sitech, ISBN 978-606-11-4169-2
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din România‖, Editura Sitech, 2014, ISBN 978-606-11-4170-8
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THE NECESSITY OF COLLABORATION BETWEEN DLAF AND
ACCOUNTING PROFESSIONALS IN ROMANIA IN THE FIGHT AGAINST
FRAUD AND IRREGULARITIES IN THE USE OF EU FUNDS
Lucia Podoabă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca,
Delia Beatrice Oprean, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Bogdan Vodă” University of Cluj-
Napoca
Abtract: From 2005 until 2013, according to reports the EU Commission, the European
Antifraud Office and the Fight against Fraud Department – DLAF, Romania registered an
upward trend of fraud and irregularities in the use of EU funds. In this paper, in the
mentioned period, we make a comparative analysis regarding the evolution of these findings,
in order to detect factors that influence the development and maintenance of these negative
issues that put Romania in an "unfavourable light". In our conclusions we take into account
the views of experts in the Academic Society of Romania (the longest-standing active think
tank in Romania), who published a "Manual of fraud of EU funds". Direct consequences of
fraud and irregularities detected are found in the indictment and final conviction of persons
found guilty of these problems (whose evolution we analyse over periods, types and amount of
European funds involved). From the analysis of activities and collaborations between DLAF
and other professional bodies in the fight against these negative aspects of the use of EU
funds, we found the lack of collaboration of these organizations with expert accountants,
auditors and fiscal consultants. High responsibility on the activities conducted by these
professionals would substantially reduce the volume and value of fraud and irregularities
identified.
Keywords: DLAF, OLAF, accounting professionals, fraud and irregularities, the EU funds.
1. Introduction
1.1. Brief introduction
In order to strengthen the legal framework regarding the fight against fraud for
protection of EU financial interests in Romania, the Romanian Government adopted on 1 June
2005 the Emergency Ordinance No. 49/2005. The duties of the Inspection Department of the
Prime Minister (Institute of contact with the OLAF) were taken by the DLAF. The principal
attribute of DLAF consists of carried out appropriate inspections concerning the obtaining, the
performing and utilization of EU funds, in order to discover irregularities and fraud affecting
the financial interests of the European Community. Since May 2011, according to Law No.
61/2011 and Government Decision 738/2011, DLAF is a structure with autonomous legal
personality, functional and independent from the other decision-making authorities and other
public institutions from Romania. An important role in the activities of OLAF at European
level and state (of each EU countries) is for the Services for Coordination of Fraud Prevention
(AFCOS). Such a structure exists in our country, called DLAF - AFCOS Romania. In
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carrying out its activities in general and implementing the National Anti-Corruption Strategy
in particular, DLAF made operational collaboration with the General Inspectorate of
Romanian Police, National Customs Authority, Central Finance and Phare Contracting,
Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Finance, the Court of Auditors, the Council of Magistrates,
the Prosecutor's Office attached to the High Court of Cassation and Justice, the National
Anticorruption Directorate, National Integrity Agency, Permanent Electoral Authority, the
Competition Council, etc. .. Regarding irregularities and fraud discovered in the use of EU
funds in the OLAF report for 2013, Romania shows an indictment rate of 46%, which
highlights the many problems facing our country in this regard. This finding can be seen in
the figure below (Table 1) extracted from the OLAF report mentioned above.
Table 1 – Actions taken by national judicial authorities following OLAF judicial
recommendations per Member State between 1 January 2006 and 31 December 2013
(Source: http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/documents/reports-
olaf/2013/olaf_report_2013_en.pdf )
To understand the work done by DLAF - AFCOS Romania to eliminate unfavorable
situations (outcomes from the figure above), you must perform a review of the reporting
activities of this institution. That is the reason why, this paper aims to formulate relevant
opinions, in order to eliminate negative situations identified by OLAF in Romania. In our
approach, we started to explain irregularities and fraud through false accounting records,
incomplete financial statements and lack of responsibility for accountants and managers
involved in these illegal activities. In addition, in analyzing the DLAF reports (from the
period 2005-2013), we noticed the lack of collaboration between this institution and the
professional bodies of accountants (Body of Expert and Licensed Accountants of Romania),
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
auditors (Chamber of Financial Auditors of Romania), tax consultant (Chamber of Tax
Consultants in Romania) and evaluators (National Union of Evaluators from Romania). We
approached to this subject of our paper, because we are part of professional bodies mentioned
above and we have participated in European funded projects. During the implementation of
these projects, we have experienced officers unable to understand the distinction between
deductible and eligible expenses, excessive paperwork and deadlines settlement non-respected
by the authorities for implementation. Considering the subject of our work, from the
beginning we must emphasize that we have not found any concern of Romanian and / or
foreign specialist to this topic. Instead, we found the opinions of experts in similar topics.
1.2. Literature review
Related to work of OLAF, White S. (1999) realized a paper in which he debated about
some issues raised by OLAF's increasing powers: independence, lifting of immunities and the
possibility of an inter‐institutional role. Ilett N. (2004) has outlined in his study the function
of the European Anti‐Fraud Office, known as OLAF and created in 1999: to protect the
finances of the European Commission by fighting fraud, corruption and other irregular
activities. Vlogaert J. (2006) present in his paper OLAF‘s overall structure, legal basis,
competencies and operational network, and will also give an insight into day-to-day
investigative activities, showing the problems that OLAF is currently facing in investigations
in this area. European organizations are supported in their work by the quality of specific
policy makers. That is why, Quirke B.J. (2007) believed that the fight against fraud was
fatally undermined by the high degree of fragmentation due to the multiplicity of national and
EU agencies involved. Again, Quirke B.J. (2007) has considered, in his research, the role of
the European Anti‐Fraud Office, OLAF, in the fight against EU fraud and to consider the
difficulties and problems it has to contend with in attempting to carry out its mission. On the
other hand, Harmati J., Laris L. and Meresz T. (2008) emphasizes in their study that OLAF
mandate is to increase the effectiveness of the fight against fraud and other illegal activities
detrimental to the financial interests of the Communities. Ghinea N. and Petcu P. (2009)
explained in their research that Anti-Fraud Department - DLAF ensure operational
coordination at national level by conduc-ting inspections in cooperation with representatives
of financial control bodies of tax police, police force or other public servants. Quirke B.
(2010) examined OLAF powers and its capacity to coordinate the activities of anti-fraud
agencies in twenty seven member states and it also considered the constraints which prevent it
from operating in a more effective manner. The same author (Quirke B, 2010) in other study
has provided an insight into the difficulties facing both OLAF and the agencies of new
Member States in terms of fragmentation and seeking to acquire investigative and other
technical skills in a very short period of time. On the other hand, Neagu N. (2010) has
identified the linkages between the common legislation applicable to fraud offences and
offences affecting the EU's financial interests, which are still blurred even for Romanian
legislators, especially in the field of Community revenue. Instead, White S. (2010) developed
a study focused on legal problems and blockages experienced by OLAF investigators in the
present legal framework. Xanthaki H. (2010) has assessed in her paper the real reasons behind
the widely accepted view that the European Anti‐Fraud Office (OLAF) is not performing to
its full potential. Furthermore, the study provides a list and an analysis of the main lacunae in
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
OLAF's regulatory framework, an operation which has been neglected in the academic
literature. Furthermore, Bosie (Ungureanu) I. and Puica A. (2011) conducted an analysis of
the EU's structural funds, highlighting the importance of accessing them and the degree to
which Romania and member countries benefits of income support. Even more, Levi J. (2011)
claims that OLAF has some investigators keenly focused on criminal sanctions they rarely
achieve, and thus frustrated workers alongside contented ones. Vlad M., Tulvinschi M. and
Chirita I. (2011) emphasizes that the achievement of financial reporting by so-called
"fraudulent scheme" refers to short-term achievement of "management earnings", inducing
negative consequences in time, ruining public confidence and trust in accounting and auditing
profession. Károly M. and Gábor B. (2014) tried to explain, in their study, how the rules of
the game of EU cohesion policy shape the behaviour of Member State govern-ments as they
pursue their development goals.
2. Hypotheses and data resources
Given the importance of the collaboration between professional bodies of accountants,
auditors, tax consultants, evaluators and DLAF in the fight against fraud, we have proposed in
our paper the following hypotheses:
H1: There is a direct relationship between the increase in value of irregularities and
fraud specified in DLAF activity reports during 2005-2013 on the one hand and lack of
cooperation of this institution with professional bodies concerned, on the other hand?
H2: There is a direct relationship between financial corrections for European funds
projects on the one hand, and irregularities and fraud which were discovered in this area, in
Romania and reported by the European Parliament, on the other hand?
3. Activities carried out by the DLAF to identify irregularities and fraud, which
affecting the financial interests of the EU in Romania
In order to establish the checking or cancellation of the first hypothesis stated above,
we must analyze all the DLAF activity reports, published on the official website, between
2005 - 2013. In all the tables below (from Table 2 to Table 10) is presented, briefly, an extract
from each of these DLAF reports, for each year included in the analyzed period.
Table 2- Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2005
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2005_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control DLAF documents
control actions actions submitted to the
Managing
Authority of
European funds , to
other national
authorities and to
the European
Commission
structures
- in - a total of 48, of 48 actions in progress In total 48 actions in 30 control
2005 which 43 were progress – checking the documents have
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
finished ; obtaining and utilization been used as
- from 43 of funds evidence for NAD
finished ac-tions, 43 completed actions 43 completed actions (in preparation by
in 26 were value of 100.000 € ) – prosecutors to 5
found indications checking the obtaining indictments (of
of fraud, in 6 and utilization of funds which 5 to the
have found 34 finished actions - found 34 finished actions DLAF's complaint)
irregularities and indica-tions of fraud for the indic-tment
in 11 the facts of 39 defendants.
notified do not
have confirmed
Table 3 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2006
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF/introducere.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for control Objective of control DLAF documents
actions actions submitted to the
Managing
Authority of
European funds , to
other national
authorities and to
the European
Commission
structures
- in - a total of 87, of 87 actions in progress In total 87 actions in 510 reports
2006 which 82 were progress – checking submitted by
finished ; the obtaining and DLAF related to
- from 82 finished utilization of funds irregularities for
actions, in 8 were 82 completed actions 82 completed OLAF;
found indications actions (in value of 330 Notes of
of fraud, in 2 have 1.800.000 € ) – control;
found checking the
irregularities and obtaining and
in the 2 the facts utilization of funds
notified do not 8 finished actions- found 8 finished actions
have confirmed indications of fraud
Table 4 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2007
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2007_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source Objective of DLAF
for control actions control actions documents
submitted to the
Managing
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Authority of
European funds , to
other national
authorities and to
the European
Commission
structures
- - a total of 103 actions in In total 129 actions 169
in 103, of which 84 progress in progress – checking the reports submitted
2007 were finished ; obtaining and utilization by DLAF related to
- from the funds irregula-rities for
total of 103 42 actions opened 31 actions opened OLAF;
actions, 42 were during the year during the year 82 Notes
opened during the 84 completed 84 completed of control;
year; actions actions (in value of
- from 84 2.600.000 € ) – checking
finished actions, in the obtaining and
56 were found utilization funds
indica-tions of 56 finished 14 finished
fraud and in 14 actions - found indica- actions
have found tions of fraud
irregularities
Table 5 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2008
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2008_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control DLAF documents
control actions actions submitted to the Managing
Authority of European
funds , to other national
authorities and to the
European Commission
structures
- in - a total of 129, of 129 actions in progress In total 129 actions in 203 reports
2008 which 106 were finished (of progress – checking submitted the by DLAF
which 84 confirmed and 22 obtaining and utilization funds
related to irregula-rities for
unconfirmed); OLAF (of which 97 initial
- from the total of 112 31 actions opened 31 actions reports and 106 update
opened
actions, 31 were opened during
during the year during the year reports)
the year; 84 completed actions 84 completed actions
- from 84 conformed (in value of 4.500.000 € ) –
and finished actions, in 14 checking the obtaining and
were found indica-tions of utilization funds
fraud, in 18 have found 14 finished actions - 14 finished actions
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
irregularities and in the 52found
the indica-tions of fraud
facts notified do not have
confirmed
Table 6 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2009
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2009_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control DLAF documents
control actions actions submitted to the
Managing
Authority of
European funds , to
other national
authorities and to
the European
Commission
structures
- in - a total of 112, of 112 actions in progress In total 112 actions in 747 reports
2009 which 75 were progress – checking the submitted by
finished; obtaining and utiliza-tion DLAF related to
- from the total of 112 of funds irregula-rities for
actions, 37 were 37 actions opened 37 actions opened during OLAF (of which
opened during the during the year the year 214 initial reports
year; 75 completed actions 75 completed actions (in and 533 update
- from 75 finished value of 16.410.000 € ) reports)
actions, in 25 were – checking the ob-
found indications of taining and utilization of
fraud, in 9 have found funds
irregularities and in 25 finished actions - 25 finished actions
41 the facts notified found indica-tions of
do not have fraud
confirmed
Table 7 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2010
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2010_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control actions DLAF documents
control actions submitted to the
Managing
Authority of
European funds , to
other national
authorities and to
the European
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Commission
structures
- in - a total of For 373 actions in In total 373 actions in 646 reports
2010 373, of which progress: OLAF 96; progress – checking the submitted by
49 were Individual person 64; obtaining and utilization DLAF related to
finished; Legal person 16 ; Mass- funds irregula-rities for
- from the total media 16; From state OLAF (of which
of 373 actions, authorities: 181. 235 initial reports
78 were 78 actions opened during 78 actions opened during the and 411 update
opened during the year year reports)
the year; 49 completed actions 49 completed actions (in
- from 49 value of 58.361.949 €, but
finished the value of financial
actions, in 19 estimated impact for
were found irregularities and possible
indications of fraud was 2.781.114 € ) –
fraud, in 8 checking the obtaining and
have found utilization of funds
irregularities 19 finished actions - found 19 finished actions were
and in the 22 indications of fraud found indications of fraud
the facts (including administrative
notified do not recovered debts totaling
have 1.452.887 €)
confirmed
Table 8 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2011
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2011_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control actions DLAF documents
control actions submitted to the Managing
Authority of European
funds , to other national
authorities and to the
European Commission
structures
- in - a total of 178 actions in progress In total 178 actions in progress – 79 Notes of
2011 178, of which 97 checking the obtaining and utilization
control;
of
were finished; funds from the: 20 control
- from the post-accession period:documents
85 have been used
total of 178 (FEADR 41, SAPS 10, POSDRUas19,evidence for NAD
actions, 125 were POSCCE 7, POR 5, Other 3); preparation by prosecutors
opened during the pre-accession period: to 9316 indict-ments (of
year; (SAPARD 64, PHARE 22, ISPA 7)which 9 to the DLAF's
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- from 97 For 125 actions opened 125 actions opened duringcomplaint the and 7 to the
fi-nished actions,
during the year: NAD 77; OLAF year NAD's complaint) for the
in 53 were found
3; Managing Authority / indictment of 37 defen-
indications Implementing
of Authority 36; dants;
fraud, in 7 Intimation
have Office 2; 821 reports
found irregularities
Others 7. submitted by DLAF
and in 37 the facts 97 completed actions related
97 completed actions (in value to irregula-rities for
notified do not of 247.140.915 €, but the value of
OLAF (of which 317
have confirmed financial estimated impact initial
for reports and 504
irregularities and possible fraud update
was reports)
28.883.658,88 € ) – checking the
obtaining and utilization of funds from
the:
post-accession period: 49
(FEADR 23, SAPS 8, POSDRU 8,
POSCCE 5, POR 4, Other 1);
pre-accession period: 48
(SAPARD 36, PHARE 10, ISPA 2)
96 finished actions - found In total 96 finished actions were
indications of fraud found indications of fraud (including
administrative recovered debts totaling
4.615.302 €) for:
post-accession period: 54
control actions completed with
indications of fraud (POSDRU 28,
FEADR 26) ;
pre-accession period: 42
control actions com-pleted with
indications of fraud; (SAPARD 42)
Table 9 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2012
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/raport_dlaf/DLAF_Raportul anual de
activitate2012_ro.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source Objective of control actions DLAF documents
for control actions submitted to the Managing
Authority of European funds ,
to other national authorities
and to the European
Commission structures
1 2 3 4 5
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- in - a total of 310, of 310 actions in In total 310 actions in progress 129 Notes of control
2012 which 194 were finished;progress – checking the obtaining (from and which 96 for fraud, 6 for
- from the total of 310 utilization of funds from the: irre-gularities and 27
actions, 230 were opened post-accession period:unconfirmed);
222
during the year; (FEADR 50, SAPS 20, POSDRU 63, control documents
- from 152 finished POSCCE 53, POR 16, POS Transport have been used as evidence for
actions, in 96 were found 1, PODCA 8, Border Cooperation NAD2, pre-paration by
indications of fraud, in 7 have POAT 2, POS Environment prosecutors
6, to 23 indictments
found irregu-larities and in the Schengen 1); (of which 15 to the DLAF's
49 the facts notified do not pre-accession period: complaint
88 and 8 to the NAD's
have confirmed (SAPARD 55, PHARE 18, complaint) ISPA for the indictment
1 8,Youth Ld V 7) of 56 defendants;
2 3 4
For 230 actions In total 230 actions opened 5
year: the year - checking the
opened during theduring 1.375 reports
NAD 65; OLAFobtaining 26; and utilization of fundssubmitted by DLAF related to
Mana-ging authority 60; irregularities for OLAF (of
Inti-mation Office 53; which 730 initial reports and
Audit Authority at the 645 update reports)
Roma-nian Court of
Accounts 13; DIOCT 3;
Others10
152 completed 152 completed actions (in
actions value of 678.572.779 €, but the value
of financial estimated impact for
irregularities and possible fraud was
80.854.274 € )
96 finished In total 96 finished actions
actions were were found found indications of fraud
indications of fraud(including admini-strative recovered
debts totaling 1.706.851,16 € and
4.299.021,52 lei) for:
post-accession period: 54
control ac-tions completed with
indications of fraud (POSDRU 28,
FEADR 26) ;
pre-accession period: 42
control ac-tions completed with
indications of fraud; (SAPARD 42)
Table 10 - Extract from the Report of the DLAF in 2013
(Source:www.antifrauda.gov.ro/docs/Raportul anual de activitate2013.pdf )
Control activities Intimation source for Objective of control actions DLAF
control actions documents
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
submitted to
the Managing
Authority of
European
funds , to other
national
authorities and
to the
European
Commission
structures
- in - a total of For 290 actions in In total 290 actions in progress – 139 Notes of
2013 290, of progress: NAD 102; checking the obtaining and utilization con-trol (from
which 194 DIOCT 3; OLAF 21; of funds from the: which 114 for
were Mana-ging authority 96; post-accession period: 244 (PNDR NAD3 for
finished; Intimation Office 41; 60, SAPS 30, POSDRU 47, POSCCE DIOCT, 3 for
- from the Audit Authority at the 58, POR 22, POS Transport 7, PODCA The
total of Romanian Court of 7, Interregional cooperation1, Border Prosecutors‘
290 Accounts 12; ANRMAP Coopera-tion1, Operational Programme office attached
actions, 4; Others 11. for Fisheries 1, POS Envi-ronment 5, to Court of
132 were Others 6); Appeal in
ope-ned pre-accession period: 46 (SAPARD Cluj, The
during the 23, PHARE 7, ISPA 8,Youth in Action Prosecutors‘
year; 8) office attached
- from 194 For 132 actions opened In total 132 actions opened during the to Law Court
finished during the year: NAD year – checking the obtaining and from Piatra
actions, in 61; OLAF 1; Managing utilization of funds from the: Neamt and
93 were authority 59; Intimation post-accession period: 122 (PNDR The
found Office 3; Audit 45, SAPS 18, POSDRU 16, POSCCE Prosecutors‘
indications Authority at the 15, POR13, POS Transport7, PODCA office attached
of fraud, Romanian Court of 2, Interregional cooperation 1, to Law Court
in 10 have Accounts 2; Others: 6. Operational Pro-gramme for Fisheries from the sector
found irre- 1, POS Environment 1, Life+PEAD No 1
gularities Grant Contract 3); Bucharest) and
and in the pre-accession period:10 (SAPARD 2, 60 Addresses
91 the PHARE2, ISPA4, Youth in Action 2) for
facts For 194 completed In total 194 completed actions (in value information;
notified do actions: NAD 57; of 624.466.739,13 €, but the value of control
not have DIOCT 3; OLAF 20; financial estimated impact for documents
confirmed Managing au-thority58; irregulari-ties and possible fraud was have been used
Intimation Office 39; 31.623.093,47 € ) - checking the as evidence for
Audit Authority at the obtaining and utilization of funds from NAD
Romanian Court of the: preparation by
Accounts 9; ANRMAP post-accession period: 153; prose-cutors to
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
4; Individual person 3; pre-accession period: 41 (SAPARD 23 indict-
Legal person 1. 23, PHARE 6, ISPA 5, Youth in ments (of
Action72) which 12 to
the DLAF's
complaint and
93 finished actions - 93 finished actions - found indications
11 to the
found indica-tions of of fraud (including administrative
NAD's
fraud: NAD 36; DIOCT recovered debts totaling 4.971.702 €) complaint) for
3; OLAF 1; Managing for: the indictment
authority35; Intimation post-accession period: 79 control
of 40 de-
Office 10; Audit actions completed with indications of
fendants.
Authori-ty at the fraud;
Romanian Court of pre-accession period: 14 control
Accounts 6; Individual actions completed with indications of
person 1; Legal person fraud; (SAPARD 4, PHARE 4, ISPA 2,
1. Youth in Action 4)
The main types of irregularities / frauds identified by DLAF were related to utilization
of false documents, changing the destination of EU funds received, non-compliance with
public procure-ment, including conflict of interest for the persons involved in the process.
Analyzing the informa-tion presented in the above tables (from Table1 to Table 9) we
formulate the following conclusions:
- from one year to another, increasing the irregularities and fraud detected by DLAF;
- the process for trial and conviction of guilty persons of criminal fraud in the EU
funds is very slow;
- frequent legislative changes affecting in a negative way DLAF's activities, because
legislative gaps from time to time help guilty person to perform fraudulent operations;
- lack of cooperation between professionals ‗bodies and specialists hampering DLAF's
activities.
Considering the above conclusions, we can say that the no1 hypothesis is verified,
meaning that: "There is a direct relationship between the increase in value of irregularities
and fraud specified in DLAF activity reports during 2005-2013 on the one hand and lack of
cooperation of this institution with professional bodies concerned, on the other hand (H1)".
4. Financial corrections for European funds projects, irregularities and fraud
reported by the European Parliament, regarding Romania
On 17 July 2014, the European Parliament published the report of the European
Council for 2013, regarding the Fight against fraud for EU funds. In this report is presented
the situation of Romania (together with other European countries) regarding financial
corrections on 31.12.2013 for EU funds, irregularities identified and reported or not as
fraudulent, by the bodies involved. Extracts from this report regarding the issues mentioned
are shown in the tables below (Tables 11-13).
Table 11 – Financial corrections implemented under shared management (EUR
million)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
(Source: http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/documents/reports-
commission/2013/1_act_part1_en.pdf )
Table 12 – Irregularities reported as fraudulent
(Source: http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/documents/reports-
commission/2013/1_act_part1_en.pdf )
Table 13 – Irregularities not reported as fraudulent
(Source: http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/documents/reports-
commission/2013/1_act_part1_en.pdf )
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Taking into account the information contained in the above tables (Tables 11-13) we
formulated the following conclusions:
- Romania has many shortcomings, which resulted in more controls by the bodies
concerned for the early identification of fraud;
- irregularities reported as fraudulent for Romania were most from rural development
domain;
- frequent monitoring of Romania and legislative changes in our country have allowed
the recording of a smaller number of cases (even as value) compared to other European
countries;
- responsibility of decision makers in companies or institutions that benefit of
European funds, can be achieved by involving members of professional bodies.
Considering the above conclusions, we can say that the no2 hypothesis is verified,
meaning that:
"There is a direct relationship between financial corrections for European funds
projects on the one hand, and irregularities and fraud which were discovered in this area, in
Romania and reported by the European Parliament, on the other hand (H2)".
5. Conclusions, limits and perspectives
In order to aid the specialists in this field, experts from the Academic Society of
Romania (the longest-standing active think tank in Romania) published a "Manual of fraud of
EU funds".
Taking into considerations all the information presented above, we conclude that our
hypothesis are verified. But, most of all is important to emphasize the important role of
implication for expert accountants, auditors, tax consultants and evaluators in the management
of EU funds, together with DLAF-AFCOS Romania and other involved entities. However,
our research has been subject to certain limits, namely:
- lack of information on DLAF agreement for collaboration with professional bodies;
- lack of detailed information about actual amounts recovered from individuals and /
or legal guilty persons for defrauding EU funds.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
These limits will become future prospects of our research with the direct purpose of
improving the relationship between academia and business, and to contribute to the efforts of
DLAF and profesional bodies.
6. References
1. Bosie (Ungureanu) I. and Puica A. (2011), Romanian administrative capacity of
European funds absorption, CES Working Papers, vol. 3(4), pp. 480-487
2. Ghinea N. and Petcu P. (2009), Considerations regarding the management of the
fraud investigation affecting the financial interests of the European Union, Review of
International Comparative Management Special number no 1, pp.122-130
3. Harmati J., Laris L. and Meresz T. (2008), International Cooperation in Criminal
Matters in the European Union, article downloaded from the site
http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/cooperation/lisbonnetwork/Themis/Criminal/Paper4_en.pdf
4. Ilett N. (2004), The European Anti-Fraud Office (OLAF), Journal of Financial
Crime vol. 12, issue 2, pp. 120 – 122
5. Károly M. and Gábor B. (2014), Contracting for Structural Funds - How the EU's
Rules of the Game Shape the Behavior of Member State Governments, article downloaded
from the site http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/hetwpaper/0008.htm
6. Levi J. (2011), OLAF-a view from inside: A typology of investigative cultures,
Amicus Curiae Journal of the Society for Advanced Legal Studies issue 85, pp. 17-19
7. Quirke B. (2007), A critical appraisal of the role of UCLAF, Journal of Financial
Crime vol. 14, issue 4, pp. 460-473
8. Quirke B.J. (2007), OLAF: the fight against EU fraud, Journal of Financial Crime
vol. 14, issue 2, pp. 178 – 189
9. Quirke B. (2010), OLAF's role in the fight against fraud in the European Union: do
too many cooks spoil the broth?, Crime Law and Social Change vol. 53, issue 1, pp. 97-108
10. Quirke B, 2010, Fighting EU fraud: why do we make life difficult for ourselves?,
Journal of Financial Crime vol. 17, issue 1, pp. 61-80
11. Neagu N. (2010), Accession blues: modest successes and major difficulties in
Romania, Journal of Financial Crime vol. 17, issue 1, pp. 47-60
12. Vlad M., Tulvinschi M. and Chirita I. (2011), The consequences of fraudulent
financial reporting, The Annals of The "Ştefan cel Mare" University of Suceava, Fascicle of
The Faculty of Economics and Public Administration vol. 11, no 1 (13), pp. 264-268
13. Vlogaert J. (2006), Fighting fraud and corruption: how the European Union
protects its public funds,article downloaded from
http://www.unafei.or.jp/english/pdf/RSNo76/No7605VE Vlogaert.pdf
14. Xanthaki H. (2010), What is EU fraud? And can OLAF really combat it?, Journal
of Financial Crime vol. 17, issue 1, pp. 133-151
15. White S. (1999), Investigating EC fraud: the metamorphosis of UCLAF, Journal of
Financial Crime vol.6, issue3, pp.255-260
16. White S. (2010), EU anti-fraud enforcement: overcoming obstacles, Journal of
Financial Crime vol. 17, issue 1, pp. 81-99
17. www.antifrauda.gov.ro
18. http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/index_ro.htm
189
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
19. http://ec.europa.eu/anti_fraud/documents/reports-
olaf/2013/olaf_report_2013_en.pdf
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
FROM FINANCIAL CRISIS TO GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS
Alexandra Deaconu, PhD Student, University of Craiova
Abstract: The term ‖financial crisis‖ describes an ensemble of circumstances in which
financial instruments suddenly lose a significant part of their value. The financial crisis is a
situation where the money demand is greater than supply.
Therefore, liquidity evaporates quickly whereas available money is withdrawn from banks.
Thus, banks are being forced to sell their own assets and investments to cover its needs or
collapse. The financial crisis could lead to an economic crisis.
We are talking about an economic crisis when a country's economy is facing a decline in its
labor force, a process often caused by a financial crisis. This phenomenon usually coincides
with a decline in GDP, an evaporation of liquidity and also an increase in prices due to
inflation, respectively a decrease of them because of deflation.
Keywords: crisis, finance, society, economy, money.
„Această lucrare a beneficiat de suport financiar prin proiectul “Rute de
excelenţă academică în cercetarea doctorală şi post-doctorală – READ” cofinanţat din
Fondul Social European, prin Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor
Umane 2007-2013, contract nr. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.”
În primul rând este necesară o delimitare între termenii de criză financiară şi criză
economică datorită faptului că încă există confuzie în jurul acestor noţiuni.
Termenul de criză financiară descrie în linii mari un ansamblu de situaţii în care
instrumente sau active financiare pierd brusc o parte semnificativă din valoarea lor. Criza
financiară este o situaţie în care cererea de bani este mai mare decât oferta. Drept urmare,
lichidităţile se evaporă rapid întrucât banii disponibili sunt retraşi din bănci, forţând astfel
băncile fie să vândă propriile active şi investiţii, pentru a-şi acoperi necesităţile sau să
colapseze. Criza financiară poate duce la o criză economică.
Vorbim despre o criză economică atunci când economia unei ţări se confruntă cu o
scădere a forţei sale, proces cauzat de cele mai multe ori de o criză financiară. Acest fenomen
coincide de regulă cu o scădere a Produsului Intern Brut, o evaporare a lichidităţilor şi de
asemenea o creştere a preţurilor din cauza inflaţiei, respectiv o scădere a acestora din cauza
deflaţiei.1
Într-o ierarhie a celor mai difuzate ştiri şi evenimente în mass-media, de la începutul
secolului al XXI-lea şi până în prezent, Recesiunea globală din 2008-2009 figurează la poziţia
1
Apud. Cristina Coman, Comunicarea de ciză. Tehnici şi strategii, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2009.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
7 din tabelul celor 15 poziţii consemnate, ceea ce atestă notorietatea şi gravitatea acestei
probleme la nivel mondial.2
Criza care a debutat în anul 2007 este considerată de analiştii economici drept cea mai
gravă criză financiară după Marea Depresie, contribuind la eşecul întreprinderilor cheie, la o
scădere a puterii de cumpărare a consumatorilor estimată la trilioane de dolari, la angajamente
financiare substanţiale efectuate de guverne şi la signifiante descreşteri ale activităţii
economice. La fel cum s-a întâmplat şi în 1929-1933, această criză a fost declanşată de
specularea în exces a unor active financiare, în special acţiuni şi imobiliare, a căror valoare a
crescut necontrolat în ultimii zece ani. De asemenea este evident faptul că guvernele şi
instituţiile de reglementare nu s-au adaptat vremurilor contemporane, cadrul legislativ existent
în unele domenii fiind complet depăşit.
Criza financiară este un eveniment, care are loc odată la un secol. Acesta este părerea
fostului preşedinte al Rezervei Federale Americane, Alan Greenspan, care este considerat
principalul vinovat pentru izbucnirea crizei financiare din 2007. Opinia sa a contat mult în
ridicarea controlului statal de pe piaţa financiară şi în folosirea contractelor financiare
derivate. Denumită şi criza subprime, această criză a fost determinată de scăderea bruscă a
lichidităţilor pe pieţele globale de credit şi în sistemele bancare, cauzată de eşecul companiilor
care au investit în ipoteci cu grad ridicat de risc. Încă de la sfârşitul secolului trecut se
întrevedeau cauzele crizei, care a scos la iveală grave deficienţe în sistemul financiar global şi
în cadrul de reglementare.
Conform opiniei lui George Soros, celebrul finanţist şi filantrop american, criza din
ultimii ani a fost precedată şi consolidată de alte crize mai mici, a căror rezolvare a fost doar
aparentă, iar consecinţele au fost foarte grave. În viziunea lui Soros, începutul crizei
corespunde cu perioada anilor ´88-´89, când s-a dezintegrat blocul comunist, situaţie ce a dus
la o creştere remarcabilă a imigrării în SUA la nivel asemănător cu cel de la începutul
secolului al
XX-lea. În aceste împrejurări, preţurile bunurilor imobiliare au început în mod evident să
crească treptat, fiind susţinute de cererea din ce în ce mai mare de locuinţe şi de creşterea
economică.3
În anul 2004, Biroul Federal de Investigaţii (FBI), a atras atenţia, printr-un raport
amplu, asupra unui fenomen epidemic privind modul de obţinere a creditelor imobiliare.
Faptele menţionate în acest raport nu au fost considerate drept factori importanţi pentru
declanşarea unei eventuale crize financiare, ci ca unii adiacenţi, de mică importanţă. Raportul
menţiona că, pe această cale, s-a deschis de fapt o poartă largă pentru tot felul de fraude, cu
efecte multiple şi pe termen lung. Din păcate, acest raport nu şi-a găsit audienţa cuvenită la
cele mai înalte niveluri guvernamentale. Nici preşedintele Statelor Unite nu a putut, sau nu a
vrut, să ia în considerare un asemenea Raport.4
Semnalul de alarmă privind declaşarea unei crize economice mondiale a fost tras şi de
Nouriel Roubini, profesor de economie la Universitatea din New York, care a prezis, în iulie
2
Adrian Otovescu, Gabriela Motoi, Maria Cristina Frăsie, Dumitru Otovescu, Criza mondială, Editura Pro Universitaria,
Bucureşti, 2011, p.101.
3
Apud. http://crizafinanciara.com/criza-financiara/29.09.2009.
4
Alex Berca, Crizele economice şi ciclicitatea lor, Editura Institutul European, Iaşi, 2011, p. 95.
192
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
2006, instalarea unei crize financiare majore şi că întreg sistemul se va prăbuşi sub greutatea
unui balon speculativ foarte periculos.5
Criza financiară a fost declanşată de spargerea balonului imobiliar din SUA în 2005-
2006. La alimentarea boom-ului imobiliar din perioada premergătoare crizei au contribuit în
primul rând standardele lejere de acordare a împrumuturilor ipotecare la care se adaugă şi
creşterea semnificativă a stimulentelor pentru credite. Un rol important l-a avut şi tendinţa de
creştere pe termen lung a preţului caselor. În consecinţă, populaţia, profitând de aceste
condiţii, nu a ezitat să apeleze la împrumuturi ipotecare împovărătoare, cu speranţa de a le
refinanţa pe parcurs la rate mult mai avantajoase. Preţurile caselor au explodat între 1997 şi
2006, crescând cu 124%. Văzând tendinţa de creştere a valorii caselor, mulţi americani au pus
o a doua ipotecă pe diferenţa de valoare, bani cu care şi-au finanţat cheltuielile în creştere.
Speculatorii au investit la rândul lor în case, aproape 40% dintre casele vândute în 2005 şi
2006 nefiind reşedinţe permanente.
Drept urmare împrumuturile ipotecare subprime, cu grad ridicat de risc, au crescut de
la 5% în 1994 la 20% din totalul împrumuturilor ipotecare în 2006. Creşterea a fost încurajată
de aşa numitele credite ninja, care nu presupuneau un loc de muncă stabil, un venit stabil şi
nici măcar o garanţie pe alte bunuri. Aceste derivate au fost transformate în efecte publice şi
au îmbrăcat forme complexe, prin ele urmărindu-se atragerea de noi fonduri concomitent cu
disiparea riscului. Principiul care a stat la baza acestui sistem a fost vinderea instrumentului
financiar, care implica o ipotecă, de către instituţia care a acordat creditul imobiliar unor altor
instituţii, ea obţinând în schimbul acestora bani şi poate chiar credite mai avantajoase de la
terţi.
Aceste derivate au beneficiat de multă încredere şi de un rating foarte bun din partea
agenţiilor de rating care au luat în considerare eficienţa unot tehnici moderne de acoperire a
riscului. Datorită rating-ului bun şi a perspectivelor favorabile, produsele derivate au atras
până şi cele mai mari bănci de investiţii, care au apelat la împrumuturi foarte mari pe care le-
au investit în noile oportunităţi financiare. Drept urmare cele cinci mari bănci de investiţii din
SUA (Lehman Brothers, Bear Stearns, Merrill Lynch, Goldman Sachs şi Morgan Stanley) au
obţinut profituri enorme în perioada boomului imobiliar, însă tranzacţionările în marjă au
alimentat creşterea gradului lor de îndatorare şi de risc, astfel încât în 2007 cele cinci instituţii
cumulau o datorie de 4100 miliarde USD, echivalentul a 30% din valoarea economiei SUA.
În februarie 2007 s-au făcut publice primele rapoarte ale băncilor care înregistrau
scăderi ale profitului cu 31% faţă de 2006. În încercarea de a scăpa de produsele derivate
bazate pe ipoteci, investitorii au retras mii de miliarde din aceste produse, reinvestind banii în
speculaţii pe preţul bunurilor de bază, ceea ce a determinat criza preţurilor la alimente, o
creştere majoră a preţului petrolului şi scăderea preţurilor caselor în multe regiuni din SUA. În
aceste condiţii refinanţarea creditului ipotecar a devenit dificilă, provocând o creştere
dramatică a împrumuturilor nerambursate, pe măsura expirării termenilor iniţiali şi a creşterii
dobânzilor variabile. Consecinţele au fost lichidările de case în masă. În martie 2008 s-a ajuns
la situaţia în care 11% dintre americani deţineau o casă care valora mai puţin decât valoarea
ipotecii.6
5
Apud. http://www.zf.ro/ziarul-de-duminica/nouriel-roubini-profetul-recesiunii-recentul-dezastru-financiar-ar-putea-fi-doar-
o-picatura-din-potopul-ce-va-sa-vina-6777577
6
Apud http://crizafinanciara.com/criza-financiara/29.09.2009.
193
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Criza economică a intrat în faza acută în septembrie 2008. Două instituţii de credit
ipotecar susţinute de guvernul SUA, Fannie Mae şi Freddie Mac, au dat faliment, intrând sub
controlul guvernamental în încercarea de a fi salvate. La 14 septembrie, Lehman Brothers a
demarat procedurile de faliment după ce Rezerva Federală a refuzat să o ajute financiar, pe
baza numeroaselor nereguli şi a volumului mare de active toxice care o incriminau. Panica a
luat amploare pe măsură ce altă bancă de investiţii, Merrill Lynch, a fost preluată în aceeaşi zi
de Bank of America şi a fost amplificată şi de căderea majorităţii acţiunilor la bursă pe 15
septembrie. Pe 16 septembrie AIG, cea mai mare firmă de asigurări din lume, confruntându-se
cu o criză acută de lichidităţi, a fost creditată de către Rezerva Federală cu 85 miliarde USD
în schimbul a 79,9% din acţiuni. Până la sfârşitul săptămânii toate pieţele au intrat în criză,
fiind salvate de la colaps de o injecţie de lichidităţi de 105 miliarde USD tot de la Rezerva
Federală.
Situaţia a continuat să fie gravă şi în 2009 întrucât preţul caselor a continuat să scadă
şi oricine vroia să vândă intra în competiţie de preţ cu casele aflate în stare de licitaţie. Pe de
altă parte, nici prezumtivii cumpărători nu au mai avut posibilitatea de a cumpăra case,
deoarece băncile nu mai dădeau împrumuturi şi nimeni nu era dispus să plătească suma pe
care banca o cerea.
Această criză economică şi-a extins efectele pe plan global datorită mecanismelor
complexe care guvernează finanţele internaţionale. Maladia a cuprins majoritatea ţărilor
lumii, indiferent că erau ţări dezvoltate din punct de vedere economic sau în curs de
dezvoltare. Guvernele au sărit în sprijinul instituţiilor financiare, pompând sume de bani în
conturile marilor bănci în vederea împiedicării ajungerii la starea de faliment, însă în unele
ţări situaţia a devenit dramatică, în condiţiile în care bursele scădeau spectaculos şi
volatilitatea era maximă.7
Criza bancară a generat instabilitatea pieţelor financiare, conducând la criza financiară
şi, în final, s-a ajuns la criza economiilor naţionale. Acestea, la rândul lor, au produs crizele
sociale – care se asociază cu fenomenele de şomaj în creştere, scăderea consumului şi,
implicit, a nivelului de trai, reducerea preţurilor la diferite categorii de bunuri şi proprietăţi, în
special imobiliare, pierderea unor bunuri de valoare dobândite prin împrumuturi bancare ori
de la firme de leasing, răspândirea sărăciei şi degradarea calităţii vieţii oamenilor.8
Rata anuală de scădere a PIB a fost în primul trimestru din 2009 de 14,4% în
Germania, 15,2% în Japonia, 7,4% în Regatele Unite, 9,8% în zona Euro şi 21,5% în Mexic.
Până în luna aprilie 2009 Lumea Arabă a semnalat pierderi de 3 trilioane USD pe fondul
crizei economice. În mai 2009 Regatele Unite au raportat o scădere a investiţiilor străine în
economiile Orientului Mijlociu, datorită cererii scăzute de petrol. În luma septembrie a
aceluiaşi an, cu 3 luni după ce Banca Mondială a estimat un an dificil pentru Ţările Arabe,
băncile arabe au raportat pierderi de aproape 4 bilioane USD de la declanşarea crizei globale
financiare.9 Aceste date ilustrează ceea ce George Soros a afirmat cu ocazia unei alte situaţii
de criză: Pieţele financiare ar trebui să acţioneze într-o mişcare de balans asemănătoare cu
mişcarea unui pendul; ele pot fluctua la întâmplare, ca urmare a şocurilor exogene, dar se
presupune că ajung să se oprescă în cele din urmă într-o poziţie de echilibru şi acea poziţie
7
Apud http://crizafinanciara.com/criza-financiara/4.10.2009.
8
Adrian Otovescu, Gabriela Motoi, Maria Cristina Frăsie, Dumitru Otovescu, op. cit., p. 102.
9
Apud http://crizafinanciara.com/criza-financiara/4.10.2009.
194
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ar trebui să fie mereu aceeaşi, indiferent de fluctuaţiile care se produc în timp. În loc să se
întâmple astfel, (...) pieţele financiare s-au comportat mai degrabă ca bila folosită pentru
demolări, lovind dintr-o ţară în alta şi doborându-le pe cele mai slabe.10
În paralel cu operaţiunile de stopare a stării de faliment au avut loc şi confruntări ale
opiniilor politicienilor, ale oamenilor de afaceri şi ale economiştilor referitoare la modalitatea
de ieşire din criza economică mondială. Preşedintele Franţei, Nicolas Sarkozi, a afirmat
necesitatea reanalizării întregului sistem financiar şi monetar internaţional, iar cancelarul
german, Angela Markel, a susţinut că soluţia rezolvării crizei constă în stabilirea unor
reglementări care să pună capăt actelor iresponsabile. Un alt punct de vedere, ce a atras o
mulţime de critici, a fost prezentat de către Nouriel Roubini. După opinia sa, ieşirea SUA din
recesiune presupunea implicarea Guvernului pentru a naţionaliza cele mai mari bănci, până
când îşi reveneau, după care să fie din nou privatizate. Aceste idei au îngrijorat acţionarii, care
au început să îşi retragă, din spirit de protecţie, capitalurile din băncile unde le depozitaseră.
Ca urmare a acestei situaţii, Preşedintele Obama a declarat că un sistem bancar privat ar fi cea
mai bună soluţie de a ieşi din criză.11
Criza financiară a avut o soluţie dureroasă, guvernele au fost nevoite să intervină şi să
injecteze lichidităţi în rate cu dobânzi scăzute, în bailout-uri pentru bănci şi în economie. Un
oficial al Trezoreriei SUA a rezumat totul astfel: "O să ţinem spatele pentru toţi". Soluţia
aceasta a costat guvernele din întreaga lume peste 1 trilion de dolari. Nu a fost corect faţă de
cetăţenii care plătesc taxe şi impozite şi care au plătit pentru păcatele altora, dar s-a reuşit
evitarea unei depresiuni globale.
Consider că, în prezent efectele crizei economice mondiale provocate de criza
financiară din SUA au fost domolite, multe ţări şi-au anunţat oficial ieşirea din recesiune, însă
situaţia continuă să fie una vulnerabilă, pregatită oricând să se prabuşească din nou. Liderii
mondiali au alimentat criza cu infuzii de capital şi au pus astfel bazele unei noi crize, cea a
sumelor îndatorate.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Coman Cristina, Comunicarea de ciză. Tehnici şi strategii, Editura Polirom,
Bucureşti, 2009.
2. Otovescu Adrian, Motoi Gabriela, Frăsie Maria Cristina, Otovescu Dumitru,
Criza mondială, Editura Pro Universitaria, Bucureşti, 2011.
3. Soros George, Criza capitalismului global – Societatea deschisă în primejdie,
Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 1999.
4. http://crizafinanciara.com
5. http://www.zf.ro
10
George Soros, Criza capitalismului global – Societatea deschisă în primejdie, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, 1999, p. 133.
11
Apud. Alex Berca, Crizele economice şi ciclicitatea lor, Editura Institutul European, Iaşi, 2011.
195
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
NATURAL RESOURCES, GOVERNANCE, NATIONAL SECURITY
Alexandra Sarcinschi, Senior Researcher, PhD, National Defence University
”Carol I”, Bucharest
Abstract: Resources are the most important element in ensuring the survival and development
of humankind, whether we are referring to the natural resources or human, financial,
technological, informational ones, etc. From this perspective, the possibility to restrict the
access to one of these types of resources may constitute a security threat to the
national/regional/international security, with serious consequences for the international
system.
This paper addresses this issue as a consequence of the fact that Europe is nowadays the
scene of events, phenomena and processes that directly address the issue of resources: from
natural resources (Europe‘s dependence on the energy outside the European Union) to the
financial ones (financial and economic crisis has persistent effects on countries‘ economies
and the Union) and the human ones (aging population and migration). The author will
analyze these issues with an accent on the case in which the link between resources and
security is most obvious: the case o natural resources, their governance and national
security.
Keywords: resources, natural resources, resources governance, resource curse, national
security.
Evenimentele din ultimul an de pe scena relaţiilor internaţionale au subliniat din nou
faptul că lumea este în continuă modificare şi că balanţa de putere nu poate fi echilibrată.
Complexul caz al Ucrainei demonstrează cum un actor statal cu amprentă geopolitică şi
energetică de mare amploare este capabil să modeleze mediul internaţional de securitate
folosindu-se, printre alte instrumente politice şi militare, şi de cel al resurselor naturale, în
special al celor energetice. Încă din anii ‘90, a fost adusă supusă dezbaterii ştiinţifice o
sintagmă de sorginte jurnalistică – „arma energetică‖ – ce ilustrează faptul că centrul de
greutate al disputelor şi competiţiilor pentru supremaţie pe arena internaţională s-a mutat
dinspre sfera militară, unde se afla în timpul Războiului Rece, spre sfera economică, acestea
derulându-se pe spaţii geopolitice şi determinând remodelarea mediului de securitate local,
regional şi global în funcţie de resursele energetice1.
În acelaşi timp, tendinţele geopolitice au o influenţă semnificativă asupra producţiei,
preţurilor şi schimburilor comerciale în sfera energiei. Factori precum preţurile mari la
energie, scăderea nivelului de trai, slaba guvernare şi instabilitatea politică, incapacitatea
statului de a asigura securitatea infrastructurilor energetice critice, degradarea mediului
1
Cristian BĂHNĂREANU, „Arma energetică‖ în contextul relaţiilor internaţionale ale începutului de secol XXI, Editura
Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 7.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
determină mare parte din ceea ce înseamnă comerţul cu energie, ridicând în mod logic
întrebarea care este legătura dintre resursele naturale (în special energetice), tipul de
guvernare (la nivelul statului şi al resurselor) şi securitatea naţională şi internaţională.
1. Repere teoretice
Definiţia cea mai simplă ce surprinde esenţa termenului resursă se referă la faptul că
aceasta reprezintă o sursă de mijloace ce pot fi valorificate într-o împrejurare dată. Pornind de
la această premisă, se poate deduce că resursa se află la baza puterii, este o sursă a ei. Aşadar,
tema acestei comunicări – resurse naturale, guvernare, securitate – se referă, de fapt, la analiza
relaţiilor de putere şi a realizării securităţii din perspectiva gestionării resurselor, în special a
celor naturale.
Deşi vom focaliza analiza pe resursele naturale, cu trimiteri evidente la cele
energetice, problematica resurselor nu se reduce la acestea, după cum ar putea reieşi analizând
succint ocurenţa acestui termen în dezbaterile internaţionale din ultimul deceniu. Resursele
sunt acele instrumente, capacităţi, materii, energii, fonduri financiare de care are nevoie o
activitate social-umană pentru a se realiza2. Resurse sunt toate elementele din natură, dar şi
cele furnizate de generaţiile anterioare ce pot fi folosite direct sau indirect pentru satisfacerea
nevoilor umane3. Fiecare activitate umană necesită resurse specifice, iar lipsa lor are o
influenţă negativă puternică asupra desfăşurării activităţii respective. În acest context, pot fi
aduse în discuţie teme precum resursele comune, protejarea resurselor disponibile, utilizarea
eficientă a lor, guvernarea resurselor, dar şi „blestemul resurselor‖.
Dezbaterea despre resurse poate fi dusă dincolo de zona economică, în care sunt
privite ca factori de producţie, către zona relaţiilor internaţionale, în special prin ceea ce
reprezintă resursele în configurarea relaţiilor de putere dintre state. În abordarea experţilor
RAND, puterea naţională poate fi văzută produs al trei domenii distincte, dar la fel de
importante: resursele disponibile sau produse de o ţară, performanţa naţională ce derivă din
presiunile externe cu care ţara se confruntă corelate cu eficienţa instituţiilor guvernamentale şi
capacitatea militară ce este înţeleasă în termeni de competenţă operaţională rezultată din atât
din resursele strategice disponibile organizaţiei militare, cât şi abilităţii acesteia de a le
transforma în putere coercitivă efectivă4. Resursele naţionale cuprind, în această tipologie,
tehnologia, spiritul întreprinzător, resursele umane, resursele financiare/capital şi resursele
fizice.
Date fiind aceste implicaţii ale studiului accesului la resurse, în cele ce urmează vom
analiza cadrul teoretic referitor la resurse şi corelaţiile dintre acestea şi puterea şi guvernare,
respectiv securitatea naţională/regională/internaţională.
2. Rolul resurselor ca factori de producţie în configurarea puterii naţionale
Legătura dintre resurse şi factori de producţie constă în aceea că aceştia din urmă
reprezintă potenţialul de resurse economice atrase în circuitul economic. Furnizarea de bunuri
şi servicii nu este posibilă fără atragerea de resurse.
2
Cătălin ZAMFIR, „Resurse‖, în Dicţionar de sociologie, coordonatori: Cătălin Zamfir şi Lazăr Vlăsceanu, Ed. Babel,
Bucureşti, 1998, p. 504.
3
Dan POPESCU (coord.), Economie politică, Editura Universităţii „Lucian Blaga‖, Sibiu, 2000, p. 7.
4
Ashley J. TELLIS; Janice BIALLY; Christopher LAYNE; Melissa McPHERSON, Measuring National Power in the
Postindustrial Age, RAND Corporation, 2000.
197
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
În societatea contemporană, resursele naturale constituie atât baza activităţii
economice, cât şi unul dintre factorii ce determină puterea unui stat şi relaţiile de putere din
cadrul sistemului internaţional. În cadrul acestei categorii pot fi aplicate două criterii distincte:
durata de folosire a respectivelor resurse şi posibilitatea recuperării lor. Aplicând primul
criteriu, pot fi distinse două subcategorii: resurse naturale epuizabile (energetice) şi resurse
naturale regenerabile (apă, aer şi pământ). În acelaşi timp, în funcţie de gradul de recuperare
sau refolosire a lor în producţie, resursele naturale pot fi nerecuperabile (energie,
combustibil), parţial recuperabile (resurse biologice) şi recuperabile (materii prime). De
asemenea, se mai poate vorbi despre resurse utilizabile şi neutilizabile şi resurse regenerabile
şi neregenerabile5. Paul A. Samuelson şi William D. Nordhaus au realizat corelarea acestor
două tipologii conform următoarei figuri.
Regenerabile Neregenerabile
Cherestea, teren Petrol, gaze
Utilizabile
agricol, energie naturale
solară
Rezervele de peşte, Clima, deşeurile
Neutilizabile calitatea aerului, radioactive
priveliştile montane
Figura nr. 1: Clasificarea resurselor conform Paul A. Samuelson şi William D.
Nordhaus6
Resursele utilizabile includ terenul, resursele minerale şi pădurile, iar într-o piaţă
competitivă ce funcţionează, acest tip de resurse ar trebui să fie eficient alocate. În schimb,
resursele neutilizabile pot provoca probleme economice serioase prin aceea că folosirea lor
este gratuită pentru individ, dar costisitoare pentru societate implicând costuri necompensate
sau beneficii pentru alte părţi. În ceea ce priveşte resursele regenerabile – energia solară,
terenul agricol, apa râurilor, pădurile, rezervele de peşte –, principala problemă o constituie
utilizarea prudentă, fiind astfel permisă maximizarea valorii lor. În schimb, resursele
neregenerabile (petrol, gaze naturale) există în cantităţi limitate şi nu se regenerează suficient
de rapid pentru consum, astfel că cea mai importantă problemă economică este alocarea lor
eficientă în timp şi spaţiu.7
Tipologia de mai sus, prin aceea că aduce în prim-plan caracterul epuizabil al
resurselor, reflectă faptul că volumul, structura şi calitatea resurselor se modifică într-un ritm
inferior celui în care se modifică nevoile umane (legea rarităţii resurselor).
În acest context, se poate afirma că posesia şi alocarea resurselor determină şi sunt
determinate la rândul lor de performanţa naţională ca formă latentă de putere. Acest model
explicativ a fost propus în anul 2000 de experţii RAND (figura nr. 2) în monografia
„Measuring National Power in the Postindustrial Age‖ (Măsurarea puterii naţionale în epoca
post-industrială)8.
5
Paul A. SAMUELSON, William D. NORDHAUS, Economics, 16th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 1998, pp. 325-326.
6
Ibidem.
7
Ibidem.
8
Ashley J. TELLIS; Janice BIALLY; Christopher LAYNE; Melissa McPHERSON, op. cit., RAND Corporation, 2000 (titlul
în traducerea autorului).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Resurse naţionale Performanţă naţională
Tehnologie
Spiritul întreprinzător Constrângeri externe
Resurse umane Infrastructuri
Resurse financiare/capital Resurse ideatice
Resurse fizice
Capacitate militară
Resurse strategice + capacitatea de conversie = competenţa de luptă
Figura nr. 2: Abordarea RAND referitoare la puterea naţională9
Modelul RAND porneşte de la organizarea statală pe trei domenii distincte în cadru
căreia primul domeniu, resursele naţionale, reprezintă resursele necesare unei ţări pentru a
dezvolta capabilităţi necesare producerii unei forţe militare eficiente. De asemenea, modelul
încorporează variabilele tradiţionale ale analizei puterii unui stat – populaţia, suprafaţa,
produsul intern brut, resursele naturale etc. – în variabile calitative ce se referă la capacitatea
ţării de a încorpora cunoaşterea ştiinţifică în sferele politică, economică şi socială, ceea ce
reprezintă baza procesului de formare a unor noi forme de putere militară.10 Autorii
monografiei consideră că cel de-al doilea domeniu doreşte să surprindă mecanismele ce le
permit ţărilor să creeze sau să transforme resursele naţionale, adică să transforme puterea
latentă în forme tangibile de putere. Scopul introducerii acestei dimensiuni cu rol
transformator, afirmă autorii, este de a depăşi viziunea tradiţională a statului ca „recipient cu
graniţe al puterii‖ (în original, „bordered power-container‖, sintagmă ce aparţine lui Anthony
Giddens şi prin care defineşte statul-naţiune11) către o abordare a ţărilor ca structuri active
social formate din actori şi instituţii statale şi sociale ce există într-un mediu populat de
entităţi similare străine (de peste graniţă). Această dimensiune permite identificarea unui
element pe care studiile tradiţionale referitoare la putere nu l-au integrat în totalitate – relaţia
unui stat atât cu mediul extern, cât şi cu propria societate şi consecinţele acesteia asupra
puterii naţionale – prin analiza a trei variabile: constrângerile externe (ale sistemului
internaţional), capacitatea de infrastructură a statului şi resursele ideatice.12
În fine, cea de-a treia dimensiune propusă de experţii RAND identifică capacitatea
militară tangibilă a unei ţări. În acest context, capabilităţile militare sunt considerate a fi
manifestarea efectivă a puterii naţionale deoarece ele reprezintă puterea proiectabilă a unei
ţări ce poate fi folosită împotriva competitorilor şi constituie prima linie de apărare.13 Autorii
definesc capabilităţile militare ca fiind o rezultantă a interacţiunii continue ciclice dintre
resursele naţionale şi performanţa naţională. Instituţiile cuprinse în cel de-al treilea domeniu
la care se face referire se bazează pe resursele pe care le produc atât pentru a pentru a
continua să existe în plan intern, cât pentru a-şi extinde puterea la nivel internaţional, iar cea
mai importantă manifestare a puterii externe este capacitatea militară. 14 Deşi factorul militar
9
Idem, p. xiv.
10
Ibidem.
11
Anthony GIDDENS, The Nation-State and Violence. Volume Two of a Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism,
Polity Press, Cambridge, 1989 (retipărit), p. 120.
12
Ashley J. TELLIS; Janice BIALLY; Christopher LAYNE; Melissa McPHERSON, op. cit., RAND Corporation, 2000, p.
xv.
13
Ibidem.
14
Ibidem.
199
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
este luat în calcul în toate analizele referitoare la puterea statelor prin variabile precum
cheltuielile militare şi numărul personalului forţelor armate, experţii RAND propun adâncirea
analizei prin includerea a trei elemente de sinteză:
- resursele strategice pe care forţele armate le primesc din partea guvernului, ce
includ bugetul apărării, forţa de muncă, infrastructura militară, instituţiile de
cercetare-dezvoltare, baza industrială pentru apărare, inventarul de luptă şi
sprijin;
- variabilele ce pot identifica modul în care aceste resurse sunt transformate în
capabilităţi, precum: ameninţările cu care se confruntă o ţară şi strategia de
răspuns la acestea; structura relaţiilor civil-militare; densitatea relaţiilor
externe cu instituţii similare; natura doctrinei, instruirii şi organizării;
potenţialul şi capacitatea de inovare;
- capabilităţile forţei de luptă, ilustrate printr-un larg spectru de competenţe de
luptă ce pot fi realizate într-un grad mai mare sau mai mic şi care pot fi
comparate cu cele ale altor ţări.15
Aşadar, resursele naţionale pot fi transformate, în final, în capacitate militară.
Resursele includ tehnologia, spiritul întreprinzător, resursele umane, resursele
financiare/capital şi resursele fizice. Tehnologia – definită ca materializare a cunoaşterii,
metodelor, resurselor şi inovării – este considerată de către experţii RAND drept piatra de
temelie pentru producerea puterii naţionale, în special prin capacitatea unei ţări de a produce
tehnologii critice. Spiritul întreprinzător este cea de-a doua resursă enumerată ce este
expresia colectivă a nivelului de invenţie şi inovare, precum şi al difuzării acestora în cadrul
unei anumite societăţi. Deşi tehnologia este considerată în raportul RAND ca cel mai vizibil
element al erei post-industriale, resursele umane sunt privite drept cel mai important element
al acestei epoci, întrucât omul este cel care creează, codifică şi asimilează cunoaştere. 16
Resursele financiare/capital se referă la o masă omogenă creată prin decizii de economisire ce
poate fi transferată cu uşurinţă de la o industrie la alta17. Raportul RAND subliniază faptul că
importanţa capitalului pentru politică derivă din caracterul său fungibil ceea ce îl face uşor de
transformat în putere şi influenţă. În fine, ultimul domeniu propus de RAND în măsurarea
puterii naţionale este acela al resurselor fizice. Se porneşte de la premisa că transformarea
societăţii din agricolă în industrială şi post-industrială a pus în mişcare un proces de
transformare economică ce a dat naştere unor noi nevoi de resurse fizice variate: dacă în
societatea agricolă, resursele fizice de bază (în special pământul) au avut cea mai mare
utilitate, în societatea industrială resursele energetice au deţinut poziţia principală, iar în cea
post-industrială creşterea economică bazată pe cunoaştere a devenit punctul central al
progresului. În prezent, valoarea resurselor naturale ca stoc, cu excepţia resurselor energetice,
pare a se reduce pe măsură ce cunoştinţele tehnice furnizează noi modalităţi de utilizare mai
eficiente a resurselor naturale existente, dar şi substituenţi sintetici pentru cele epuizabile.18 În
cadrul teoretic propus, sunt prezentaţi patru indicatori – stocurile de alimente, sursele de
15
Idem, p. xvi.
16
Idem, p. 73.
17
Frank KNIGHT, ―Diminishing Returns from Investment‖, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 52, March 1944 apud
Ashley J. TELLIS; Janice BIALLY; Christopher LAYNE; Melissa McPHERSON, op. cit., RAND Corporation, 2000, p. 81.
18
Idem, p. 88.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
energie, mineralele critice şi metalele rare – pentru care se măsoară nivelul producţiei interne,
dimensiunea depozitelor securizate, sursele, durabilitatea şi securitatea accesului străin.
Deşi modelul teoretic propus de RAND oferă indicatori concreţi pentru măsurarea
impactului resurselor naturale asupra puterii naţionale, unii teoreticieni afirmă că modul în
care resursele naturale interacţionează cu puterea este neclar. Astfel, Benjamin K. Sovacool,
specialist danez în probleme de politică energetică şi mediu, în studiul „Introduction.
Defining, measuring, and exploring energy security‖ (Introducere. Definirea, măsurarea şi
explorarea securităţii energetice), din „The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security‖
(Manualul Routledge al securităţii energetice), concluzionează, în urma analizei a 45 de
definiţii ale securităţii energetice, că legătura dintre resursele naturale şi putere este una
dinamică şi depinde de contextul social19. Sovacool afirmă că nu doar statele au abordări
diferite asupra politicilor legate de resurse, dar chiar şi paradigma sau logica ce domină
administrarea rezervelor de resurse poate fi diferită într-o anumită perioadă faţă de cea din
altă perioadă de timp, explorând în acest sens formele pe care resursele naturale şi puterea le
pot lua în diferite contexte istorice.
În relaţia cu puterea, resursele naturale sunt considerate de unii analişti ca fiind atât
sursă, cât şi efect al acesteia20. Resursele naturale constituie un element al puterii, controlul
asupra acestora influenţând şi balanţa de putere la nivel internaţional. Jost Wübbeke,
cercetător asociat la Institutul „Fridtjof Nansen‖ (Norvegia), subliniază faptul că mare parte a
resurselor naturale nu prezintă interes pentru sfera politică: actorii politici pot stabili care
resurse sunt critice sau strategice pentru puterea şi securitatea naţională în funcţie de valoarea
economică a acestora, relevanţa militară, deficitul estimat şi concentrarea
ofertei/aprovizionării21. Exemplele cu care Wübbeke îşi susţine teza fac referire nu numai la
petrol, ci şi la elementele rare indispensabile dezvoltării tehnologiei de vârf care, deşi la prima
vedere nu par a constitui motiv pentru declanşarea conflictelor, au fost recunoscute recent ca
având o strânsă legătură cu puterea şi securitatea naţională22. Un articol din anul 2010 publicat
în The Economist, la care face trimitere şi Wübbeke, invocă panica creată în ţările
industrializate de evaluarea cererii şi ofertei de metale rare în lume ce, în anul 2009, au fost de
134.000 t (cererea), respectiv 124.000 t (oferta), iar pentru anul 2012, prognoza la momentul
respectiv vehicula o cerere de 180.000 t de metale rare. Acestea în condiţiile în care China,
furnizor pentru 97% din cererea de metale rare la nivel mondial, decisese să reducă
exporturile de la 50.000 t la 30.000 t.23 Prognoza oferă cifre ce pot spori îngrijorarea
19
Benjamin K. SOVACOOL, „Introduction. Defining, measuring, and exploring energy security‖, în B. Sovacool (coord.),
The Routledge Handbook of Energy Security, Routledge, Londra, 2011, apud Enrico FELS, Jan-Frederik KREMER,
Katharina KRONENBERG (coord.), Power in the 21st Century. International Security and International Political Economy
in a Changing World, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2012, p. 97.
20
Jost WÜBBEKE, „Three World of Natural Resources and Power‖ în Power in the 21st Century. International Security and
International Political Economy in a Changing World, Enrico FELS, Jan-Frederik KREMER, Katharina KRONENBERG
(coord.), Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2012, pp. 97-115.
21
Idem, p. 98.
22
N.V., „Rare-Earth Metals. The Difference Engine: More Precious than Gold‖ în The Economist, ediţia on-line, 17
septembrie 2010, URL: http://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2010/09/rare-earth_metals (n.n.), apud Jost WÜBBEKE,
op. cit., 2012.
23
N.V., „Rare-Earth Metals. The Difference Engine: More Precious than Gold‖ în The Economist, ediţia on-line, 17
septembrie 2010, URL: http://www.economist.com/blogs/babbage/2010/09/rare-earth_metals (n.n.).
201
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
identificată de către analiştii The Economist: se estimează că, în anul 2014, cererea de metale
rare va creşte la 205.000 t, în timp ce producţia nu va depăşi 203.500 t24.
În acest context, relaţiile de putere dintre state sunt influenţate de disponibilitatea
resurselor, guvernele folosind în anumite momente resursele critice ca instrument de presiune
politică. Un exemplu din zona europeană este cel al boicotării importurilor de petrol din Iran
de către UE în anul 2012 pentru a contracara ambiţiile nucleare iraniene, în condiţiile în care,
la acel moment, ţările Uniunii importau peste un sfert din producţia de petrol a Iranului, iar
Arabia Saudită şi alte ţări exportatoare s-au angajat să acopere nevoile europene în materie de
petrol25.
Este evident, aşadar, că resursele, în special cele naturale, constituie în primul rând un
factor de putere, actorii care dispun de resurse consistente şi de calitate având posibilitatea de
a dezvolta un statut important pe scena internaţională.
3. Guvernarea în „ecuaţia” ce cuprinde ca variabile resursele (în special cele
naturale) şi securitatea
Resursele – indiferent că este vorba despre cele materiale sau umane, primare sau
derivate – pot constitui o sursă de bunăstare pentru majoritatea ţărilor care le deţin. În cazul
majorităţii ţărilor dezvoltate, democratice, deţinerea de resurse determină existenţa unui nivel
de trai ridicat ceea ce este corelat cu un nivel ridicat de securitate economică, socială şi
politică a cetăţenilor respectivei ţări, excepţie făcând cazurile în care pericolele şi ameninţările
sunt de natură ecologică sau teroristă. De asemenea, excepţie sunt şi cazurile în care se
manifestă aşa-numitul „blestem‖ al resurselor sau „paradoxul abundenţei‖ ce aduce în prim-
plan importanţa sporită ce este acordată în prezent resurselor naturale. Acesta se referă la
faptul că ţările şi regiunile cu resurse naturale abundente, în special neregenerabile, au o
creştere economică mai lentă şi rezultate de dezvoltare mai slabe decât ţările cu mai puţine
resurse naturale.
Cu două decenii în urmă, Richard M. Auty, economist britanic, a formulat şi analizat
teza „blestemului resurselor‖ pornind de la faptul că statisticile contrazic abordarea
tradiţională conform căreia rolul resurselor naturale, al deţinerii acestora, în dezvoltarea
economică este unul critic în primele faze ale procesului de dezvoltare în care veniturile sunt
mici26. Analiza realizată de către Auty în termeni de performanţă economică, demonstrează că
ţările bogate în resurse nu numai pot eşua în a beneficia de pe urma deţinerii de resurse
naturale numeroase, dar chiar pot avea performanţe economice mai slabe decât cele cu resurse
mai puţine.
Teza „blestemului resurselor‖ a fost dezvoltată ulterior lucrării lui Auty, fiind realizate
corelaţii între abundenţa resurselor, pe de o parte, şi declanşarea şi desfăşurarea unui război
civil, pe de altă parte sau între abundenţa resurselor şi un nivel scăzut de democraţie în ţara
24
Conform Companiei industriale australiene pentru minereuri apud Rare Earth News, URL:
http://rareearthnews.wordpress.com/key-statistics/.
25
European Affairs, EU Agrees To Boycott Iranian Oil, Aligning With Long-Standing U.S. Ban (1/24), January 2012, The
European Institute, URL: http://www.europeaninstitute.org/January-2012/eu-agrees-to-boycott-iranian-oil-aligning-with-
long-standing-us-ban-124.html.
26
Richard M. AUTY, Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource Curse Thesis, Routledge, New York,
1993, p. 1.
202
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
care le deţine.27 Analizând literatura de specialitate, Andrew Rosser, expert al Institutului
pentru Studii de Dezvoltare din Marea Britanie, concluzionează că există numeroase studii ce
sugerează că abundenţa resurselor naturale este asociată declanşării unui război civil şi
influenţează durata şi intensitatea acestuia28. Autorul face trimitere la trei dintre lucrările lui
Paul Collier şi Anke Hoeffler – „On Economic Causes of Civil War‖ (Despre cauzele
economice ale războiului civil), 1998; „Greed and Grievance in Civil War‖ (Lăcomia şi
abuzul în războiul civil), 2000; „The Political Economy of Secession‖ (Economia politică a
secesiunii), 2002 – ce sunt dedicate examinării corelaţiei dintre resursele naturale şi
războaiele civile. În prima lucrare, cei doi autori demonstrează că relaţia dintre aceste două
elemente este o curbilinie: iniţial, deţinerea de resurse naturale abundente sporeşte riscul de
război civil, însă, după atingerea unui anumit nivel al exporturilor, acest risc se reduce 29.
Corelaţia dintre resursele naturale şi războiul civil este demonstrată pe baza unui alt set de
date şi în cea de-a doua lucrare, iar în cea de-a treia citată de către Rosser, autorii analizează
efectul abundenţei resurselor naturale asupra diferitelor tipuri de războaie civile şi arată că
acest tip de resurse cresc riscul declanşării războaielor civile secesioniste şi nesecesioniste,
dar primele au o probabilitate de producere de trei ori mai mare decât cele din urmă în
condiţiile asocierii cu abundenţa resurselor naturale30.
În fine, conform aceluiaşi expert britanic, literatura de specialitate corelează resursele
naturale şi cu tipul de regim politic din ţara care le deţine şi exemplifică prin lucrarea lui
Leonard Wantchekon, „Why Do Resource Dependent Countries Have Authoritarian
Governments?‖ (De ce ţările dependente de resurse au guverne autoritare?) publicată în anul
1999, în care, în urma analizei de date economice din perioada 1950-1990 referitoare la 141
de ţări, autorul concluzionează că, pe de o parte, o creştere de un procent în dependenţa de
resurse naturale, măsurată ca proporţie a exporturilor primare în PIB, creşte probabilitatea
existenţei unei guvernări autoritare cu 8%, iar, pe de altă parte, în ţările bogate în resurse
naturale, dar cu guvernare nedemocratică, există o probabilitate mai mare de a avea o tranziţie
înceată către democraţie sau chiar de a eşua în atingerea acestui deziderat.31
Este evident, aşadar, că, deşi aceste aserţiuni pot fi contestate, există o legătură strânsă
între deţinerea de resurse naturale abundente şi riscurile, pericolele şi ameninţările la adresa
securităţii, de la nivelul individului uman la cel internaţional, în aceeaşi măsură în care
abundenţa resurselor naturale poate constitui sursa bunăstării populaţiei şi a securităţii
naţionale. Diferenţa între aceste două stări este dată, în principal, de factorul politic, de modul
în care sunt gestionate resursele naturale. În acest context se poate vorbi despre guvernarea
resurselor ce reprezintă modul în care guvernul reglementează şi gestionează atât utilizarea
resurselor naturale, cât şi redistribuirea costurilor şi a veniturilor ce derivă din acele resurse32.
Pornind de la această definiţie, experţii Centrului Internaţional pentru Transformare din Bonn
27
Andrew ROSSER, The Political Economy of the Resource Curse: A Literature Survey, Working Paper 268, 2006, Center
for the Future State, Institute of Development Studies, UK, pp. 9-10, URL: http://www.ids.ac.uk/ publications.
28
Idem, p. 9.
29
Paul COLLIER şi Anke HOEFFLER, On Economic Causes of Civil War, Oxford Economic Papers No. 50, pp. 563-573,
apud Andrew ROSSER, op. cit., 2006, p. 9.
30
Paul COLLIER şi Anke HOEFFLER, The Political Economy of Secession, Development Research Group, World Bank,
2002, apud Andrew ROSSER, op. cit., 2006, p. 9.
31
Leonard WANTCHEKON, Why Do Resource Dependent Countries Have Authoritarian Governments?, Yale University,
New Haven, 1999, apud Andrew ROSSER, op. cit., 2006, p. 10.
32
Volker FRANKE, Jolien SCHURE, Governing the Gift of Nature. Resource Conflict Monitor: The Links between
Governance, Conflict and Natural Resources, Bonn International Center for Conversion, 2007, p. 14.
203
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
(CITB), au propus un instrument pentru monitorizarea modului în care ţările bogate în resurse
gestionează, administrează şi guvernează resursele naturale proprii, ilustrând impactul calităţii
guvernării resurselor asupra declanşării, intensităţii şi duratei unui conflict violent. În opinia
autorilor, monitorul conflictului pentru resurse (MCR) serveşte drept instrument nu numai
pentru identificarea şi sprijinirea acelor cazuri în care guvernarea resurselor se desfăşoară într-
un mod viabil ci, de asemenea, contribuie la prevenirea conflictelor, reconstrucţia post-
conflict şi dezvoltarea durabilă33. Mai mult, pentru monitorizarea guvernării resurselor a fost
propus indexul guvernării resurselor ce este bazat pe analiza de date secundare din diverse
surse, corelând indicatori generali ai bunei guvernări (tip de regim, drepturi politice, libertăţi
civile, libertatea presei) cu indicatori ai guvernării referitori la managementul şi reglementarea
sectorului resurselor (condiţii sociale şi de muncă, mediu, comunităţi, comerţ) şi la veniturile
rezultate din utilizarea acelor resurse (venit, cheltuieli, transparenţă) 34. De asemenea, CITB
propune şi indexul respectării regimului resurselor ce măsoară gradul în care ţările sunt
membre ale unor tratate şi convenţii relevante (include 22 de convenţii şi acorduri vizând
standarde sociale şi de muncă, mediu, comunităţi/minorităţi, acorduri de schimb specifice şi
convenţii referitoare la venituri şi transparenţă)35.
Din păcate, începând cu anul 2007, aceste instrumente nu au mai fost actualizate, însă
perioada de zece ani pentru care sunt analizate cele 90 de ţări oferă date ce pot conduce la
formularea unor concluzii pertinente asupra corelaţiei dintre resurse şi conflict. Astfel, prin
realizarea unei tipologii a ţărilor pe baza criteriului guvernării resurselor (ţări cu nivel înalt de
guvernare a resurselor, ţări cu nivel mediu de guvernare a resurselor, ţări cu nivel scăzut de
guvernare a resurselor) şi corelarea sa cu problematica conflictului intern, reiese că în ţările în
care nivelul guvernării resurselor este scăzut se desfăşoară conflicte mai intense decât în ţările
în care nivelul guvernării resurselor este ridicat36. Conform indicatorilor prezentaţi anterior,
experţii CITB au clasificat cele 90 de ţări astfel:
- ţări cu nivel ridicat de guvernare a resurselor: Argentina, Australia, Benin,
Bolivia, Botswana, Canada, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El
Salvador, Estonia, Germania, Guyana, Honduras, Letonia, Lituania, Malawi,
Mali, Mauritius, Moldova, Mongolia, Namibia, Nicaragua, Norvegia,
Slovacia, Trinidad şi Tobago, Ungaria, Uruguay, Venezuela;
- ţări cu nivel mediu de guvernare a resurselor: Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan,
Belarus, Bosnia şi Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burundi, Camerun, Ciad, Congo,
Coasta de Fildeş, Cuba, Eritrea, Fiji, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau,
Indonezia, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Republica Kârgâză, Lesotho, Liberia,
Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritania, Mozambic, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Peru,
Federaţia Rusă, Sao Tome şi Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Swaziland,
Tanzania, Thailanda, Timorul de Est, Togo, Ucraina, Yemen, Zambia,
Zimbabwe;
33
Bonn International Center for Conversion, Resource Conflict Monitor Website, URL: http://www.bicc.de/rcm/index.php.
34
Idem, URL: http://www.bicc.de/rcm/sources.html#rgi.
35
Ibidem.
36
Idem, URL: http://www.bicc.de/rcm/index.php?action=aggr_groups.
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- ţări cu nivel scăzut de guvernare a resurselor: Afghanistan, R.D. Congo,
Guinea Ecuatorială, Iran, Irak, R.D. Coreeană, RDP Lao, Libia, Myanmar,
Oman, Somalia, Sudan, Siria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam37.
Considerând indexul propus de experţii CITB în relaţie cu cadrul teoretic referitor la
„blestemul resurselor‖ sau „paradoxul abundenţei‖, pot fi sintetizate următoarele aserţiuni ce,
iniţial, au constituit ipoteze de lucru în construirea monitorului conflictului pentru resurse:
disponibilitatea resurselor naturale într-o ţară sporeşte conflictul; un nivel ridicat de
dependenţă de un număr limitat de resurse sporeşte conflictul; diferitele tipuri de resurse au
impacturi diferite asupra conflictului; un nivel ridicat de guvernare a resurselor reduce
conflictul; un nivel ridicat de democraţie conduce la un nivel ridicat de guvernare a resurselor;
transparenţa şi responsabilitatea în guvernarea resurselor reduce posibilitatea de declanşare a
unui conflict; folosirea resurselor pentru dezvoltare (educaţie, sănătate, infrastructură) reduce
posibilitatea de declanşare a unui conflict; existenţa unor conflicte anterioare conduce la
realizarea unui nivel ridicat de guvernare a resurselor; tipul de resurse naturale deţinute de o
ţară îi influenţează nivelul de guvernare a resurselor; un nivel ridicat de guvernare a resurselor
conduce la un nivel ridicat al bunăstării în ţara respectivă.
Aşadar, cel puţin în ceea ce priveşte resursele naturale, se poate afirma că există o
relaţie de determinare reciprocă între tipul şi volumul de resurse deţinute de o ţară, tipul de
guvernare şi nivelul de realizare a securităţii şi, mai mult, această relaţie poate fi extrapolată şi
în cazul resurselor umane, financiare, tehnologice, de cercetare-dezvoltare şi informaţionale.
Totuşi, la nivel internaţional cuvântul-cheie în ceea ce priveşte securitatea în cazul resurselor
de orice tip este interdependenţa şi cooperarea, interesele politice şi jocurile geopolitice
constituind factori perturbatori în procesul de realizare şi asigurare a securităţii naţionale şi
internaţionale.
Bibliografie:
AUTY, Richard M., Sustaining Development in Mineral Economies: The Resource
Curse Thesis, Routledge, New York, 1993.
BĂHNĂREANU, Cristian, „Arma energetică‖ în contextul relaţiilor internaţionale
ale începutului de secol XXI, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, Bucureşti,
2007.
FELS, Enrico, Jan-Frederik KREMER, Katharina KRONENBERG (coord.), Power in
the 21st Century. International Security and International Political Economy in a Changing
World, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, 2012.
FRANKE, Volker; Jolien SCHURE, Governing the Gift of Nature. Resource Conflict
Monitor: The Links between Governance, Conflict and Natural Resources, Bonn International
Center for Conversion, 2007.
GIDDENS, Anthony, The Nation-State and Violence. Volume Two of a Contemporary
Critique of Historical Materialism, Polity Press, Cambridge, 1989 (retipărit).
POPESCU, Dan (coord.), Economie politică, Editura Universităţii „Lucian Blaga‖,
Sibiu, 2000.
37
Ibidem.
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ROSSER, Andrew, The Political Economy of the Resource Curse: A Literature
Survey, Working Paper 268, 2006, Center for the Future State, Institute of Development
Studies, UK, 2006.
SAMUELSON, Paul A., William D. NORDHAUS, Economics, 16th Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1998.
TELLIS, Ashley J.; Janice BIALLY; Christopher LAYNE; Melissa McPHERSON,
Measuring National Power in the Postindustrial Age, RAND Corporation, 2000.
VERRASTRO, Frank A.; Sarah O. LADISLAW; Matthew FRANK; Lisa A. Hyland,
The Geopolitics of Energy. Emerging Trends, Changing Landscapes, Uncertain Times, Center
for Strategic & International Studies, Washington, 2010.
ZAMFIR, Cătălin, şi Lazăr VLĂSCEANU (coord.), Dicţionar de sociologie Ed.
Babel, Bucureşti, 1998.
European Affairs, EU Agrees To Boycott Iranian Oil, Aligning With Long-Standing
U.S. Ban (1/24), January 2012, The European Institute.
Bonn International Center for Conversion, Resource Conflict Monitor Website.
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BUSINESS ETHICS, SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY AND THE NEED OF AN
ETHICAL MANAGEMENT
Alexandru Năstase, PhD, University of Bucharest
Abstract: The paper argues that most of the contexts in which ethical and legal problems
concerning now-days corporations occur may be solved with the help of what is called an
ethics management. Actually, this concept refers to a new type of management that has as
main purposes the systematic integration, coherent introversion and prioritization of ethics
(moral principles, moral values and ethical behavior) within a private organization. In this
sense, Keohane O. Robert defines the term of social responsibility solely as the only
regulatory mean of a potential moral world by educating the agents, involved in a business or
social context, with the help of ethical principles and by defining three forms of ―ethical
justifications‖ highly needed in the process of social responsibility: authorization, support
and impact. The problem occurs when this limited form of ethicisation is confronted with its
different limitations. In this context, an organization will need to adopt a proficient and
specific structuring that follows and assumes a particular type of management: ethics
management – needed to assure the organization‘s economically efficient and durable
functioning in the current complex business environment, by removing or limiting at
maximum any unethical behaviour through the annulment of the following aspects: unfair
competition, information theft, the forgery and misuse of financial documents, economical
fraud, etc.
Keywords: business ethics, social responsibility, ethics management, public and private
organisations, corporate ethicisation model.
The main purpose of this paper is to argue that most of the contexts in which ethical
and legal problems concerning now-days corporations occur may be solved with the help of
what is called an ethics management.
The problem from which we start our argument is the following: Even if Corporate
Social Responsibility is an ethical model that has already generalized itself in order to
become a generally adopted model, how is it possible that a multitude of dilemmatic ethical
and legal situations still reside amongst organisations – corporate or not, multinational or
not, big or small?
We accept, of course, the obvious fact that these kinds of behaviours have a perennial
character, but it is most necessary, in our opinion, to analyse why a great majority of private
or public organisations are, in most of the cases, irresponsible and what are the main reasons
for which these types of behaviours are happening? The limits of social responsibility as a
widely accepted ethical model are to represent the starting point of a future justification of the
need of a new model, the ethics management model. Before proceeding to this delimitations
we must point out the fact that is most common to find a hard defence in favour of the first,
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especially because it is a more popular (friendly, at hand) and easy to implement model, but
also because of its apparent efficiency – mostly due to a shallow comprehension of the
complexity of the moral/ethical element within organisational environment, implying, thus, an
even more superficial and short term solutions to the organisation‘s legal and ethical
problems. We argue that, in spite of its complexity and a more difficult implementation, the
latter is a better ―equipped‖ model that can offer solutions to ethical dilemmas and other
organisational issues directly and indirectly linked to the moral behaviour of the organisation
and its stakeholders1 („those persons or groups that influence or can be influenced/affected
by the decisions, politics and operations undertaken by an organisation‖2).
In order to clarify these facts we will begin by pointing out towards an interesting
argument that comes in support of our perspective; it is upheld by Robert O. Keohane in its
article ―Global Governance and Democratic Accountability‖3. More precisely, the problem of
avoiding social responsibility (avoidance due to the ―will of the organisation‖) or even its
technical impossibility begins with the framework in which organisations develop their
operations. Even if Keohane‘s argument has in view the private environment in which private,
often corporate, companies activate / do business, it is by no means untrue (improper) to
extrapolate this argument and shift it in order to explain why social responsibility is
inoperative in any type of organisation, regardless of its structure, activity domain or type of
capital.
As Keohane points out this framework is actually represented by the ―global universal
society‖4 in itself, which implies a certain moulding of structure, norms, procedures, and an
according ethical behaviour. Unfortunately, even if the current modern economical tendency
is directed towards a global market5, which includes certain complex relations between
economical and social players, and also very specific multilevel interactions between
stakeholders but also within organisations, it actually fails in delivering a set of ―universal
accepted values and institutions‖6 – political, cultural, social or ethical sets.
It is mainly due to this incapacity that we cannot actually speak about a real global and
universal society, but mostly about disparate interactions that take place in a macro and global
level. Therefore, the only way in which we can accept the concept of globality is when it
refers to the idea of one‘s impact on the entire global environment. Nevertheless, it is not
possible to assign the attribute of universality to the concept of society, especially because of
this lack of common values, structures and institutions. From this perspective we can only
speak about a global society which ―would exist in the context of a wider international and
transnational system, in which the states, and also non-governmental actors, will play
important roles‖ 7, and through a global governance, but undoubtedly without the existence of
a global government.
1
For further information regarding this subject see: Freeman R.E., Reed D.L., „Stockholders and Stakeholders: A New
Perspective in Corporate Governance‖, Management Review, Volume XXX, No. 3, 1983, California
2
Post E. James, Lawrence T. Anne, Weben James, Business and Society: Corporate Strategy, Public Policy, Ethics,
McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2001, op. cit., p. 8.
3
Keohane O. Robert , „Global Governance and Democratic Accountability‖, Ethical Boundaries of Capitalism, Ashgate,
London, 2005
4
Keohane O. Robert, op. cit., p. 2.
5
A concept that does not make the point of our current article, but of fundamental importance for the understanding of the
limits that social responsibility is confronted with.
6
Keohane O. Robert, op. cit., p. 2
7
Ibidem, p. 4.
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This framework represents the required base for our discussion about the limits of a
social responsibility project in a global society – this latter being partially sustained by certain
types of interactions, but, obviously, by no moral or ethical substratum. The economical and
commercial interactions, the political acknowledgement of states or organisations, the capital
turnovers at a global level, the transnational investments, a good functioning of multi-
stratified economical entities, all have their roots anchored in an efficiency model, not into
any particular ethical grounds – as we are often led to believe, especially by the intensive
mediatisation of the Corporate Social Responsibility model for business ethics as the most
efficient path towards moral organisational behaviour and a more profound ethical
internalization. For example, a common social good, proper for any human individual, such
as: world peace, a growth in the standard of living for all individuals or the assurance of a
minimal sustenance level for all human beings, etc. may represent a desideratum impregnated
with a powerful ethical element. A desideratum that can add a plus of moral value, but that
will surely be omitted from any real public discourse or organisational project.
Some rules of organisational interaction in the global market may have a potential
moral value and can be judged and evaluated accordingly to this, but they do not represent the
core pylons on which the global market rests upon, nor do they represent the main elements of
a coherent and all the way functional business ethics model. Among these rules of conduct
(political conduct rules, business conduct rules or economical conduct rules) we find, most
importantly, sets of moral conduct rules, but they are bound to operate only in a confined
political space that guarantees their existence and the persistence of the morality attribute –
this space is represented by the democracy8.
Furthermore, in our opinion and as Keohane points out also, reaching a world with a
high potential towards moral behaviour is a task that implies making the ―rule-benders‖
accountable. This accountability process9 is empowered by 3 types of culpability
justifications gests (ethical justification), based on:
1) authority – an entity is authorized to act in the name of another and
therefore the first can be made accountable for any immoral or irresponsible
behaviour
2) support – any type of support (economical or political) given to a third
party also implies its accountability
3) impact – public or private entities that have an important influence power
must be held accountable for their actions10
8
Keohane O. Robert, op. cit., p. 5.
9
Ibidem, pp. 5-6.
10
We must point out that this last type of justification is nothing else but a purely theoretical one, especially due to the fact a
company or any other power holding entity couldn‘t be completely responsible for all the business decisions that govern their
activities and, implicitly, for the totality of its activities. This maximal responsibility would merely excessively reduce the
economic efficiency of one such entity or, from another perspective, would just cancel out every possible advantage that such
an influence power could grant them. In our opinion, the most responsible organisations cannot be profitable, if they don‘t
balance this responsibility with techniques and policies especially designed to facilitate the acquirement and maximisation of
profit – the only problem is that, in this case, the morality of such actions must me thoroughly evaluated; it would be
completely counterintuitive to have a responsible organisation, but by immoral means (see the Kantian distinction between
acting in conformity with duty and from duty – Kant Immanuel, ―Intemeierea Metafizicii Moravurilor‖, Humanitas,
Bucuresti, 2007).
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The first two represent a direct form of accountability – an internal responsibility –
while the third represents a form of indirect accountability – an external responsibility –
because the effects of the actions can affect individuals and other entities that are outside of
the system that produces them – a definition that is used to describe a classical concept in
economy, that of externality11. Most of social injustices and perhaps the gravest of the
immoral behaviours are generated by the essay of avoiding the third form of moral
accountability and very often is a clear mark for the dimension of the entity or organisation
that tries to elude itself from social and moral responsibility. Actually, the bigger the
organisation, the more power it has and the more prone it is to bend the rules and ignore every
constraint – ―the capacity of avoiding responsibility for the externalities produced can be seen
as a dimension of power‖12.
There are 7 main entities and groups13 that tend to escape any accountability process –
very often these organisations are almost irresponsible or demonstrate a very rudimentary and
limited social responsibility:
a. multinational corporations
b. private or trans-governmental networks or sectors
c. the Roman Catholic Church
d. religious movements14
e. covert terrorist networks15
f. powerful states
g. NGOs
The NGOs and the multinational corporations seem to be the entities that are the
hardest to be held accountable (and after Keohane especially because of 3 key reasons:
economic influence, reduced size and the fact they may act in favour of concealed ends), and
they seem to share the same propensity towards the avoidance of the accountability for the
resulted externalities. It is obvious that this is happening especially because of the same
global framework that we have already presented earlier in this paper; a global environment
that lacks the necessary regulations in order to impose the responsibility, but also because of
the economical, social and political power that, for example, multinational corporations
detain.
Furthermore, in the corporations‘ case, things tend to be more complex. Holding
accountable such an organisation is often painstaking because of the economical obligations
that it has towards its shareholders – maximising their profitability being one of them. While
having the means and will necessary, they avoid the paying off the social and economic
compensations that are to be paid for in order to prove their moral and social responsibility
11
Concept introduced in the 1960s by James Buchannan in order to take into account the, before then, unquantifiable positive
or negative effects on a third party, that remains as an economical rest resulted after a transaction between two contractual
parties. For further clarifications see: Buchanan M. James și Stubblebine Wm. Craig, „Externality‖, Economica, New Series,
Vol. 29, No. 116, (Nov., 1962), pp. 371-384.
12
Keohane O. Robert, op. cit. p. 6.
13
Idem, op. cit. p. 8.
14
Furthermore, we may add that most of the Churches and major religious cults find themselves in the same accountability
impossibility, especially because of the lack of transparency and the way they interact with their environment and their
parties prennantes (fr.) – the concept of stakeholder being unsuitable in this case.
15
Without any exaggeration, we could affirm that even the known ones find themselves in the same accountability gap.
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towards society and, implicitly, a moral behaviour towards its primary and secondary
stakeholders. Most of the times, the way they manage to do this is by offshoring, corporate
relocation or by ending/dissolving the branch office ―in danger‖ of being held socially and
morally accountable.
In this context, the public opinion must be powerful enough to enforce the process of
enforcing the moral accountability within the daily activities of such organisations, especially
within the corporate entities. When and if this is the case the stakeholders are actually those
who push forward towards corporate responsibility, for example, and thus becoming the
recipient of these types of organisational behaviour. Nevertheless, multinational companies
(corporations especially) are still capable of avoiding moral and social responsibility, even in
the situation in which they are ―trapped‖ between internal responsibility demands (coming
from their primary stakeholders, for example: workers‘ syndicates) and external ones (coming
from public‘s opinion); there is a limited coercion power due to certain ―relieving‖ factors
such as: geopolitical ones (states or regional frontiers), economical ones (see here the case of
Nigeria‘s diamonds and the primacy of the economical aspects in favour of other secondary
aspects like ecological, social or moral ones), and legal or jurisdictional ones (the legal
power is limited to a certain economical or geographical space, hence a multinational
company/private organisations can either relocate or act responsibly within a confined
business space, whilst other branch offices or subsidiaries can display only a formal type of
responsibility).
There are still essays to enforce moral accountability at a supra-state, regional or
multiregional level. Corporate Social Responsibility standards such as the ISO 26000
standards or the U.N. Global Compact standard are just two very good examples, the first
being heavily promoted by the European Union in its essay to protect the states composing it
from any attempt coming from, mostly private, market players to illicitly externalise business
costs. But even so, this approach seems to have the same limitations as mentioned earlier,
EU‘s power over national interests and private organisations‘ local market behaviour remains
limited, not to take into account the fact that in such types of dynamic interactions the forces
are to be evaluated from both ways – companies tend to react swiftly and put legal, political
or economical pressure (or all at once).
But a genuine ethical behaviour (and, with it, a real moral responsibility), in order to
be sustainable and prove their efficiency, must always be self-regulating (self-imposed) and
adhered to on a voluntary basis. Enforcing regulations (especially when they refer to ethics) is
a suboptimal and inefficient approach. In addition, a conformity model is merely a form
compliance to exterior pressures with a reputational16 and image stakes, and very often
fallacious in terms of means and motivations.
We must, hereby, conclude this part of our paper, by pointing out to the fact that the
Corporate Social Responsibility model, being a model based solely on the responsibility
principle, is incapable to overcome its setbacks and limitations. The morality of any one
private company or corporation is conditioned by the management policies, business
decisions, economical limitations and other types of direct and indirect constraints. And, to
put it bluntly, nor was it developed and perfected to do otherwise. As a matter of fact, the
16
Surely not in the sense used by Adam Smith
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concurrent and more proficient business ethics model – the corporate ethics model17 – isn‘t
better equipped, either, to answer at fullest to these important modern demands regarding
ethics and morality factors.
To say it otherwise, even if the C.S.R. model rejects any moral behaviour as being
undesirable for businesses, and has as main purpose to reduce at maximum any type of
immoral behaviour, by promoting the implementation of ethics at business level, it seems that
it falls short in reaching this practical desideratum. On several important occasions, and in
most real life experiences, the C.S.R. model seems incapable of finding viable solutions for
the immorality of individuals or companies engaged in the business environment. This
conclusion of ours is also supported by a series of studies1819 made by K.P.M.G., one
regarding the types and occurrence of undesirable or immoral behaviours within organisations
(private and public ones) and a second meant to evaluate the occurrence and real importance
of corporate responsibility activities or reporting – but, most importantly, the reasons for
which the organisations report their corporate responsibility. The first, from which we use as
an example the 2005-200620 one, shows that ¾ of employees have witnessed at least once an
undesirable or immoral behaviour within the business environment. Most of the behaviours
that occur imply: deceiving sales practices, unfair competition, violations of terms of
contract, anti-concurrence practices, information theft, document forgery and financial
reports manipulations, deceiving clients, receiving and making illicit payments in view of
gaining personal or group favours, influence peddling, discriminations, breaking security and
hygiene safety standards, drug and alcohol abuse, violating environmental standards and
putting the public at risk, sexual harassment and abuse, creating a hostile work environment,
violating human rights and other rights, deceiving the public and the mass-media, bribery,
and even the theft of information or goods.
All these kind of practices, actions or behaviours have the capacity to transform the
business environment into a volatile and possibly immoral environment. Mostly are occurring
because of the imposed economical targets (economical efficiency and profitability
requirements), misunderstanding the standards of conduct, the lack of resources required for
accomplishing demanded tasks, the prevalence of the results in spite of the means, the ease in
which regulations, procedures, policies, or rules can me eluded.
In conclusion, even if you have a certain framework for morality organisations and
individuals ignore it, especially due to its only formal state. In reality things tend to be
contrary to the image created and expectations. Even worse, in most cases C.S.R. is an
umbrella concept that hides a process of ―mimesis‖ – proven by the second K.P.M.G. study
that we have referred to in this paper (study published in 2011). This latter one demonstrates
that, even if most of the world‘s biggest companies report corporate responsibility activities
the main reason for their moral and social responsibly behaviour is linked to reputation or
brand image. Ethical reasons are being secluded, even if they rank second in this study, whilst
17
Globalization of businesses implies a globalization of morality (principles, norms, and values). This model requires
dissolution of individual moral values in favor of a supra-morality.
18
Study on types of corporate behaviours
http://www.us.kpmg.com/RutUS_prod/Documents/9/ForIntegritySurv_WEB.pdf .
19
Study on the importance of corporate responsibility
http://www.kpmg.com/Global/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/corporate-responsibility/Documents/2011-
survey.pdf .
20
In the recent years K.P.M.G. has renounced at these types of reports, but they were begun as early as 1993.
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the economical ones ranking 7th on the list – companies are considering, in most of the cases,
that there is no real gain in acting ethically (only 1/3 considering the opposite). To make
things worse, we must stress that the study focuses on 250 of the biggest corporations (most
of them listed on stock market), for the rest of them the situation is even more sombre – small
companies not showing any social or moral responsibility or involvement.
There is no doubt that corporate responsibility (especially social and ethical one)
continues to be regarded only as a PR or image exercise, which seldom brings any real value,
driven by reputation only (a reputation that often suffers from the lack of transparency and
credibility).
In virtue of these grim perspectives we ask ourselves: Which are the possible solutions
at our disposal in order to fully integrate ethics in this global business environment? In fact,
are there any? One or several models that could give account of and correct the morality
vacuum that is already existent at a global level and also capable to transform current hesitant
models into feasible, efficient and competitive solutions for organisations and stakeholders,
but also society in general.
We will point out only 3 out of several possible ones, but we will show our theoretical
attachments towards one only, that we consider being suitable to answer the current problems
regarding business ethics and organisational moral behaviour.
The first would be to create a meta-normative framework that is to be used in order
to evaluate, integrate and level ethics at a global level21
The second would be to make use of communitarian models, which imply applying
natural emerging norms, values, principles and convictions, as a result of individual human
purposes, within a specific social framework, without and any claim of universality, but in a
way as less arbitrary as possible.
And the third, and last of which we will refer to in this article, and propose as solution
to the morality gap that we have described earlier in this paper is: the creation of a
completely new management model – ethics management model22 (a very specific, but
complex management model). What we actually support is a concept that refers to a new type
of management that has as main purposes the systematic integration, coherent introversion
and prioritization of ethics (moral principles, moral values and ethical behaviour) within a
private organization.
The ethics management is a model proposed by Muel Kaptein for the business domain
since 1998, but which actually has its roots in the biomedical ethics since as early as the late
1940s and the beginning of the 1950s. Essentially, it is a model that reintegrates and
reintroduces the ethical element in the corporate business environment by means of a
structural form proper to the corporate system itself. It is a model assumes the task of
rendering the organisations moral, but manages to avoid – as much a possible – the downsides
of the corporate responsibility model.
The C.S.R. model (or its more permissive and wider accepted form: the corporate
responsibility model), defined by the limited form of ethicisation power that we have already
21
Donaldson Thomas, Dunfee W. Thomas, „When ethics travel: the promise and peril of global business ethics‖, California
Management Review, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1999, pp. 45-63.
22
Kaptein Muel, Ethics Management: Auditing and Developing the Ethical Content of Organizations, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 1998.
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stressed in this paper, represents the starting point of ethics management. In order for it to
function correctly, organizations are bound to adopt a proficient and specific structuring
(proper to only to ethics management) that follows and assumes this particular type of
management. In exchange, the ethics management model could assure the organization‘s
economically efficiency and durable (long term) functioning and development in the current
complex business environment, by removing or limiting at maximum any unethical behaviour
through the annulment of the problematic moral aspects and situations pointed out earlier.
Muel Kaptein defines ethics management as the ―[…] the systematic and coherent
development of activities and the taking of measures in order to realize the fundamental and
justified expectations of stakeholders and to balance conflicting expectations of stakeholders
in an adequate way.‖23. What is to be mentioned is that these expectations are of fundamental
ethical nature.
Furthermore, as we have seen already, any integrity ideal or project is bound to fail if
it doesn‘t follow a more inside-out structured approach. The moral aspect of every business
must prevail and be acknowledged as a key element in the structuring of any organisation. For
a company to be perceived as a moral one, and, as a result, to benefit from the business
advantages that an ethically impregnated organisation. Good PR is no longer good business,
but a moral business seems to be so – and only social involvement doesn‘t transform a
corporate organisation into a steward of fundamental ethical principles and doesn‘t prove inter
or extern moral behaviours either. This augmentation of the stakeholders‘ expectations (and,
as a matter of fact, of the public opinion), especially regarding ethics, forces economical
entities to give more attention to the way they do business and structure their core values,
policies and dress their corporate governance plans or they risk losing their place on the
market. Ethics must be accepted benevolently by the organisations and by its primary
stakeholders (employees, managers, board, suppliers etc.) in order for it to impregnate the
entire structures of any given organisations and not be rejected or limited in its implications.
In essence, ethics management is a model that can be more easily accepted and
―digested‖ by the business environment and with more visible results both for business and
for the public opinion. It can offer clear solutions to the limits of the corporate social
responsibility by being able to build stronger and more efficient business ethics strategies –
building a trust & ethical capital, not just an image capital. It is able to do so with the help of
a series of highly specialised organisational structures for managing ethics, such as: a code of
ethics, an ombudsman bureau or ombudsperson, an ethics committee, an ethics audit and an
ethics bureau24, but also by providing clear procedures and tools regarding ethics integration,
formation, evaluation and decision.
In our opinion, this model is represents the key to future moral business, and like
Menzel25, we believe that it can offer the possibility of constructing a really ethical business
(organisation) and shape a more moral and ethical sound market environment.
23
Kaptein Muel, op. cit. p. 42.
24
For more about the importance of these structures see also: Mureşan Valentin, Managementul eticii în Organizații, Editura
Universității din București, București, 2009
25
Donald C. Menzel, Ethics Management for Public Administrators, M.E. Sharpe, London and New York, 2007
214
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
REFERENCES:
BUCHANAN M. James, Stubblebine Wm. Craig, „Externality‖,
Economica, Serie Nouă, Vol. 29, No. 116, noiembrie 1962, pp. 371-384
DONALDSON Thomas, Dunfee W. Thomas, „When ethics travel: the
promise and peril of global business ethics‖, California Management
Review, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1999, pp. 45-63
FREEMAN R. Edward, Reed D.L., „Stockholders and Stakeholders: A
New Perspective in Corporate Governance‖, Management Review,
Volume XXX, No. 3, California, 1983
KANT Immanuel, Intemeierea Metafizicii Moravurilor, Humanitas,
Bucuresti, 2007
KEOHANE O. Robert, „Global Governance and Democratic
Accountability‖, Ethical Boundaries of Capitalism, Editura Ashgate,
Londra, 2005
KAPTEIN Muel, Ethics Management: Auditing and Developing the
Ethical Content of Organizations, Editura Kluwer Academic Publishers,
1998
MENZEL C. Donald, Management for Public Administrators, M.E.
Sharpe, Londra și New York, 2007
MUREȘAN Valentin, Managementul eticii în Organizații, Editura
Universității din București, București, 2009
POST E. James, Lawrence T. Anne, Weben James, Business and Society:
Corporate Strategy, Public Policy, Ethics, Editura McGraw-Hill/Irwin,
2001
SMITH Adam, The theory of moral sentiments, Prometheus Books, 2000
Online document:
http://www.us.kpmg.com/RutUS_prod/Documents/9/ForIntegritySurv_WEB.pdf
Online document:
http://www.kpmg.com/Global/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/corporate-
responsibility/Documents/2011-survey.pdf
215
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ECONOMIC CONCEPTS UNDER SCRUTINY OF THE ”SITUATIONAL
HEXAGON’’ PRAXIOLOGICAL PARADIGM
Alin Brădescu, PhD Student, POSDRU Researcher, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University
of Iași
Abstract: Sharing a common sphere of subjects and perspectives and in strong connection to
language philosophy and praxiology, logic of action has developed formal instruments,
models and systems to analyse and validate the praxis (practice) discourse.
As conceived and derived from inside logic of action, the ,, situational hexagon‘‘ paradigm
was deduced from and developed on a long and well populated descent of semiotic
formalization. The logical scheme centers, as its subject of ,,action‘‘, on complex notions
(logical categories/terms) of a special kind, fuzzy, cosmoidal respectively. The notions under
scrutiny are, in essence, de-composed in sub-notions, re-composed and re-interpreted in
terms of significance and interconnections.
Of an ontological importance for economic sciences, economic concepts are indeed excellent
particularizations of the complex notions because they subsume other complex concepts
Therefore, economic concepts are well adequate to such proceedings.
Under these circumstances, we have applied the situational paradigm of action to four
fundamental economic concepts, in an interdisciplinary enterprise. As a first step, we have
presented the coordinates of the model and its virtues in term of interpretation.
The main part of our work consists in elaborating, constructing and interpreting situational
hexades, two or more for each scrutinized concept. As to the ,,economic activity‘‘ concept, we
have also explained and interpreted sub-forms deduced from the sextuple pattern, in fact
incomplete or deviated forms of the economic activity.
Our paper conclusions regards sources of the economic action ,,pathology‘‘, in view of the
four considered concepts.
Keywords: logic of action, (economic) concepts, situational, model, interpretation.
Derivată din logica formalizată şi aparţinând prin excelenţă ,,noilor‘‘ logici,
menţionată în diverse taxonomii şi mai multe lucrări de metalogică de secol XX 1, logica
acţiunii a transpus rolul ontologic şi metodele logicii clasice de teorie a tuturor formelor
posibile de teorie, de ştiinţă a discursului coerent sau de ansamblu al regulilor la care gândirea
trebuie să se conformeze pentru a atinge adevărul, de organon al gândirii corecte şi, mai ales,
1
P. Botezatu în Constituirea logicităţii, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1973; G.H. von Wright în Normă şi
acţiune, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1982; C. Popa în Teoria acţiunii şi logica formală, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi
Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1984; L. Aqvist în Interpretări ale logicii deontice , în S. Vieru şi D.Stoianovici (ed.), Norme,
valori, acţiune. Analiza logică a discursului practice, cu aplicaţii în etică şi în drept, Ed. Politică, Bucureşti, 1979; R.M.Hare
în Practical Inferences, University of California Press, Berkeley & Los Angeles, 1972; P.Ioan în Orizonturi logice.
Deschideri şi resemnificări în universul actual al formalismelor, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1995 ş.a.
216
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
de metaştiinţă, asupra activităţii umane, mai precis, asupra construcţiilor şi teoriilor care
modelează acţiunea umană.
Plecând, deci, de la axiomatizarea logică a structurii şi desfăşurării raţionale a
acţiunilor/activităţilor individului sau societăţii, ca şi condiţii ontologice, de altfel, s-au
construit în logica acţiunii formalisme care să transpună diversele tipuri de acţiuni în limbajul
clar, uşor de analizat şi interpretat al gramaticii gândirii. Scopul general şi mai larg al acestor
formalisme, înţelese ca forme/expresii/limbaj ce respectă şi se conformează normelor şi
analizei de tip semiotic, şi al altor încercări de modelare într-un metalimbaj este de a elabora o
teorie explicativă coerentă despre acţiunea umană şi despre căile sporirii eficienţei ei. Acest
scop este comun logicii acţiunii şi praxiologiei (înţeleasă ca teorie a discursului practic
eficient).
Se poate accepta că punctul de plecare al încercărilor de concepere şi
construire a formalismelor logice de tip acţionalist este conceptul de acţiune umană, în
general, de acţiune socială şi implicit, activităţi/acţiuni economice, în particular.
O primă dimensiune a acestui concept este că acţiunea umană are un temei
fizic – natural, biologico – ontologic, constituindu-se ca o exercitare de către un sistem a unei
influenţe asupra altui sistem.2 Ín perspectivă economică, acţiunea poate fi definită ca o
transformare indusă în mediul economic şi extra – economic de un agent economic prin care
se dobândeşte mediat satisfacerea unei trebuinţe.
O a doua dimensiune a conceptului de acţiune socială vizează prezenţa unui scop,
respectiv acţiunea umană apare ca o conduită teleologică transformatoare, mediată de unelte
sau mijloace artificiale şi de un aparat semiotic apt de a fixa, prelucra şi transmite informaţia
dobândită de indivizi.3
O a treia dimensiune relevantă se referă la necesitatea conceperii şi producerii unor
mijloace artificale, folosite la obţinerea şi producerea de bunuri sau valori sociale, necesitate
dublată de integrarea actelor de concepţie, producere şi folosire într-un vast sistem de relaţii
socio – economice între indivizi în activitatea practică. Ín perspectivă strict economică,
obţinerea de mijloace, bunuri şi valori, se traduce în utilizarea factorilor de producţie –cum ar
fi capitalul, baza tehnico – materială şi forţa de muncă- şi obţinerea bunurilor/serviciilor
destinate pieţei. Tot aici se înscrie şi funcţionarea agenţilor economici, ca firme, organizaţii,
autorităţile publice locale sau centrale, dar şi consumatorii, clienţii, publicul.
Odată clarificat punctul de plecare, înţelegem mai bine rolul diadic profund al
praxiologiei şi logicii acţiunii, respectiv de teorie descriptivă a trăsăturilor generale ale
activităţii umane, de ,,gramatică a acţiunii‘‘4 şi, pe de altă parte, ca un ansamblu de prescripţii
sau recomandări privind condiţiile eficienţei acţiunilor umane.5 De asemenea, se deschide o
altă direcţie de investigare: structura actelor/activităţilor/acţiunilor umane. S-au conturat astfel
conceptele de bază ale teoriei acţiunii: 1) agentul, 2) obiectul acţiunii, 3) situaţie acţională, 4)
scopul acţiunii, 5) mijloc sau instrument, 6) metoda, 7) rezultatul, 8) valoare a acţiunii, 9)
forma etc.
2
Popa, C., Teoria acţiunii şi logica formală, Ed. Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1984, p. 19
3
Idem, p. 18
4
Kotarbinski, T., Tratat despre lucrul bine făcut, Ed. Politică, Bucureşti, 1976, p. 32
5
Popa, C., Op. cit., pp. 20-21
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fără a mai detalia şi alte clarificări şi explicaţii conceptuale pe care nu ni le-am propus
şi, odată fixat fundamentul şi cadrul larg ,,acţional‘‘ al demersului nostru, se poate prezenta şi
semnifica paradigma ,,situaţională‘‘, cunoscută şi denumită de autorul ei, logicianul ieşean
Petru Ioan, ,,hexada logică de tip situaţional‘‘ sau ,,modelul situaţional hexadic‘‘ sau
,,hexada/hexagonul situaţiei acţionale‘‘.6
Accentul cade pe termenul ,,situaţional‘‘, înţeles ca totalitatea condiţionărilor,
determinărilor şi parametrilor ce determină şi caracterizează o acţiune întreprinsă de un agent
la un moment dat. Ín extensiunea acestui concept se includ totalitatea instrumentelor şi
mijloacelor de care dispune agentul, modalităţile şi metodele de utilizare a acestora. Se
acceptă, de asemenea, şi o latură obictivă, respectiv mulţimea condiţiilor şi parametrilor
asupra cărora agentul deţine un control şi îi influenţează în sensul dorit şi o latură subiectivă,
constând în mulţimea condiţiilor şi parametrilor pe care agentul nu le poate influenţa, dar şi
prezenţa unor cunoştinţe, atitudini, aspiraţii, valori şi convingeri specifice fiecărui agent.7
Hexada situaţiei acţionale este o schemă standard, un model, avînd în centru conceptul
acţional (sau „cosmoidal―) supus analizei, iar în vîrfuri componentele acestuia, adică
noţiuni-factor, ce exprimă: (1) agentul şi, în aceeaşi măsură, decidentul, sau iniţiato-
rul şi promotorul acţiunii respective; (2) acţiunea în sine, respectiv contextul logic
şi obiectiv în care se derulează acţiunea, „tehnologia― şi „produsul― acesteia; (3)
materia, sau substratul acţiunii, cadrul, respectiv circumstanţele şi contextul acesteia;
(4) conţinutul psihologic, sau subiectiv al acţiunii, temeiul, respectiv utilitatea, sau va-
loarea acesteia; (5) inspiratorul, respectiv suporterul, sau influenţatorul, precum şi
beneficiarul, sau pacientul acesteia; (6) forma, respectiv crochiul, sau design-ul ac-
ţiunii şi, tot astfel, procedeul, sau calea desfăşurării acesteia 8.
Ea se aplică conceptelor acţionale a căror extensiune nu este precis determinată,
înţelese ca mulţimi vagi/fuzzy, care închid în ele mai multe situaţii posibile. Íntre varibilele pe
care le subsumează, ele înseşi concept mai simple sau mai complexe, există relaţii ordonate de
tip funcţional şi structural, atât cu o referinţă reală, cât şi având o natură abstractă, formal.
Aplicarea modelului presupune descompunerea şi recompunerea conceptelor cosmoidale
(numite şi concept-funcţii, respectiv concepte-relaţii) în varibilele constitutive ( concepte-
argument sau concepte-factor), în vederea identificării şi interpretării unor raporturi şi
semnificaţii, atât la nivel formal, cât şi în plan concret.9 Aşadar, analize situaţionale se pot
face cu orice concept care exprimă acţiuni şi momente acţionale în următoarele sensuri:
rezultativ – starea finală a unei acţiuni, circumstanţial – determinările unei acţiuni, axiologic –
aprecieri, judecăţi, sociativ – prezenţa mai multor elemente sau parteneri ai acţiunii,
procedural – prezenţa unor mijloace,căi.10
6
În lucrări precum Avataruri ale unei noi paradigme. Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva logicii de tip „situaţional", Editura
Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza", Iaşi, 2010; Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva unei logici „ situaţionale", Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1995; Modelul hexadic în politologic, Editura „Ştefan Lupaşcu", Iaşi, 2002 ş.a.
7
Popa, C., Op. cit., p.33
8
Ioan, P., Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva unei logici „ situaţionale", Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1995, ,
pp. 10 - 12
9
Ioan, P., Avataruri ale unei noi paradigme. Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva logicii de tip „situaţional‘‘, Editura
Universităţii „Alexandru Ioan Cuza", Iaşi, 2010, p.677
10
Ioan, P., Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva unei logici „ situaţionale", Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1995,
pp.10-11
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
MATERIA, substratul, cadrul, contextul, coordonatele, circumstanţele
acţiunii
M
CONȚINUTUL PSIHOLOGIC
CONȚINUTUL LOGIC-
SUBIECTIV
OBIECTIV
al acţiunii, conotaţii, P R al
acţiunii, actiunea în sine,
utilitatea, temeiul, valoarea
tehnologia şi produsul acesteia
acesteia
INSPIRATORUL, influenţatorul,
AGENTUL, decidentul, ini
suporterul, pacientul,
ţiatorul, promotorul acţiunii,
beneficiarul acţiunii
pacientul şi beneficiarul
întreprinse I A propriei
actiuni
FORMA, designul, planul, scenariul, calea desfăşurării acţiunii
Fig. 1 Hexada situaţională a acţiunii umane,
ca paradigmă în analiza noţiunilor cosmoidale
Virtuţile utilizării schemei logice derivă din posibilităţile de interpretare pe care le
deschide şi care permit aplicarea sa în domenii ca lingvistica, psihologia, fizica, matematica,
biologia, ştiinţele sociale. Ín esenţă, explicaţiile acestui potenţial ţin se diversitatea
orizonturilor/perspectivelor de analiză pe care le permit relativa indeterminare a polilor şi
convertibilitatea acestora, ceea ce face posibile aplicaţii ale schemei ,,situaţionale‘‘ la tipuri,
moduri şi forme ale acţiunii şi structurii acesteia dintre cele mai diverse.
Se deschid, deci, posibilităţi de valorificare interdisciplinară a paradigmei acţionale de
tip situaţional în câmpul ştiinţelor economice. Un prim argument al susţinerii
interdisciplinarităţii paradigmei şi aplicării instrumentului de logică a acţiunii în teoria şi
practica economică este constituit de conţinutul şi utilizările conceptelor economice. Acestea
respectă caracteristicele şi cerinţele noţiunilor cosmoidale menţionate anterior şi pot fi
considerate particularizări excelente ale conceptelor din model.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Un al doilea argument al interdisciplinarităţii este axioma comună logicii acţiunii şi
activităţilor economice, conform căreia manifestarea acţiunilor umane se desfăşoară în cadrul
unor structuri organizaţionale, instituţii şi organizaţii care integrează şi coordonează
activitatea indivizilor.Ín contextul discuţiei noastre, apariţia şi funcţionarea unor structuri
organizaţionale complexe sunt necesare şi la nivelul activităţilor economice direct productive.
Un al treilea argument vizează raporturile dintre conceptele – componente ale acţiunii
umane, în general, ale activităţilor economice, în particular. Ín ceea ce priveşte raporturile
dintre valori şi scop, dintre scop şi mijloace, ele sunt abordate şi înţelese asemănător în
ştiinţele economice, pe de-o parte, şi praxiologie, pe de altă parte. De exemplu, în economie,
s-a dezvoltat şi se utilizează conceptul de eficienţă economică, cu toate formele sale –
productivitate, randament, consum specific, eforturi, efecte etc. Ín praxiologie şi logica
acţiunii se acceptă, prin însuşi conceptul de acţiune umană, că scopurile asumate de un agent
sunt şi nu pot fi decât în concordanţă cu opţiunile sale valorice şi că atingerea unui scop se
face cu preţul cheltuirii unei mase de resurse şi mijloace, care nu trebuie să conducă la o
activitate ineficace.
Pe acest fundal interdisciplinar, am ales patru concepte economice, centrale pentru
disciplinele în care se studiază cu prioritate, respectiv activitatea economică, finanţarea
afacerii, piaţa şi activităţile comunicaţionale/promoţionale ale firmei. Am procedat la
aplicarea hexadei situaţionale pe fiecare concept, descompunându-le în concepte – factor şi,
apoi, ìncercând recompunerea lor printr-un efort de interpretare.
Ín figura 2, se prezintă rezultatul descompunerii conceptului activitatea economică
după modelul situaţional hexadic. Cele şase concepte – factori sunt reprezentate de polii
figurii, fiecare cu rolul său în desfăşurarea unei activităţi economice.
Obiective/
Misiune/ indicatori/ plan de afaceri/ proiecte
O
Utilitatea economică/ U P Produsele/
Nevoile (cerinţe/trebuinţe/motivaţii/
Bunurile/Serviciile/Acţiunea
condiţionări)/Valoarea de întrebuinţare/ în sine
Aprecieri subiective, individuale sau Agentul
economic/
colective
Firma/Statul/Societatea
comercială/Regia Autonomă
Consumatorii/ C A (Producători,
Distribuitori,
Clienţi/Utilizatori/Beneficiari/Statul/ Comercianţi,
Agricultori,
Firme/Autorităţi locale sau guvernamentale/ Constructori
etc)/
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Instituţii Prestator de
servicii (bănci,
M consultanţi, medici
etc)
Mediul economic şi extra-economic
(Piaţa, Legislaţia, Resursele, Mediul politic, Mediul natural, Mediul social, Mediul
cultural, Conjunctura,
Mediul tehnic şi tehnologic)/
Factorii de producţie
(Factori naturali sau derivaţi, combinarea factorilor de producţie, strategii,
principii, cunoştinţe)/
Producţie/Distribuţie/Schimb/Consum
Fig. 2 Paradigma situaţională a conceptului ,, activitatea economică‘‘
Vom exemplifica virtuţile interpretative ale modelului în două moduri:
1) Vom evidenţia două posibilităţi de ordonare, în cadrul modelului hexadic : prima, a
ramurilor mari, la nivelul economiei naţionale sau mondiale, de activităţi economice,
în funcţie de etapa din ciclul reproducţiei căreia îi aparţin (fig. 3); a doua, ordonarea
ştiinţelor economice în funcţie de specificul obiectului de studio, după polii modelului
hexadic semiotic (fig. 4).
2) Vom interpreta câteva forme ,,verticale‘‘ ale modelului, respective submodele ale
schemei situaţional hexadice.
Cercetare - Dezvoltare
Proiectare/ Consultanţă
Repartiţie/ Distribuţie Producţia
propriu-zisă/ Prestările de servicii
(venituri/ profit/ mărfuri/ servicii) (Extracţii,
Construcţii, Agricultură, Industrii, Comerţ,
Servicii)
Consumul Investiţii
Schimbul
Comerţul/ Actele de vânzare - cumpărare
Fig.3 Hexada fazelor/ etapelor ciclului reproducţiei economice lărgite
după conţinutul obiectiv al activităţilor
Astfel, fiecare pol al hexagonului se constituie, la nivel individual, într-o situaţie
acţională, formând şase modele monadice. De exemplu, polul U, luat individual, semnifică
acţiunea de evaluare, apreciere, în sine, cu toate determinările ei subiective. Din cele 15
submodele diadice, axa A C numită şi axa personală, semnifică o fază intermediară a
activităţilor economice: faza de informare, de cercetare a pieţei, de cunoaştere reciprocă a
celor două părţi. Ele se tatonează reciproc, schimbă doar informaţii. Din cele 20 de combinaţii
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
triadice, ne-am oprit la varianta P U O care semnifică o situaţie de criză de supraproducţie.
Ofertă există, din perioadele anterioare, deşi producătorii nu mai au activitate, dau faliment şi
nu mai produc. Clienţii, deşi au nevoi şi motivaţii, nu mai cumpără, cauzele putând ţine de
venituri, de orientarea spre alte firme, de conjunctura generală. Practic, în această situaţie nu
mai sunt cumpărători ai produselor/serviciilor unei firme, care ea însăşi a dispărut de pe piaţă.
Produsele sunt valorificate de terţi (executori, stat, creditori). Există obiective, interese,
motivaţii, dar nu coincid între actorii economici.
Ştiinţe economice ale referinţei
Economia industriei/ Economie agrară/ Transporturi şi expediţii/Economia serviciilor//
Relaţii economice internaţionale
Ştiinţe economice ilocuţionare/ ale conotaţiei Ştiinţe
economice obiective/ ale calculului
Etica afacerilor/ Epistemologie economică/
Contabilitate/ Analiză economico-financiară/
Doctrine economice
Econometrie/ Statistică economică
Ştiinţe economice ale consumatorului/
Ştiinţe economice ale agentului
Beneficiarului/clientului/utilizatorului
economic
Studiul comportamentului consumatorului/
Management/ Marketing/ Antreprenoriat
Macro- şi microeconomie
Ştiinţe economice ale semnificantului
Cibernetica economică/ Modelarea economică/ Finanţe/ Comerţ internaţional/
Gestiune economică/ Informatică de gestiune/ Negociere
Fig. 4 Sextuplul Ştiinţelor economice generat pe modelul
hexadei semiotice
Ín figura 5, am construit hexada situaţională pentru conceptul de ,,finanţare a
afacerii‘‘, respectiv hexada activităţilor de acordare a resurselor financiare. Se observă
coordonatele identificate de descompunere a noţiunii cosmoidale. Pentru interpretare, am
recompus sensurile acţiunii de creditare pe baza submodelelor hexadice. De exemplu, forma
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
triadică I R U semnifică autofinanţarea firmei capabilă să acopere activitatea curentă, având
însă un caracter limitat şi destinaţii nu neapărat productive.
Planul de afaceri/
Destinaţia resurselor financiare/Obiective/Condiţii generale de
creditare
P
Folosirea/Utilizarea
Resursele/Fondurile financiare/
efectivă a resurselor/
Bani/Instrumente de plată/
Cheltuielile efectuate/Motivaţii/ U R Bunuri
în leasing/Mărfuri/
Destinaţia efectivă a fondurilor
Creditarea/Finanţarea în sine
Finanţatorul/
Imprumutatul/
Creditorul/Instituţia de finanţare/
Debitorul/Clientul (firme, I F
Locatorul/Banca/Cunoştinţe/
statul, locatar)/Beneficiarul
Instituţii europene
C
Creditul/
Imprumutul/Contractul de finanţare/Clauze (dobânzi, garanţii, condiţii
etc)/Contracte de leasing
Fig. 5 Hexada acţională de tip situaţional pentru conceptul ,,finanţarea
afacerii‘‘
Ín figura 6, se prezintă modelul sextant al activităţilor fundamentale de pe orice piaţă.
Am întocmit hexagonul considerându-l pe ofertant iniţiatorul acţiunii, deşi, din punct de
vedere al activităţilor economice, nevoile, cererea se constituie, în majoritatea cazurilor, ca
punct de plecare.
Vom recompune conceptul ,,activităţilor pieţei‘‘ prin interpretarea unui submodel
pentadic.
V O M C U semnifică lipsa finalizării în actul de vânzare-cumpărare. Are loc
întâlnirea cumpărătorilor cu vânzătorii, fiecare cu interesele sale, cu obiectivele şi respectând
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
condiţiile de mediu economic şi extra-economic, dar condiţiile efective de preţ, cantitate,
calitate, alte clauze sunt diferite. Poate avea loc sau nu negocierea, dar nu se atinge situaţia de
echilibru, nu se finalizează vânzarea-cumpărarea.
Mediul economic şi extra-economic
Obiective/ Condiţii/ Cadrul (preţuri, concurenţă, legislaţie, factori politici,
sociali etc)
M
Cererea
Oferta
(de bunuri/ servicii în condiţii
(de bunuri/ servicii economice în
de preţ, cantitate, C O
în condiţii de preţ,
calitate)
cantitate, calitate)
Utilizatorii/ Cumpărătorii/
Vânzătorii/ Ofertanţii
Clienţii ( statul, autorităţi,
(Producători, comercianţi,
firme, prestatori de U V
distribuitori, prestatori
servicii)
de servicii, statul
instituţii publice,
speculatorii etc)
A
Actele de vânzare – cumpărare/ schimb
(Întâlnire/ Confruntare/ Negociere)
Fig. 6 Hexagonul acţional – situaţional al conceptului ,, piaţa‘‘
Ín figura 7, am construit hexada acţională de tip situaţional pentru
activităţile/acţiunilor comunicaţionale/de promovare ale firmei. Toate coordonatele sunt
componente indispensabile întocmirii şi derulării unei acţiuni promoţionale, indiferent de alte
variabile de marketing.
Pentru recompunerea euristică a acţiunii promoţionale, am interpretat formele
incomplete ce decurg din schema construită. Exemplificăm pe submodelul tetradic Ț C R E
care poate semnifica o activitate de transmitere a unei informări de la agent direct la client,
prin contacte simple, biunivoce (face-to-face, telefon, e-mail), specifică micilor afaceri, în
care doar patronii şi proprii angajaţi îşi recomandă /laudă propria activitate.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Obiective
(legate de produs, vânzări, marcă, imagine, cotă de piaţă, informare etc)
O
Conotaţii
Reclama
(mesaj ilocuţionar/ (acţiunea promoţională
în sine/
evaluare/apreciere/ campania de
promovare/public
comportamentul C R relation/
consumatorului/ participarea la
târguri şi expozi
feed-back-ul efectiv/
ţii/promovarea prin forţele de
interpretarea efectivă a
vânzare/promovarea prin
consumatorului) vânzări etc)
Ținta Emitentul
(destinatarul/ Ț E (firma/ agenţii de
publicitate/
receptorul/consumatorul/ instituţii de stat/
organizaţii
clientul/publicul/alte firme) diverse/persoane
fizice)
P
Programul acţiunii de promovare
(buget, canal de promovare, mesajul ca formă, strategii, tactici, etape, personal
etc)
Fig. 7 Pattern-ul situaţional al activităţilor comunicaţionale/promoţionale ale
firmei
Menţionăm, în încheiere, câteva idei – forţă ce merită reţinute pentru dezvoltarea
ulterioară a formalismelor logice, în general, a demersului nostru, în particular. O primă idee
se referă la virtuţile de sistematizare, de ordonare ca rezultat al unui şir de alte operaţii,
precum specificarea (respectiv determinarea), generalizarea (sau extinderea), diviziunea
şi clasificarea pe care instrumentul prezentat le oferă. Mai general, ca virtute a formalismelor
de logică a acţiunii sunt posibilităţile de generalizare a experienţei practice obţinute în
dezvoltarea activităţilor şi societăţii umane.
O a doua idee se leagă de regândirea critică a unor teorii şi practici din domenii
particulare, implicit ştiinţele şi activităţile economice. Aceasta permite identificarea unor
deficienţe în acţiunea umană, traduse, într-un final, în ineficienţă; identificarea surselor de
pierderi de eficienţă.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Aplicarea paradigmei situaţionale hexadice pe conceptele economice ne-a permis, în
plus, să evidenţiem formele incomplete, disfuncţionale ale activităţilor analizate. Prin
interpretarea submodelelor obţinute pe baza variabilelor – factor, se pot înţelege mai uşor
cauzele şi efectele lipsei sau neintegrării eficiente a uneia sau mai multor component.
Discursul practico-economic, un discurs normativ, se pretează paradigmei sextante care are
forţa sermocinală de a genera formalisme şi interpretări care să ajute în procesele decizionale
sau de organizare a acţiunii şi/sau a limbajului economic. În lipsa unui cadru clarificator cum
este cel prezentat, pot apare confuzii referenţiale sau de înţelegere a coordonatelor acţionale,
care, la rândul lor, să conducă la raporturi de contrarietate între diversele acţiuni economice.
Menţionăm , de asemenea, că această lucrare a fost publicată cu sprijinul financiar al
proiectului ,,Sistem integrat de îmbunătăţire a calităţii cercetării doctorale şi postdoctorale din
România şi de promovare a rolului ştiinţei în societate‘‘, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanţat
prin Fondul Social European, Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane
2007-2013
Bibliografie :
1. Kotarbinski, T., Tratat despre lucrul bine făcut, Ed. Politică, Bucureşti, 1976
2. Ioan , P., Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva unei logici ,,situaţionale‘‘,
Bucureşti: Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1995
3. Ioan , P., Avataruri ale unei noi paradigm. Educaţie şi creaţie în perspectiva
logicii de tip situaţional, Iaşi: Editura Universităţii ,,Al. I. Cuza‘‘, 2010
4. Popa, C., Teoria acţiunii şi logica formală, Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică.
Bucureşti, 1984.
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EMERGENT MARKETS AND CRISIS CHALLENGES
Alina-Petronela Haller, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Romanian Academy, Iași
Branch
Abstract: The title of the paper reflects the preoccupation for the analysis of emergent
markets, in the context of the current financial crisis. We actually wish to refer to situations
that are specific to other types of crisis, like the demographic, the food, the energetic, the
environment ones.
Our purpose is to analyse the response or, to be more precise, the capacity of reaction of the
emergent countries to these shocks. Liberalization and globalization are two processes that
opened the emergent states‘ way to progress, a difficult way, in some of the situations. We
find the emergent states both as outlet markets for the production of the developed states, and
as active competitors on the world market.
We will analyse the status of the emergent states on the global market from a theoretical,
descriptive and comparative standpoint, in relation with the developed countries of the world.
Keywords: : emergent states, crisis, economic development, economic growth, globalization.
Introduction: globalization and crisis
Before the process of globalization started to manifest, the world was characterized by
certitude. Almost everything could be calculated, anticipated. It was a tidy world, with clear
delimitations and smooth transitions, where haste was not a familiar concept1.
Globalization made the transfer of technology and capital from the industrialized to
the emergent states possible. Technology, capital and cheap labour helped the emergent
countries to join the world market and to compete with the industrialized ones. We mainly
refer here to countries in Eastern Europe, Asia and Latin America. Yet, the Mexican crisis, the
so-called Tequila crisis, at the end of 1994 proved to be an extremely serious one. It spread all
over the Latin America, especially in the vulnerable Argentina, in an almost identical manner
with the 1982 crisis. Crises of lower or higher degrees occurred at local or regional levels.
They were eventually overcome with bigger or smaller efforts, outlining the illusion of a false
general welfare. Globalization was associated with economic growth in spite of the worrying
deepening of gaps between the poor and the rich of the planet. The industrialized countries
developed faster than the emergent and the poor countries. The positive tendencies are rather
divergent than convergent. The decrease of poverty and the economic growth are mutually
influential, but in a globalized world the paradox of scission occurs. The economic growth
does not support the poor any more, who are more and more numerous and helpless.
1
Zweig Stefan, 1998, ―Lumea statorniciei‖ [The World of Constancy], in Babeţi Adriana, Ungureanu Cornel (ed.), Europa
Centrală. Memorie. Paradis. Apocalipsă [Central Europe. Memory. Paradise. Apocalypse], Iaşi: Polirom, pp. 23-36
227
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Globalization changed the state of affairs. Certitude transformed into incertitude and
brought forth risks. The capitalist globalization2 was not able to solve two fundamental crises:
that of class polarization and that of ecological unsustainability / insecurity.
Capitalist globalization created conditions for the simultaneous enrichment of a big
number of people and of a relatively small number of countries, compared to any other period
in the history of humanity, but it is not capable to allow the poor to overcome their condition,
while the middle class is condemned to cyclical crises of insecurity3.
Like any other crisis, the current one will leave traces behind. The economic recovery
will be slow, for both the developed and the emergent countries, the unemployment rate will
rise, the purchasing power will decrease, the public debt will increase, while globalization
will probably be reconsidered4.
The current crisis is a challenge for the future economic stability. Both categories of
countries, the industrialized and the emergent ones, are forced to reconsider their policies and
actions, with a view to restructure the economy and to eliminate weaknesses.
In the future, the threats and the opportunities will be proportionally high. The
economic system needs to be reconsidered around the concept of durable ecological and
social growth, as it has failed from every standpoint: the financial, environment and social one
… in the exact terms it had established for itself … the system needs to be fundamentally
reconsidered … because the planet cannot sustain capitalism any more as we know it today5.
The future is studded with multiple crises, with concomitant manifestations. We cannot seize
them integrally. We are going to refer exclusively to the climate changes and the environment
crisis, and to the energy, food and demography crises. It would have been equally appropriate
to address the institutional, spiritual and social crisis.
Clime changes and environment crisis
Starting with the first industrial revolution, human activities affected in an
imperceptible way, for a long period of time, the environment. The general tendency to
industrialization all over the world has generated climate changes with repercussions on flora
and fauna, and on the social and the economic fields. Initially, the effects of climate
modifications were made public by means of scenarios that were deemed pessimistic and
fatalist.
The environment is affected by the activities of the economic agents. The effect is a
cumulative one, perceived through the negative externalities, among which the most
dangerous one is the pollution (of air, water and soil). One of the main current problems is the
way the limited resources are used, in such a way that the objective of the economic policy
should be attained. To this one should add global warming (temperature is 20C higher
2
Leslie Sklair classifies the process of globalization into: the generic, the capitalist and the alternative ones.
3
Sklair Leslie, 2010, ―From International Relations to Alternative Globalisations‖, Journal of Critical Globalisation Studies,
Issue 3, pp. 114-127.
4
Haller Alina-Petronela, 2014, Protecționismul într-o economie liberalizată [Protectionism in A Liberalized Economy], Iași:
Tehnopress, p. 56.
5
Korten C. David, 2009, Proiectul noii economii. De la bogăţia fantomă la bogăţia reală [original title Agenda for A New
Economy. From Phantom Wealth to Real Wealth], Bucharest: Antet, pp. 15-50.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
compared to the pre-industrial period, needing a two-third reduction of carbon dioxide
emissions by 21006).
According to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the climate changes
are defined as modifications directly or indirectly attributed to human activities, which affect
the composition of atmosphere at a global level and are added to the natural variability of
climate; these changes are observed over relevant periods7.
The greenhouse gas emissions come especially from the industrial activities, from
exhaust gases (lead) and from the energy field (carbon dioxide). A great percentage of waste
(91%) comes from the extractive and the energy industry8. The agricultural activity is an
equally important polluter. The nitrogen emissions are just as harmful, if not more harmful
than the industrial ones.
The more and more visible and palpable effects determined the organization, in 1992,
in Brazil, of the Rio Summit or the Earth Summit. The rich states have to reconsider the
modalities to sustain competitiveness, by promoting the green industry, while the emergent
countries will support economic growth with the help of new, less polluting technologies,
even if the green growth still looks like a religion rather than a reality9.
The eco-objectives can be found more and more frequently in the measures applied by
the economic policy10, and the world states agreed upon the necessity to enforce environment
protection measures.
The start was the Framework Convention on Climate Change within the UN
Convention for Development and Environment in 1992, while the climax was reached in 1997
with the Kyoto Protocol, within which were established the objectives for the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions by the industrialized countries and the countries in transition. At the
basis of the Kyoto Protocol was the concept of limit and trade, globally applied … but not yet
implemented11.
The Kyoto Protocol provided two phases.
Initially, the objectives were fixed for 2012, the period of 2008-2012 representing the
so called commitment period, a first initiative to an international convention on environment
issues12. With only a few exceptions, among which USA and Canada, the developed countries
accepted to adopt measures of environment protection, in spite of the difficulties correlated to
the environment objective, which they were aware of. By the Kyoto Protocol, the EU took the
responsibility to reduce emissions with up to 8% by 2012 compared with 1990.
6
Kulessa E. Margareta, 2007, ―Setting Efficient EU Climate Policy Targets: Mission Possible?‖, Intereconomics, March-
April, pp. 64-96.
7
***, 2008, Strategia Națională pentru Dezvoltare Durabilă a României. Orizonturi 2013-2020-2030 [National Strategy for
Romania‘s Durable Development. Horizons 2013-2020-2030], Romania‘s Government – the Environment and Durable
Development Ministry, Bucharest: UN Development Program – National Centre for Sustainable Development.
8
Ciupangea C. (ed.), 2006, Direcţii strategice ale dezvoltării durabile în România [Strategic Directions of Durable
Development in Romania], Bucharest, Institutul European din România, p. 90.
9
Zysman John, Huberty Mark, 2012, ―Religion and Reality in the Search for Green Growth‖, Intereconomics, no. 3, pp. 140-
165.
10
Holzer Verena Leila, ―The Promotion of Renewable Energies and Sustainability. A Critical Assessment of the German
Renewable Energies Act‖, Energy Policy, pp. 36-46.
11
Baumol J. William, Litan Robert, Schramm J. Carl, 2009, Capitalismul bun, capitalismul rău și economia dezvoltării și a
prosperității [orig. title Good Capitalism, Bad Capitalism and, and the Economics of Growth and Prosperity], Bucharest:
Polirom, p. 23.
12
Michaelowa Axel, Krause Karsten, 2000, International Maritime Transport and Climate Policy, May-June, pp. 127-137.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The second phase provided by the Kyoto Protocol includes the period between 2012-
2020. It covers a more reduced action field than the previous one, because only the EU,
Norway, Switzerland, G77 and a few other states took responsibilities in the environment
area13. A parallel agreement, which does not take into consideration the pollution tax, will
involve the developed and the developing countries, which did not make commitments within
the Kyoto Protocol, like USA, Canada and Japan.
In order to avoid a total collapse, the gas emissions should be reduced with 80% by
2050 at the latest. In the particular case of the USA, the greenhouse gas emissions would need
a 90% reduction. As the world population increases and the economic growth goes on, the
different societies will exhaust the limited resources they have, degrading the environment14.
The consumption of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide. This preserves the sun
warmth (greenhouse effect), raising the temperature. Which are the consequences? Melting
ice caps, rising planetary ocean levels, modifying climates, modifying flora and fauna, a
changing life style, spreading diseases are the effects of an increasing amount of carbon
emissions because of the energy production out of fossil fuels. The climate changes require
the modification of the whole energy system with a view to reducing pollution.
Among the first major polluters of the world (USA, China, Russia), two are emergent
countries. The emergent countries did not take at Kyoto the responsibility of reducing carbon
dioxide emissions. China, a big consumer of hydrocarbon energy, is estimated to become by
2020 the greatest polluter of the world. Presently, seven of the first ten major polluting cities
of the world are in China.
Energy crisis
Industrialization, the increasing consumption, the demographic growth and the
negative externalities led to a decrease of the amount of resources and to an imbalance of the
eco-system. The energy security and, generally, resources security has become a priority for
each country, whether it is an industrialized or emergent country. In the 1970s, the
consumption of renewable resources exceeded the sustainable limits and several systems
started to collapse, slowly at the beginning and more and more rapidly afterwards 15. The
consequence: reality has changed, but mentalities and conducts have not.
Energy lies at the basis of progress. The utilization of hydrocarbons revolutionized
economy and society. Starting with the 1920s, the dynamics have increased, as coal was
replaced, and oil started to be used in bigger and bigger amounts in the production of energy.
One of the factors that maintained the development inequalities between countries and regions
was the unequal spreading of resources in the world. 80% of the resources of fossil fuels are
found in the OPEC countries and Russia, while other 10% in the OECD countries and
China16. Russia holds substantial amounts of resources, but extraction is expensive and access
to deposits is difficult. It has represented a main EU partner in the field of energy (36% of the
13
Riley Alan, Bastien Alex, Rauscher Daniele, 2012, Energy Roadmap 2050: EU External Policies for Future Energy
Security, Workshop - December - European Parliament - Directorate for External Policies - Policy Department.
14
Baumol J. William, Litan Robert, Schramm J. Carl, op. cit., p. 22.
15
Korten C. David, op. cit., p. 112.
16
Riley Alan, Bastien Alex, Rauscher Daniele, 2012, Energy Roadmap 2050: EU External Policies for Future Energy
Security, Workshop - December - European Parliament - Directorate for External Policies - Policy Department.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
gas imports, 31% of the raw oil imports, about one third of the coal imports), and is the
greatest world producer of oil and the holder of the greatest oil reserves in the world.
By the years 1970s, the energy field had been ruled by national policies. The crises of
the seventh decade of last century called the attention upon the energy insecurity.
Subsequently, programmes were initiated to sustain nuclear and alternative energy
production. Over the 1980s, the globalization and liberalization of the markets, including the
energy one, led to a tendency of deregulation.
Energy security, an absolute necessity and a desideratum for each economy, supposes:
- access to strategic resources at stable prices;
- security of energy sources;
- security of energy infrastructure;
- existence of alternative energy sources, as less polluting as possible;
- environment protection.
Energy security was initially an oil specific concept. It was subsequently expended to
gas and electrical power.
In 1992, at Rio de Janeiro, under the aegis of the United Nations, different aspects
pertaining to sustainable economic and social development were discussed. 178 states signed
the Agenda 21 in order to promote sustainable development. Within the framework of Agenda
21, the importance of energy in the economic and social development and in the improvement
of life quality was underlined17 and a consensus was reached as far as the necessity to protect
the environment at a local, national and global level was concerned, by means of strategies
able to produce the reversibility of environment degradation18. The changes provided in
Agenda 21 occurred slowly, without reaching the objectives.
As the energy sources are consumed, their price increases. The more expensive the
energy coming from fossil fuels, the more encouraged the innovation in the field of alternative
technologies. Industrialization and progress are based upon energy. So is daily life. If the
current energy sources are not diversified, a substantial energy crisis will become inherent.
The most serious consequences will be felt at an economic and social level, as long as any
activity supposes energy consumption.
The world requires more and more energy, at the cost of pollution, price rises, trade
and even military wars. Energy in fact rules the world. The fight for the oil, coal, and natural
gases that were left will be acerbic. The USA, the third world oil producer, imports. Europe
and Japan are dependent upon the oil imports. The coal is an exhaustible resource as well. So
is the methane. 26% of the energy comes from coal consumption, …, 24% of the natural gases
… the coal pollutes, the gas is difficult to transport, but they are both a polluting alternative to
oil19.
By 2035, the consumption of energy will double, and so will the demand of oil, while
the consumption of natural gases will increase with 120%, and that of coal with 60%20. The
17
Tomescu Ina Raluca, 2012, ―Securitatea energetică a Uniunii Europene‖ [Energy Security of the European Union], Analele
Universității ―Constantin Brâncuși‖ Târgu Jiu, ‗Științe Juridice‘ series, no. 2, pp. 73-89.
18
Behrens Arno, Colijn Bert, 2012, ―The Socio-Economic Transition Towards Sustainability and Its Impacts on Jobs in
Europe‖, Intereconomics, no. 3, pp. 140-165.
19
Roberts Paul, 2008, Sfârșitul petrolului. În pragul unui dezastru [original title The End of Oil: On the Edge of a Perilous
New World], Bucharest: Litera Internațional, p. 12.
20
Ibid., p. 14.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
greatest part of the demand will come from the emergent countries, whose development will
require a bigger and bigger consumption of energy, which is vital for industrialization and
progress.
As the supplies of energy diminish and grow more difficult to support, the effects
upon the ecosystem grow worse; the energy diplomacy sows even more geopolitical discord,
while the charge of the current energy order grows more and more difficult to carry, and the
possibility of a collapse becomes obvious … precipitating the whole economy into a long
duration depression, which might repeat the 1929 crisis and launch a desperate, and probably
violent, course for the still existing oil reserves21.
The emergent states, especially China and India, which are poor countries from an
energy point of view, will join the category of the great energy players of the 21 st century, a
period when the amount of resources will be inversely proportional with the demand. This
relation will lead to a continuous rise of the oil price. Recessions are usually followed by a
rise in the oil price, one of the greatest future risks, which will contribute in the shaping of the
new crisis. Directing our attention back to China, the energy demand here is already
exceeding that of the developed countries. By 2020, China will consume two fifths of the
global amount of coal, one tenth of the oil resources, one seventh of the amount of energy
produced and will emit one fifth of the amount of carbon dioxide22. By 2020, 60% of the
energy demand will come from the emergent countries, from 45% in 2008, as a result of the
increase of consumption. If these emergent states are ready to consume bigger and bigger
amounts of goods and services and to improve their transport infrastructure, to build
comfortable houses and to equip them with all kinds of devices, they are not equally ready, on
the other hand, to implement measures destined to the reduction of emissions and to energy
security.
The emergent countries show, indeed, a rising tendency of the energy consumption.
However, over 1.5 billion people in India, China, Bangladesh, South-Eastern Asia, Latin
America, the Caribbean, Africa and Central and Eastern Europe have no access to energy.
Energy poverty shapes a world split between the rich and the poor countries, paving the way
for a new type of conflicts: the energy war23.
Food crisis
The environment, energy and demographic crises underlie another one, the food crisis.
There are clear perspectives for a food imbalance on the basis of climate change, clean water
shortage, reduction of fertile land surfaces, flora and fauna modifications due to the
disappearance of species and generic mutations, to which one should also add an unequal
resource spreading. Any climate imbalance in a specific region of the world creates
imbalances in terms of food supplies in another region of the world, in a context in which
many of the states renounced the priority support granted to agriculture, opting for food
imports from countries with productive agricultural land surfaces and cheap labour, like part
of the emergent countries. Another part of the emergent countries wished so much to
industrialize themselves that they too easily gave up farming activities. They prefer to import,
21
Ibid., pp. 21-23.
22
***, 2001, International Energy Outlook, US Energy Information Agency, pp. 199-2007.
23
Roberts Paul, op. cit., p. 325.
232
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
although a country that covers the population‘s needs from its own production will be less
vulnerable to the modification of food prices, to the disequilibrium brought forth by
occasional food crises or to unpredictable natural events. In the post-war period, in Europe at
least, two major areas were shaped, the agrarian (developing, emergent) one and the
industrialized one; these were unequally developed, one part being industrialized even in its
agricultural field, the other being agricultural even in terms of its urban civilization, the latter
being the major one a hundred years ago24.
Since the 1970s, the Club of Rome called the attention on the exhaustion of resources,
the energy ones included. Before this alert, Thomas Malthus had formulated the famous
theory on population. Population and resources bear an inverse tendency. While the
population is increasing, the resources are running out, so that the world will get to live at the
limit of subsistence. The 19th and 20th century theories were considered pessimistic. They
were reformulated, in the 21st century, in realistic and globally recognized terms.
Agricultural productivity is very important. The efforts to increase this indicator
materialized. Yet, over one billion people (one out o seven) are affected by food insecurity25.
Intensive zoo technology and agriculture, processes that provide food security to the
increasingly bigger population, degraded the natural systems of production and are
questioning now the capacity to ensure in the future the food consumption. The emergent
states, where the population is growing, will come with increasing food demands. They will
be forced to produce more without benefiting from the advantages that the developed
countries had initially enjoyed: low cost energy, abundant drinkable water, predictable and
favourable climate conditions. Globalization apparently solves the situation. The exceeding
production is exported to the regions where there are shortages. Vulnerability originates here.
The risks associated wit exportation or infrastructure can isolate entire regions, they can
degenerate into deep food crises and could bring forth famine again. The most affected
countries are the emergent and the poor countries. The objective of development determined
them to give up the traditional methods of agricultural production and to adopt technologies
able to increase productiveness. The chemical production, expensive in these countries
because of the high investments, transformed the emergent countries into outlet markets for
the much cheaper production of the industrialized countries. With a degraded soil and non-
ecological products, the emergent markets can hardly face the competition. A profitable niche
is the ecological production, for which this category of countries have potential. The
disadvantage is the maintenance of exaggeratedly high prices for the biological production,
difficult to bear for a numerous population with a modest purchasing power. We actually
speak of the dependence of the emergent countries on the intensive agricultural production of
the industrialized countries and of the incapacity to adapt themselves to an increasing demand
by means of a local offer of ecological products.
The intensive production, chemical and unhealthy, the local producers who are unable
to maintain their activity unless due to uncompetitive prices, an increasing population and the
climate changes are risks associated to a food crisis. On the other hand, it is necessary to
24
Josan Andrei, 1998, ―Europa Secolului al XX-lea‖ [20th Century Europe], Babeţi Adriana, Ungureanu Cornel (eds.), op.
cit., p. 61.
25
Roberts Paul, 2008, Sfârșitul hranei. Pericolul înfometării în era hipretmarketurilor [original title The End of Food],
Bucharest: Litera Internațional, p. 11.
233
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
consider the waste that is stimulated by the consumerist society. Huge sums of money are
channelled to marketing activities by which the people are convinced to acquire big amounts
of products that they do not necessarily need. While a big number of people on the planet
fight malnutrition and all kinds of shortages, poverty being their daily agenda, others throw
away considerable amounts of food. In this rhythm, food problems, although well-known, not
only could not be solved, but they will grow even deeper, especially in the emergent and the
poor countries, whose vulnerability is to be found in the loss of their agricultural production
independence and in the difficult adaptation to environment and technological modifications.
Demographic crisis
Why speak of a demographic crisis when the global population increases? Because the
tendency has not future durability. The industrialized countries are submitted to a population
aging tendency. Life expectancy is rising (to 83, for instance, in Japan, 82 in Italy, 81 in
Germany). Industrialization has changed the population‘s and the social structure. As Alvin
Toffler said, each new wave brought forth consistent socio-economic modifications.
Urbanization, technology, insecurity are only three factors that influenced the people‘s
mentality. From an extended family (grandparents, parents and grandchildren living together),
the single-parent family got to represent nowadays the predominant model, together with the
families with less than two children and with the non-families. The woman, a housewife until
recently, is now dominating the labour market. We can find women in all fields and in all
positions, including responsibility ones. The children, boys and girls, are educated in
accordance with the cult of labour, and less of the family. The insecurity of the workplace is
another factor that influences in a negative way the birth rate. Career prevails, making a
family is delayed, and the number of children decreases. The cost of raising a child is higher
and higher. The more expensive the life and education of a child, the more discouraged the
people to have more children.
The emergent markets are not far from the industrialized ones. They provide an almost
equally desolating image, but not similar. The positive birth rates provide a demographic
advantage compared to the industrialized countries. It would be necessary to mention here
that the greatest problem at a demographic level remains the population‘s aging and the
reversal of age pyramids (thinning of the base and a worryingly developing apex). The effort
to support the inactive persons will be bigger and bigger. An active person will sustain more
and more inactive persons. The state in its turn is forced to reconsider its policies. Social
protection solicits the budget, offering nothing in exchange. The population‘s aging, the
demographic growth, the food and resource shortage are materialized in an imbalanced
equation in the long run, translated by future more or less intense crises, whose solving will
depend on the capacity of adaptation of each country apart and of all countries as a whole.
Conclusions:
In the present paper our goal was to underline the possible manifestations of other
crisis types than the financial one. Security is not and will not be, in the future, a characteristic
feature. Risks multiply and strike especially the more vulnerable areas. The power of the
emergent countries to face the potential future crises is reduced. The most advantaged ones
will be the industrialized economies. They have resources or the possibility to purchase them,
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
they hold technology, infrastructure and decision-making power. The emergent countries,
deeply indebted, make efforts to reduce the development differences, efforts that involve
investments, high energy consumption, the improvement of agricultural production and
methods to support food and economic production for an increasingly growing population.
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București: Programul Națiunilor Unite pentru Dezvoltare-Centrul Național pentru
Dezvoltare Durabilă
3. Baumol J. William, Litan Robert, Schramm J. Carl, 2009, Capitalismul bun,
capitalismul rău și economia dezvoltării și a prosperității, București: Polirom
4. Behrens Arno, Colijn Bert, 2012, ,,The Socio-Economic Transition Towards
Sustainability and Its Impacts on Jobs in Europe‖, Intereconomics, no. 3
5. Ciupangea C. (coord.), 2006, Direcţii strategice ale dezvoltării durabile în România,
Bucureşti, Institutul European din România
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Critical Assessment of the German Renewable Energies Act‖, Energy Policy
8. Josan Andrei, 1998, ,,Europa Secolului al XX-lea", Babeţi Adriana, Ungureanu Cornel
(eds.), Europa Centrală. Memorie. Paradis. Apocalipsă, Iaşi: Polirom
9. Korten C. David, 2009, Proiectul noii economii. De la bogăţia fantomă la bogăţia
reală, Bucureşti: Antet
10. Kulessa E. Margareta, 2007, ,,Setting Efficient EU Climate Policy Targets: Mission
Possible?‘‘, Intereconomics, march-april, pp. 64-96
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Climate Policy, may-june, pp. 127-137
12. Riley Alan, Bastien Alex, Rauscher Daniele, 2012, Energy Roadmap 2050: EU
External Policies for Future Energy Security, Workshop - december - European
Parliament - Directorate for External Policies - Policy Department
13. Roberts Paul, 2008, Sfârșitul hranei. Pericolul înfometării în era hipretmarketurilor,
București: Litera Internațional
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Internațional
15. Sklair Leslie, 2010, ,,From International Relations to Alternative Globalisations",
Journal of Critical Globalisation Studies, Issue 3, pp. 114-127
16. Tomescu Ina Raluca, 2012, ,,Securitatea energetică a Uniunii Europene‖, Analele
Universității ,,Constantin Brâncuși‖ Târgu Jiu, Seria Științe Juridice, Nr. 2, pp. 73-89
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
INTERNATIONAL MERGERS AND ACQUISITION UNDER THE FINANCIAL
MARKETS GLOBALIZATION
Andra Maria Găină, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: International mergers and acquisitions are ways to invest in international financial
markets.
International acquisitions are taking over the assets and the operations of domestic
companies by foreign companies. International mergers consist of a combination of two or
more companies in order to create a new economic entity or to maintain any of them but with
increased inheritance.
The purpose of mergers and acquisitions is to increase the international dimension of
companies to face competition in international markets for to achieve synergistic, operational
and financial benefits.
Acquisitions may take different forms in relation to certain criteria.After the company
acquired control, they may be: minority, majority or complete.Mergers may be by absorption
or merger.
Global dynamics of mergers and acquisitions has been increasing compared to 1990, but
showed some reduction in the crisis of 2008. Assessing the dynamics of mergers and
acquisitions can be made on the types of economies or economic sectors.
Keywords: international acquisition; international mergers; globalization; financial markets;
dynamics of mergers and acquisitions
I. Mediul economic global și piața fuziunilor și achizițiilor
1. Strtategii de expansiune și alternative ale corporațiilor transnaționale în
mediul economic global
Globalizarea piețelor financiare crează o lume în care oportunitățile companiilor de a
se extinde peste granițe sunt mult mai atractive.
În ultimii ani, mediul global al fuziunilor și achizițiilor s-a confruntat cu o serie de
provocări, iar volumul tranzacțiilor s-a redus considerabil datorită crizei financiare globale1.
Nesiguranța economică globală, criza datoriilor din Europa și anxietățile fiscale din
Statele Unite ale Americii au redus entuziasmul expansiunii fuziunilor și achizițiilor2.
Pentru a face faţă concurenţei pe pieţe internaţionale, corporaţiile transnaţionale
adoptă strategii integrative3. Ele pot ataca o anumită piaţă pentru a slăbi poziţia concurenţilor
1
P. Krugman, Întoarcerea economiei declinului și criza din 2008, Ed. Publica, București, 2009, p. 190
2
Baker and McKensey, Opportunities Across High-Growth Markets: Trends in Cross-Border M&A, The Economist
Intelligence Unit, April 2013, p.6
3
R. Gilpin, Economia mondială a secolului XXI. Provocarea capitalismului global, Ed. Polirom, București, 2004, p.129; D.
Held, A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, J.Parraton, Transformări globale. Politică, economie și cultură, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2004,
p.277; L.Voinea, Corporațiile transnaționale și capitalismul global, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2007, p.31; C. Fota, Comerț
internațional și politici comerciale internaționale, Ed. Universitaria, 2004, p.241
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
de pe piaţa globală sau pot interveni ofensiv pe o anumită piaţă pentru a contracara
concurentul de pe altă piaţă, sau se pot combina între ele pentru a obţine beneficii sinergice,
operaţionale şi financiare4.
Achiziţiile şi fuziunile sunt modalităţi investiţionale în plan global şi au ca scop
creşterea dimensiunii internaţionale a companiilor.
Achiziţiile şi fuziunile stimulează integrarea şi generează apariţia unor corporaţii de
foarte mari dimensiuni.
Fuziunile şi achiziţiile sunt o alternativă în ceea ce privește strategiile de creştere
internă a întreprinderii. Ele permit firmelor trecerea rapidă pe pieţele externe și dobândirea în
timp scurt a know-how-ului necesar într-un domeniu nou de activitate. Prin fuziuni și achiziții
la nivel international companiile beneficiază de personal calificat şi experimentat5.
2. Ce sunt achiziţiile şi fuziunile internaţionale?
Achiziţiile internaţionale constau în preluarea (transferarea) activelor şi operaţiunilor
unor companii naţionale sau filiale implantate în ţara gazdă de către o companie străină, cu
consecinţa trecerii filialei sau sucursalei în patrimoniul entităţii achizitoare.
Fuziunile internaţionale constau în combinarea a două sau mai multe companii prin
unificarea patrimoniilor lor cu scopul de a crea o entitate economică nouă în cazul contopirii
sau a menţinerii uneia dintre ele dar cu patrimoniu mărit ca efect al absorbţiei celeilalte.
Achiziţiile sunt cele care domină scena internaţională a tranzacţiilor cu companii,
fuziunile reprezentând mai puţin de 3% din numărul total al tranzacţiilor cu companii.6
Atunci când fuziunile par a se realiza între două companii relativ egale, majoritatea
reprezintă achiziţii, căci o companie domină/dictează operaţiunea de combinare. Numărul
fuziunilor „reale‖ este atât de mic, din considerente practice. „Fuziunile şi achiziţiile‖ vizează
în fapt „achiziţiile‖.
II. Formele achiziţiilor şi fuziunilor
1. Formele achiziţiilor
Achiziţiile internaţionale pot avea forme7 diferite în funcţie de criteriile după care sunt
clasificate.
Dacă se are în vedere nivelul controlului exercitat asupra companiei achiziţionate,
achiziţiile internaţionale pot avea următoarele forme: a) achiziţii minoritare, în care compania
străină achizitoare urmăreşte dobândirea controlului între 10 şi 49% din numărul voturilor
companiei achiziţionate; b) achiziţii majoritare, când compania străină achizitoare urmăreşte
dobândirea controlului între 50-99% din numărul voturilor companiei achiziţionate; c)
achiziţii complete, în care compania achizitoare urmăreşte dobândirea controlului de 100%
din numărul voturilor companiei achiziţionată.
În raport de modalitatea de integrare, achiziţiile pot avea următoarele forme: a)
achiziţii orizontale, când o companie se combină cu o altă companie concurentă din acelaşi
4
Bari, I., Globalizarea economiei, Ed. Economică, București, 2005, p. 203
5
Anstasiei, B., Fenomene culturale în fuziunile și achizițiile interanționale, Cross-cultural Management Journal, Volume II,
Issue 2 (3)/2000, p. 27
6
Teau, A., M., Piața de capital-tranzacții în contextul globalizării, Ed. ARTIFEX, București, 2009, p.87
7
Păun, C., Aspecte financiare ale relațiilor economice internaționale, Ed. Luceafărul, București, 2003, p. 314; Bari, I., op.
cit., 2005, p. 206.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
domeniu; b) achiziţii verticale, când o companie se combină cu o alta pentru a dobândi un
control asupra livrării de materii prime, de subansamble ori a produselor, făcând extindere de
produs, extindere de piaţă sau o combinaţie între cele două; c) achiziţii concentrice, care se
produc prin combinarea dintre două companii înrudite, pentru utilizarea unor factori de
producţie similari, pentru resurse de capital, pentru pieţe comune de desfacere; d) achiziţii
conglomerat, care constau în combinaţii de companii cu activitate şi structură total diferite.
2. Formele fuziunilor
Fuziunile, ca formă juridică de concentrare a două entităţi economice pot fi privite
diferit în raport de anumite criterii de determinare.
În funcţie de modalitatea de realizare, fuziunea poate avea următoarele forme: a)
absorbţia, care constă în înglobarea de către o entitate economică a uneia sau a mai multor
entităţi, cu consecinţa majorării patrimoniului şi a încetării existenţei societăţilor absorbite; b)
contopirea, care este operaţiunea prin care două sau mai multe entităţi economice îşi unesc
patrimoniile pentru formarea unei entităţi noi, cu consecinţa dispariţiei entităţilor care s-au
contopit.
După modalitatea de integrare, fuziunea poate fi: a) fuziunea orizontală, când o firmă
se combină cu o altă firmă din acelaşi domeniu (ex: fuziunea dintre Crysler şi Daimler Benz
în anul 1998; fuziunea dintre Shangai Banking Corporation şi Midland Bank în 1992); b)
fuziunea verticală, când o companie îşi uneşte patrimoniul cu cel al unui cumpărător sau
furnizor al produselor ei; c) fuziunea concentrică, care constă în combinarea de firme înrudite,
dar care nu produc acelaşi produs şi nici nu sunt în relaţie de furnizor cumpărător (ex:
fuziunea dintre Royal Bank şi Dominion Securities); d) fuziunea conglomerată, când se
combină companii neînrudite privind obiectul lor de activitate (ex: fuziunea dintre National
Bank of Australia şi Michigan National Bank).
III. Dinamica achizițiilor și fuziunilor internationale
1. Dinamica globală a fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor
Fuziunile şi achiziţiile internaţionale au avut o dinamică globală crescătoare. În anul
1990, volumul fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor internaţionale a fost de 151 de miliarde USD,
ajungând în anul 1995 la 187 de miliarde USD.
În anul 2000 volumul valoric al fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor internaţionale s-a cifrat la
1.144 miliarde USD, ajungând în anul 2007 la un maxim de 1.700 de miliarde USD.
Raportat la anul 1990, volumul fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor a crescut de 1,23 ori în anul
1995, de 7,57 ori în anul 2000 şi de 11,25 ori în anul 2007.
În anul 20088, fuziunile şi achiziţiile globale au înregistrat un volum de 1.205 miliarde
USD, adică o scădere de 29% faţă de 2007, scădere datorată crizei economice globale.
Dintre cele mai mari fuziuni şi achiziţii transnaţionale, pot fi menţionate următoarele:
Vodafone-Mannesmann, de peste 200 de miliarde USD, în anul 2000, British Petroleum–
Amoco, Daimler-Benz-Crysler, Astra-Zeneca, toate cu valori între 30 şi 70 de miliarde USD
în anul 1998.
În sectorul bancar, în anul 2004, cea mai mare fuziune şi achiziţie transnaţională din
sectorul bancar, cu o valoare de 15,8 miliarde euro s-a realizat între Abbey (Marea Britanie) şi
Santander Central Hispanico (Spania).
8
Găină, A.M., Globalizarea și crizele financiare, Ed. ProUniversitaria, București, 2012, p.55
238
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fuziunile și achizițiile la nivel global au înregsitrat o scădere în anul 2013 față de anul
2012, de la 2,29 trilioane dolari americani la 2,22 trilioane dolari americani. Oricum cea de-a
doua jumătate a anului 2013 a întregistrat o creștere față de prima jumătate și se anticipează o
tendința de creștere și în 2014.
Achizițiile și fuziunile în sectorul tehnologiei, media și telecomunicațiilor (TMT) au
fost pe primul loc în 2013, sector încurajat semnificativ de tranzacții precum
Verizon/Vodafone, Liberty Global/Virgin Media și Vodafone/Kabel Germania. Achizițiile și
fuziunile în sectorul TMT au deținut 23% din totalul tranzacțiilor cu achiziții și fuziuni în anul
2013, fiind singurul sector care a înregistrat creșteri de la an la an.
Graficul nr. 1 Valoarea globală a fuziunilor și achizițiilor
Sursa: Our Insights into M&A Trends 2014. Global Dynamics, Clifford Chance, p. 4
2. Dinamica fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor pe regiuni
În a doua jumătate a anului 2013 s-a înregistrat o creștere a fuziunilor și achizițiilor în
Statele Unite ale Americii, deoarece nouă dintre cele mai mari tranzacții cu fuziuni și achiziții
au vizat SUA, inclusiv tranzacția Verizon/Vodafone în valoare de 124,1 miliarde dolari
americani.
Activitatea europeană cu fuziuni și achiziții a avut un an dificil în 2013, înregistrând
cea mai mare scădere a tranzacțiilor din 2009 încoace. Top destinații fuziuni și achiziții au
fost Marea Britanie și Germania. Cele mai dinamice sectoare au fost tehnologia, media și
telecomunicațiile, industria energetică și cea minieră. Sănătatea a înregistrat de asemenea o
creșetere pe parcursul acestui an.
În regiunea Asia-Pacific, China și Indonezia au fost top destinații pentru fuziuni și
achiziții în anul 2013. Fuziunile și achizițiile către Asia sunt conduse de dorința de a cuceri
noi piețe și pentru a deveni jucători globali. Thailanda și Vietnam sunt de asemenea piețe
atrăgătoare. Corporațiile japoneze se concentrează pe tranzacții către Asia de Sud Est, SUA și
Europa.
America Latină a înregistrat scăderea volumului tranzacțiilor cu fuziuni și achiziții,
exemplu în acest sens fiind Brazilia.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Mexic traversează o perioadă a reformelor ce au ca scop îmbunătățirea tranzacțiilor cu
fuziuni și achiziții în anul 2014, mai ales în sectorul energetic. Cele mai atractive piețe în
2014 se preconizează a fi Brazilia, Mexic și Columbia, dar și Chile și Peru. Tranzacțiile cu
fuziuni și achiziții din Africa sunt dominate de tranzacțiile din domeniul energiei, mineritului
și utilităților.
3. Dinamica fuziunilor şi achiziţiilor pe sectoare economice
Tranzacţiile globale cu fuziuni şi achiziţii au fost în anul 2007 pe sectoare economice
astfel: sectorul primar a înregistrat un volum de 110,8 miliarde USD, după care industria
prelucrătoare 582,4 miliarde USD şi serviciile 1.006,5 miliarde USD.
În anul 2008 sunt înregistrate creşteri în sectorul primar, de 16,8%, cu un volum de
129,5 miliarde USD şi scăderi în industria prelucrătoare de 30,3%, la un volum de 405,7
miliarde USD şi în servicii de 33,4%, la un volum de 670 de miliarde USD.
În cadrul fiecărui sector economic, în afară de sectorul primar sunt înregistrate în
majoritate scăderi în anul 2008 faţă de anul 2007.
În anul 2013 sectorul tehnologiei, media și telecomunicațiilor a înregistrat o creștere
record, deținând 23% din totalul activității tranzacțiilor cu fuziuni și achiziții, datorită
tranzacției Verizon/Vodafone, cea de-a treia cea mai mare tranzacție din istoria corporațiilor.
Sectoarele energiei, mineritului și utilităților, cu tranzacții în valoare de 427 miliarde
dolari americani au înregistrat de asemnea creșteri.
Bibliografie
1. Anstasiei, B., Fenomene culturale în fuziunile și achizițiile interanționale, Cross-
cultural Management Journal, Volume II, Issue 2 (3)/2000;
2. Baker and McKensey, Opportunities Across High-Growth Markets: Trends in Cross-
Border M&A, The Economist Intelligence Unit, April 2013;
3. Bari, I., Globalizarea economiei, Ed. Economică, București, 2005;
4. Fota, C., Comerț internațional și politici comerciale internaționale, Ed. Universitaria,
2004
5. Găină, A.M., Globalizarea și crizele financiare, Ed. ProUniversitaria, București,
2012;
6. Gilpin, R., Economia mondială a secolului XXI. Provocarea capitalismului global,
Ed. Polirom, București, 2004
7. Held, D., A. McGrew, D. Goldblatt, J.Parraton, Transformări globale. Politică,
economie și cultură, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2004
8. Krugman, P., Întoarcerea economiei declinului și criza din 2008, Ed. Publica,
București, 2009
9. Păun, C., Aspecte financiare ale relațiilor economice internaționale, Ed. Luceafărul,
București, 2003
10. Teau, A., M., Piața de capital-tranzacții în contextul globalizării, Ed. ARTIFEX,
București, 2009.
11. Voinea, L., Corporațiile transnaționale și capitalismul global, Ed. Polirom, Iași, 2007
240
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL CRISIS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL
ECONOMICS THEORIES AND BEHAVIORAL ECONOMICS THEORIES
Andreea Gradinaru, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The aim of the work is to achieve a theoretical analysis of the economic and
financial crisis. To accomplish this we will make a foray among the main theories of thinking
schools of traditional economic: keynesist school, monetarist school, the Austrian school,
however, the main centre of interest of the study will be the presentation of the financial crisis
from the perspective of a new branch of economic science: behavioral economics. What we
want to emphasize is that behavioral economics, through multidisciplinary approach that
proposes, can bring major improvements to classical theories of explanation of the crisis.
Keywords: economic and financial crisis, behavioral economics, cognitive dissonance,
bubble, homo oeconomicus.
1. Introduction
The dynamic development of the society shows that throughout history, the economies
of countries faced with stages of boom and crisis, which were repeated at short, medium and
long intervals, fact supported in the most recent exhaustive study on the financial crisis: This
Time is Different, by Reinhard and Rogoff.
Although it was thought that we learned the lesson of the crisis, and economists like
John Maynard Keynes or Milton Friedman showed us different doctrinal positions on how to
avoid falling prey to the economic tides, the facts show the opposite, so that, at present,
almost the entire world is facing the deepest and longest recession in the history of postwar.
Although there are many voices who argue that the current economic crisis is rooted
dramatically in lowering the cost of housing in the United States, we consider its fundamental
causes as much deeper. Moreover, it is clear that the conventional economy, based on homo
oeconomicus, can provide only incomplete explanations in relation to the subprime crisis. It
starts from the premise that individuals are capable of accurate economical calculations and
they can take the most rational decisions when it comes to their money, but the homo
economicus model established by Adam Smith proved to be only a theoretical construction. In
reality, people take bad decisions, often repeating the same mistakes forever, they don't know
to calculate risks and make economic operations emotionally motivated, the proof being the
current economic situation.
As a result, an emergent side of the economy is trying to integrate the latest advances
in psichology into a more flexible and realistic explanation of human economic behavior:
behavioral economics. This takes into account all the fluctuations of human rationality, being
disturbed whether by emotions, the herd effect, marketing techniques, or simply their inability
to make economic calculations.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Behavioral economics is therefore a branch of economics that studies how the people
actual make choices every day, putting into question the traditional economy postulates.
Behavioral economists propose to broaden and improve the traditional ideas with decision-
making models borrowed from psychology, by multidisciplinary approach that it proposes.
However, it dispenses with some of traditional ideas, mainly the ideas that have underpinned
the idea of economic rationality in the neoclassical design, that of homo oeconomicus
rationalis.
Analysis of economic and financial crisis in behavioral perspective is necessary,
especially because of the increasing importance that behavioral economics currently has, its
study being animated by the advance that technological progress of the last few decades it has
printed to humanity. The discoveries, mainly in the field of neuro-sciences, made possible a
better understanding of the human brain and the foundations that are built on certain
behaviors. In addition, the timing of the economic science crossroads came at present, marked
especially by the greatest crisis since the Great Depression of 29-33‘s, brought into question
the necessity of returning to origins, trying rediscovering the fact that beyond any abstracted
model, formal and mathematical, the economy is a living science, having the human in its
center.
2. Economic and financial crisis approach from the perspective of traditional
theories
At the level of economic theories, there is no agreement on an economic model of
explanation of the crisis. There is not just one explanation of the causes of the economic crisis
and consequently the anti-crisis solutions formulated in macroeconomic theory differs
substantially from one approach to another.
The main thinking schools that put into question the problem of business cycle and
economic and financial crisis are keynesist school, monetary school, Austrian School of Law
and Economics.
The first thicking school is represented by John Maynard Keynes and his followers
from Cambridge-England (Joan Robinnson) and Cambridge-Massachusetts (Gregory
Mankiew and Paul Krugman). The latter is also known as the Chicago school and is
represented in the first place by Milton Friedman, but also by R.J. Lucas. The most important
thinkers of the Austrian School of Economics who had important contributions in terms of
crisis theory are Ludwig von Mises, Murray N. Rothbard, F. A. Hayek.
The theories and explanations provided inside of the first two thinking schools and
their versions as well (neokeynesist, post-keynesist and neoclassical theories), practically
dominated economic thinking in the 20th century and still dominates it. The followers of
Keynesism and monetarism accept the institutional arrangement in the field of monetary,
financial and banking: fractional reserves, the Central Bank as a lender of last resort and paper
currency. Moreover, they believe that the crisis is a further proof compared to those of the
past, that the economy cannot function without the State intervention. Guilty, in their opinion,
is the free market and the solution to this problem consists in increasing the role of the State,
through the implementation of costly programs aimed to create artificial demand on the
market.
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Unlike them, the Austrian School of Economics economists argued, both in the
context of the crisis of 1929, and at present as well, that at the base of economic cycles and at
the crisis stood and still are institutions and institutional arrangements such as fractional
reserves and paper currency (fiat money). They allow the banks the artificial expansion of the
credit and the money supply, causing serious imbalances in the structure of capital and
ultimately leading to severe financial and economic crisis. Furthermore, they consider that the
excess of State suffocates the free market and, consequently, the initiatives of entrepreneurs,
the public regulatory excess being a cause of the crisis.
2.1 Keynesist approach
Keynesist explanation of the crisis starts from the assumption that on the market there
is a sudden collapse of investment or a sudden drop in demand for capital assets. This
decrease of investments lead to a drop in income, which leads the economy in a steady
position with unemployment greater than zero. Another important presumption in keynesist
theory is that the market does not have self-regulating resorts. Firstly, due to the wage rigidity
which drop would not be possible to achieve a correlation of demand and supply in the labour
market at a lower equilibrium wage. Secondly, due to the preference for liquidity, Keynes
assumes that interest is not influenced ceteris paribus by the increase or decrease of the loan
funds supply. In R. Garrison conception, the main emphasis in keynesist theory falls on the
point of collapse of investment in terms of lowering consumption. Even though interest rates
would drop, investment would not be encouraged because the fall in consumption would have
an overwhelming contrary effect. (Garrison, 2001, pp. 161-162). The decline in consumption
or the issue of "underconsuption", is still based as well on preference for liquidity or
stockpiling. The decline in consumption have a negative connotation in the context of
keynesist theory, and "underconsuption" thus becomes the target of anti-crisis policies,
supported by keynesist positions.
An essential aspect in explaining economic crisis from keynesist perspective is the
recessionary spiral effect that is supposed to involve the sudden collapse of investment.
Decrease in investment means a drop in social income, and the drop in income means,
in turn, a drop in aggregate demand, of consumption. The decrease in demand for consumer
assets leads to a decrease in demand for capital assets and investment, and this leads to a
further lowering of social income, and so on (the recesionist accelerator principle). According
to keynesist perspective, the economy trapped in this kind of recessionary spiral has no
internal competence to come out of the crisis, and Government intervention is necessary both
to prevent and to solve the crisis.
Keynesist anti-crisis solutions are obviously closely related to explanation of
fluctuations and economic crisis. From keynesist approach, the anti-crisis policies must
prevent the entry of economy in a recessionary spiral or to stabilize and restore the economy
that entered the crisis into an optimal zone.
The remedies can be both fiscal and monetary policies. Growth in government
spending can draw out the economy from recessionary spiral, because it is assumed that any
increase in consumption leads to a more than proportional increase in demand for capital
assets and investments (the accelerator principle). The increase of investment leads to an
increase of social income and, ultimately, to an increase in demand for consumer assets, then
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to a new increase in demand for capital assets, and investment. The increase of consumption
and investment bring the economy at the optimal level of income, the level that the economy
is in equilibrium with zero unemployment.
Fiscal policies role is the center of the classical keynesist theory, while monetary
policies have a supporting role. In the context of keynesist theory the increase of the money
supply through monetary policy measures (credit expansion) in the context of the crisis is
likely to solve the problem of the so-called speculative hoarding. In the case of the Great
Depression (1929-1930), keynesist economists argued the importance of fiscal policies in
relation to the monetary policies during the crisis. In contrast, monetarist economists have
argued the contrary, the fact that the monetary offer was not high enough to cope with the
contraction during the Great Depression of 1929. With all these, neither Keynesian followers
have not opted in the decades that followed the Great Depression for a severe monetary
policy; on the contrary they have promoted a policy of cheap money to maintain a low interest
rate for government loans.
2.2 The monetarist approach
The monetarism followers believe that the main problem of the crisis of 2008
represents the Central Banks that have been given cheap and accessible loans. The
consequence of such a policy has been exponential growth in prices of assets (especially real
estate) which culminated in the creation of a bubble.
The entire financial system was on the brink of collapse: both the banks have seen
how consumers cannot return the money, but also other financial institutions by purchasing
secured mortgages were exposed to large losses.
To combat the crisis the monetarists believe that Central Banks should increase the
money supply by injecting money into commercial banks then to purchase state bonds that
allow the financing of some State projects. Furthermore they have the opinion that banks must
be saved at all costs, that should not be left to bankrupt, being too important for the economic
system.
2.3 The Austrian school approach
Austrian school proposes a theory of economic cycles that provide explanations of
economic and financial crisis such as the one we are going through. For the Austrians, the
crisis have invariably a monetary issue.
Strongly believing in the smooth functioning of the free market mechanism, Austrian
economists point to the State as the sole culprit for economic depressions, through its
distorted, destructive interventions. State intrusion into the free market processes, through the
action of central banks, support the expansionist process of crediting, in the absence of real
resources in the economy.
Thus, the economy is inundated with "false money" without coverage in assets and
services, and operators can no longer take the right decisions for consumption or investment.
Even more so as for a while the excess quantity of money does not lead to an increase in
prices of consumer goods, but finds placements in „investments‖ in real or financial assets.
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The cheap or plentiful money and the banks compete to offer favourable loans, allowing all to
live the illusion of enrichment. It is time that the price of shares in the stock market or
property prices reach record after record, generating a speculative exuberance which is self-
mantaining for a while. Only that at some point the illusion breaks, either because the Central
Bank reduces the pace of currency for fear of inflation, either because investors are beginning
to realise the increasing risks they assume.
Austrian economists is one position without equivocation: the State must give up any
form of intervention in the free market economy, leaving the possibility to operate after their
own rules. From the point of view of economic health and to end the economic depression as
quickly as possible, the Government should maintain a rigid „laissez-faire‖ policy. Any
involvement of the Government will delay and will prevent the process of market regulation;
if the government intervention is minimum then the market regulation process will work
faster and will result in a healthy economic recovery.
Therefore, the solution proposed by the Austrian theory indicates exactly the opposite
of the keynesian theory: the Government must not be involved in any way in the economy and
must be confined to stop its own inflation and reduce its budget.
3. Economic and financial crisis approach from the perspective of behavioral
economics
As a result of a short stop through the traditional economic theories of economic crisis,
we could see that the followers of the above mentioned theories have been too concerned
about saving and speeding up the bankruptcy of financial institutions and they have omitted a
major factor of the crisis: the individual.On the one hand, the interventionists have considered
that the states of the world must take efforts to save financial institutions that are too big to
fail. To achieve this aim were used financial programs of hundreds of billions of dollars,
without taking into account the repercussions that it could generate such inflationary pressures
on the economy and without a serious concern regarding the fact that, in this situation, the
ones who should endure the costs are the individuals. On the other hand most followers of
liberalism have relied on the fact that these institutions are unhealthy results of State
intervention and that their failure would have been preferable because it would allow a faster
healing of the economy and because it would not affect individuals in the same manner.
Because none of this visions managed to establish as undeniable dogma, it is
encouraged bringing into question as direction and possible solution to its deficiences the
behavioral economics subdiscipline.
The followers of this school try to explain the generalization of noneconomic behavior
that preceded the crisis, to explain what individuals have indulged in behaviors that do not fit
into the rules of homo oeconomicus and which are not rational in economic terms. They
believe that both liberalism and interventionism, the human factor is analyzed in mechanistic
terms and is regarded as a variable without the psychological element. In other words,
traditional economic models are based on some abstract individuals: selfish and perfectly
rational, on the one hand, and devoid of any trace of selfishness, always ready to sacrifice for
the welfare of society, on the other hand.
Behavioral economists consider this approach as a wrong one because, they say, the
individual is a complex person, with actions that materializes in failures and with
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incomprehensible behaviors for the economy. They say that in reality people don't always act
in the most logical way from economic point of view, but rather they make decisions under
the influence of psychological factors. Individuals repeat the same mistakes over and over
again, they don‘t know how to calculate risks and make business emotionally motivated.
3.1 The formation of real estate bubble - a behaviorist approach
The financial crisis of 2007 is a highly debated topic in contemporary economy.
Although there are different opinions regarding the way of manifestation, whoever is guilty of
causing the crisis and what are the best solutions to be adopted, one thing is certain: the crisis
has started as a result of a real estate bubble.
Starting from this assumption, the question that immediately comes to mind is: why
and how did this bubble formed? The literature specific to behavioral economics includes
numerous studies in this field, and in the following we will present several behavioral theories
which try to explain why an asset has grown to be overstated or in other words why the real
estate balloon has formed.
The first theory states that a bubble is formed when investors disagree over the future
prospects of an asset and are faced with some short term sale constraints (Miller, 1977;
Harrison and Kreps, 1978; Scheinkman and Xiong, 2003; Hong and Stein, 2007). The logic is
simple: it is assumed that some investors are very optimistic about the prospects of an asset,
while others are more reserved. In the presence of short term sale constraints, the price of the
asset will reflect only the point of view of optimistic investors, the reserved ones staying
outside the market. In other words, the asset will be overstated.
The second theory states that the bubbles appear because investors explore in the
future the past results (Lakonishok, Shleifer, Vishny, 1994; Barberis, Shleifer, Vishny, 1998;
Greenwood and Hanson, 2010). This hypothesis is supported by Kahneman and
Tversy (1974) by representativeness heuristic. Representativeness reprezents the situations
where people have the tendency to establish something depending on the characteristics of the
group (Barberis and Thaler, 2003, Kahneman, 2003).
The third theory is based on the assumption that the people rely on their ability to
make predictions (Daniel, Hirshleifer, and Subrahmanyam M., 1998). According to this
theory in their approach to estimate the value of an asset, investors gather and analyze
informations, but they become very confident in their usefulness. For example, if an investor
note that the informations about a particular asset are favorable, then he will be tempted to
overstate the reliability of that information, and this will lead to overestimating the asset price.
A fourth theory states that investors who achieved gains after owning an active,
become less risk averse because the so-called "house money" effect. In other words, since
investors have had earnings in the past are less risk averse because any loss will be damped of
prior earnings. Reduced aversion to risk of investors will cause them to buy the asset with
even more enthusiasm, what will overestimate the price of the asset in question. (Thaler and
Johnson, 1990; Barberis, Huang, Santos, 2001).
Among all the theories the most useful for understanding the behavior of the real
estate market is the second theory which states that bubbles occur because of the heuristic
called representativeness. This causes people to extrapolate the past when making predictions
about the future. The theory is applied in the case of the recent real-estate bubble because
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when buyers had to predict the future price of the houses, they extrapolated the growth of the
past and so they paid more for their houses and thus have made risky loans. However, in order
to generate a real estate bubble is not enough to assume that those who have bought houses
they extrapolated. Since the houses were purchased with the help of external funding sources,
it appears the idea according to which these sources have been also extrapolated. People have
lived a life beyond their possibilities, and this could not last forever. Very motivated by
bonuses, stock traders were very persuasive and they convinced the people with a low score in
the evaluation of credit applications to borrow money, together with alluring payment terms.
People who have borrowed money and have lived over their possibilities have not asked for
how long this might take, and in this way they supported an artificial economic growth
(Roubini, Mihm, 2010, pp. 70-142, Krugman, 2009, pp. 27-67, 102-145). In other words, the
real estate bubble was formed because of a surplus credit granted to consumers mainly in the
form of subprime credits. The question that arises is the following: If the population's
propensity towards the speculation was known, why the banks have granted loans so easily?In
other words, which is the reason that the banks have granted loans so easily to persons that
lacked in financial coverage, although they were aware of the risks to which they were
exposed?
3.2 Cognitive dissonance and the banking system
As surprising as it may seem, to us, the people, we don't like to be inconsistent. If
there is a conflict between what we believe and what we do, we feel an discomfort that is the
result of an inner mechanism called cognitive dissonance. Dissonance cognitive theory was
introduced by Leon Festinger. This represents a stress state that occurs whenever a person has
simultaneously two opinions which not only do not support each other, but rather, they
exclude one another.
Psychologists have concluded that individuals often supplementary rationalize to
synchronise their knowledge and to maintain their psychological stability. Considering that
individuals change the behaviors and knowledges to reach harmony, they do not always act
favorable to their own interests. The figure below illustrates this:
Figure 1 Cognitive dissonance
Action Change of
beliefs
Lack of Dissona Change of Dissona
persevera nce actions nce
nce Change of
Beliefs perception over
accomplished
actions
According to the literature it has been observed that cognitive dissonance often leads
investors to maintain their losing investment positions despite of what logically would do, just
to avoid having to admit that they made a wrong judgment. Moreover, often irrational
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investors can not give up the financial instruments in which they invested even if they turn out
to be losers. Also, cognitive dissonance can cause investors to ignore the new information that
contradicts their initial decisions until the time they manage to gather enough informations
which would justify the taken decision. Moreover the need to preserve the sense of self-
esteem prevents the investor to learn from his own mistakes and leads him to believe that "this
time will be different."
In the case of the banking system also the thing that fed the creation of real estate
bubble and then breaking it in 2007-2008 there are similarly things. This can be explained by
the fact that the bankers are people as well, predisposed to mistakes, errors and cognitive
distortions. In this sense, behaviorist economists start from the hypothesis of cognitive
dissonance. They argue that traders who worked at the loaning offices, they realized that
financial lending solutions that they offer to people not only were risky for the previous ones,
but they were a considerable risk for the institutions they were operating.
On the other hand those from the lending offices wanted to have a good image of
themselves, to be able to think about their own person as the one responsible, that provides
useful services to society. The two situations that they were facing created them a state of
discomfort: cognitive dissonance. To escape this situation, they could refuse the people who
did not met the necessary conditions for contracting a loan. However, due to the fact that for
the achievement of financial performance indicators, linked in particular to the volume of
loans, they were receiving substantial bonuses, they overlooked some shortcomings and made
credit agreements. Furthermore they tried to manipulate their own thoughts, telling that in the
end the situation is not that risky.
4. Conclusions
Therefore, what I have emphasized in this research is the fact that the traditional
economy explains very well the development of an economic crisis. But to understand how it
came to the formation of the real estate bubble and how to explain the banks negligence
towards risk we need the behavioral economics. For an accurate analysis of the economic and
financial crisis must be taken into account as well the subjective and psychological aspects of
behavioral economics which moves the rational behavior from traditional terms presented by
classical and neoclassical economic literature into new coordinates.
We believe that the answers provided by the economic psychology researches: the
impact of emotions on the cognition, respectively of the psyche, for decision, may be
integrated into a theory meant to provide a better interpretation of the phenomenon of
economic and financial crisis. The study of economic phenomena which does not involve
taking into consideration of those who by their own thoughts, decisions and through their
actions, permanently, create these phenomena, is a deeply flawed option. In reality, as shown
by the experience of the last years, the economic and financial environment evolves according
to rules that are not completely understood, and the misunderstanding turned, in a first phase
in the decisive factor of the spread of the crisis. Insufficient understanding of the behavioral
mechanisms of human psychology, at the individual level, on the one hand, and at the
collective level, on the other hand, worsened things to the point that the crisis took systemic
proportions.
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ECONOMICAL ADVANTAGES OF COROSION PROTECTION BY HOT-DIP
GALVANIZING OF STEEL STRUCTURES
Andreea Hegyi, PhD, Eng., NIRD ”URBAN-INCERC” Branch of Cluj-Napoca,
Horia Constantinescu, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, NIRD ”URBAN-
INCERC” Branch of Cluj-Napoca, Mircea Pastrav, PhD, Eng., NIRD
”URBANINCERC” Branch of Cluj-Napoca, Oana Cazan, PhD, Eng., NIRD
”URBAN-INCERC” Branch of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Today, it is increasingly evident that to achieve long-term economic development,
one solution is to reduce the maintenance and repairs costs. For metallic structures, this
means applying protection systems with the highest durability possible. One of the most
appropriate technologies available is hot-dip galvanizing. This study is an analysis of the
implementation and maintenance costs of corrosion protection for a complex steel structure
by various methods of painting vs. costs of corrosion protection by hot-dip galvanizing. The
study analyses both, the initial costs of the corrosion protection and the maintenance and
repairs costs, for the structure, over a period of 100 years (lifetime), considering the studied
building as subjected to an industrial environment (corrosion class C3) and also to a marine
environment (corrosion class C5-M). Estimation of costs has been carried out for different
types of corrosion protection systems by coating (using alkyd products, using epoxy products,
using metallization, all of them applied in either 2 or 3 layers) and for hot-dip galvanizing. By
using the ‖whole-life cost‖ method it was observed that hot dip galvanizing is the most
efficient method, with regard to maintenance and repair costs, of protecting the studied
metallic structure against corrosion over its entire service life. The paper also contains a
comparative study for the discussed protection systems, which details the time periods up to
the first necessary maintenance, the first necessary major repair and also, the number of
necessary maintenance and repair interventions over the whole service life of the structure,
which is considered to be 100 years. The comparative study showed higher maintenance and
repair costs for the painted corrosion protection systems, and also revealed the possibility of
reducing these costs by over 80% and prolonging service life of the steel structure, and the
time between maintenance and repair needs, if corrosion protection is achieved by hot-dip
galvanizing. By the interdisciplinary character, this paper responds the questions of the
construction specialists, of the electrochemistry and corrosion protection specialists, as well
as those of specialists in economics.
Keywords: whole-life costs, corrosion protection, hot-dip galvanized steel, steel structure,
cost reduction.
Introduction
Corrosion of steel and iron products is a problem for today‘s civilization, just as it was
a problem for past civilizations and will probably be for future civilizations. Current estimates
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show that around 4-5% of the GDP in developed countries is lost annually due to corrosion.
In the US, it is estimated that $297 billion [22] are lost each year because of corrosion.
Around the world, every 90 seconds, one ton of steel turns to rust; so, if two tons of steel were
produced every 90 seconds, one ton will be used to replace rusted steel. [16, 8]. Future
technologies will be based on the best currently available techniques, which first of all mean
low energy and material consumption and minimization or ideally complete absence of waste.
It is believed that hot-dip galvanizing is the best currently available for prevention of
corrosion in steel and iron products. Numerous studies prove the effectiveness of the cathode
protection given to steel products by zinc, which is owed to the zinc layer‘s anode character
making it act as a sacrifice layer. Furthermore the zinc coating acts as a barrier against
external corrosive agents in a way similar to epoxy coating, thus giving extra protection to the
metal substrate. Research into this technology has been carried out in numerous countries
such as the US, UK, Canada, Japan, India and Australia, funded by both government research
grants and grants from the private sector [1, 11, 15].
The advantages of hot-dip galvanizing as an anti-corrosion protection for steel and
iron products are as follows [2, 4, 5, 17, 18]:
- Green technology: meets the requirements of environmental protection and does not
use solvents;
- The zinc layer, as opposed to paint, is not flammable;
- Minor degradation due to mechanical action, impacts and scratches do not take
away the protective characteristics and do not create the need to reapply the
protective layer; this is due to the zinc layer‘s anode character which makes it act as
a sacrifice layer for steel and iron. Hot-dip galvanizing creates a very powerful bond
between the coating layer and its substrate, called a metallic bond, a series of Zn-Fe
alloys form, which increase in zinc content from substrate to surface. Practically,
there is no clear interface between the substrate and the zinc layer, only a gradual
transition through combination of the two metals. [12, 18];
- Zinc and galvanized steel can be recycled and reused, while corrosive protection
using paint leads to the accumulation of permanent residue in the environment. [4,
5, 6];
- From an economical point of view, hot-dip galvanizing is a highly competitive form
of protection against corrosion when compared to other technologies. Even though
production costs seem to increase, in fact, a less qualified work force is easier to
tolerate and over the life of the metal structure operating, maintenance and repair
costs are greatly diminished. Hot-dip galvanizing protects steel structures over
many decades, thus reducing maintenance costs [2, 3, 20];
- Current scientific literature indicates a period of approximately 70 years during
which metal elements that are protected using hot-dip galvanizing do not require
expenditures for maintenance or repair of the anti-corrosive protection [8, 11, 12,
13, 15, 19].
This paper will identify and demonstrate the benefits in terms of reducing costs over
the lifespan of a metal structure when using corrosion protection by hot-dip galvanizing as
compared to other methods, namely painting with various products. Available technical
literature contains studies that analyze the costs of different technologies for corrosion
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protection of steel structures, but so far, no comparative analysis has been made that addresses
the issue in terms of production costs, maintenance and repair costs and also the period of use
of the steel structure until it first needs maintenance, it first needs major repairs and the
number of necessary interventions, all calculated for the same design life of the steel
structure.
Calculation methods
Current technical literature contains several methods for estimation of costs for
construction projects [14]. These can be definitive estimations, used to establish the overall
plan of a project; parametric estimations which entail breaking down the project into smaller
units that are easily quantifiable and to which costs can be attributed based on previous
experience and estimations by analogy which, in order to estimate the costs of the current
project, rely on the actual costs of similar projects that have been finalized [10]. Cost
estimations at the design stage, includes on the one hand construction and maintenance costs
for the metal structure, and on the other the costs of the structures anti-corrosive protection.
The term whole-life cost can be defined as the sum total of all costs required for the
structure, which include: design, construction, operation, maintenance, repairs and post use
costs (decommissioning, recycling) at the end of the structures service life (Figure 1). If for
the same structure design and construction costs are constant, the costs for the anti-corrosive
protection, inspection, maintenance and repair vary based on the materials that are used and
especially based on the method used to apply the protection and its efficiency.
The costs entailed by the anti-corrosive protection of steel structures include two very
important elements, each of them containing direct and indirect expenditures:
The initial cost of the anti-corrosion protection system;
The cost of the anti-corrosion protection of the structure over its entire service life –
which include maintenance and upkeep costs of the system.
Figure 1 Lifetime costs for a steel structure
Hot-dip galvanizing is often perceived as being more expensive than it actually is.
This common mistake stems first of all from the fact that such an effective method is
automatically perceived as being expensive. In recent years, the ratio between the initial
production costs of hot-dip galvanizing and the initial production costs of painted anti-
corrosion systems has changed considerably. Painting costs have increased constantly, mainly
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due to restrictions imposed in order to protect the environment, while hot-dip galvanizing
costs have remained nearly constant.
By using the whole-life cost method it has been determined that steel structures are the
most cost effective, and that hot-dip galvanizing is the most effective of anti-corrosion
protection for them from all points of view.
Figure 2 Costs variation on service life of buildings/structures [22, 23]
A recent study by Turner and Townsend, Construction and Management Consultants,
the data of which was made available to and processed by EGGA (European General
Galvanizers Association) and ANAZ (Romanian National Galvanizers Association),
considering a steel structure, has shown that in the first 8-10 years starting from the beginning
of the structures service life, maintenance and repair costs and small, negligible. After this
initial period comes the first peak in maintenance and repair costs, which then reappears at
intervals of 3-5 years. Figure 2 presents this variation over time of maintenance and repair
costs in the case of a steel structure for a period of 36 years beginning at the start of the
structures service life. By using hot-dip galvanizing as an anti-corrosion protection system the
peaks in maintenance and repair costs can be pushed further away in time and can be
diminished in value, which can translate in lower maintenance and repair costs that are
required less often, easing amortization of the investment in the structure [22, 23, 24] .
The present study analyzed production, maintenance and repair costs for the anti-
corrosion protection system of a steel structure, using the parametric estimation method,
estimating the per surface unit cost for galvanizing the entire steel structure and by attributing
these costs values based on available technical literature, previous experience and information
provided by EGGA (European General Galvanizers Association), AGA (American
Galvanizers Association) and ANAZ (Romanian National Galvanizers Association).
The economic advantages of corrosion protection of steel structures by
galvanizing
The purpose of this paper was to highlight the economic advantages, namely cost
reduction, in the case of corrosion protection of a steel structure by galvanizing as compared
to various painting methods. For this analysis a complex steel structure was considered, the
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height of the structure varies between 15 and 30 m and it has a total surface area of 100 m 2
with a designed service life of 100 years. Due to the fact that the corrosive nature of the
environment in which the structure will be placed greatly influences its corrosion rate, two
different environments were considered in the analysis, namely an industrial environment
with an average corrosion level, corrosion class C3 and a marine environment, with a high
corrosion level, corrosion class C5-M. By considering as constant the costs for design and
construction it was considered that the variable costs will be those for the corrosion
protection: materials, application, inspections, maintenance and repair over the 100 year
service life of the structure. On the basis of the data made available by EGGA, AGGA and
ANAZ, several parameters regarding cost were estimated, time period between interventions
and number of interventions required, for each type of corrosion protection system in each
environment considered. For the cost analysis a constant inflation rate of 1% / year was
considered over the entire service life of the structure. Costs were calculated in EURO/ m2.
The anti-corrosion systems considered in the study are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1. Types and component of anticorrosive protection systems
Corrosive Corrosive
Type of anticorrosive protection
environment environment
Hot-dip galvanizing with 100 µm minimum DFT
2-Coat sistem comprised of Alkyd / Alkyd with 100 µm minimum
DFT
3-Coat sistem comprised of Alkyd / Alkyd / Alkyd with 150 µm
minimum DFT
Industrial 2-Coat sistem comprised of Epoxy / Epoxy with 150 µm minimum Marine,
environment, DFT aggressive,
C3 3-Coat sistem comprised of Epoxy / Epoxy / Epoxy with 250 µm C5M
minimum DFT
1-Coat sistem comprised of Zinc Metallizing (min 90% zinc) with
125 µm minimum DFT
3-Coat sistem comprised of Zinc Metallizing / Sealer / Polyurethane
with 400 µm minimum DFT
*DFT – Dry Film Thickness (average thickness of the dried coating)
Cost estimation for the production, maintenance and repair of the considered anti-
corrosion protection systems in relation to the corrosive nature of the environment are shown
in Figure 3 – 7.
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Figure 3 Production costs of anticorrosive protection systems
Figure 3 shows the production costs for all the anti-corrosion protection systems
considered in the study. It is clear that hot-dip galvanizing (HDG) requires costs that are
comparable to a 2 coat Alkyd coating and much lower costs than those necessary for painted
anti-corrosion protection systems of higher quality such as 3 coat Alkyd coating, coating with
epoxy or Zinc Metallizing.
The increase in painting cost is due to ever stricter environmental protection
requirements that are being implemented in order to adhere to European directives which
impose supplementary technological requirements and implicitly, higher costs, when
producing and using painting materials. Hot-dip galvanizing technology can be easily
controlled in terms of toxic emissions (into the atmosphere, in water and in soil) and waste
products, and most of the times any waste can be recovered and reintroduced into the
industrial process, thus causing a decrease of production costs for the anti-corrosion system
[7, 9, 16].
Figure 4 shows the costs over the entire service life of the structure (without
considering the rate of inflation), the maintenance and repair costs needed over the entire
service life of the structure (with and without considering the rate of inflation) when
considering that the structure is in an industrial environment with moderate corrosion
characteristics, C3, and considering the structure as being in a highly corrosive marine
environment, C5M. As can be seen, the costs are influenced by both the technique and quality
of the anti-corrosive protection used and the environment in which the structure resides. A
cheap painted anti-corrosive protection system, using alkyd products, requires lesser
production costs (figure 3) but will require higher maintenance and repair costs due to its
reduced durability, costs that increase with the aggression class of the environment. In the
case of anti-corrosive protection systems that use painted epoxy products, although initial
production costs are slightly higher, over the 100 year service life considered, maintenance
and repair costs will be much lower than those necessary for the cheaper painted alkyd
products. In the case of zinc metallizing the initial protection costs were the highest (Figure 3)
and the maintenance and repair costs are comparable to those of the cheaper painted
protection that uses alkyd products. The advantages brought by the zinc metallizing are
revealed in figures 5 and 6. Of all the anti-corrosive systems hot-dip galvanizing entails the
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lowest maintenance and repair costs due, on the one hand, to its high durability and reduced
need for maintenance, and on the other hand to its chemical and metallurgic properties. As it
has been shown before, zinc protects steel with its anode properties, that make it act as a
sacrifice material, and with the metallic bond that forms between the zinc layer and the steel
substrate which bonds the protection layer to the substrate much better than in the case of the
paint systems.
By analyzing the costs over the entire life of the structure without considering the
inflation rate and the maintenance and repair costs, for the same protection system, Figure 4
shows that an increase of the corrosion class of the environment in which the structure is
situated leads to an increase in costs.
a) Moderately corrosive environmental conditions C3
b) Aggressive corrosive environment conditions C5M
Figure 4 Estimated costs for the entire lifetime without taking into account inflation
and the cost of maintenance and repairs, with and without taking into account the inflation
rate
Figure 5 shows the estimated costs for the first maintenance and the first major repair
for each of the studied anti-corrosive system in the environments considered in the study. It
can be seen that higher corrosion classes of the environment determine an increase of the
costs, the same as can be identified in figure 4 for the costs over the entire service life of the
structure. For the same aggression class, it can be observed that the first maintenance requires
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approximately equal costs for hot-dip galvanizing and painting with alkyd or epoxy products
and much higher costs in the case of zinc metallizing. The costs of the first major repair are
smallest for hot-dip galvanizing and slightly higher for painting with alkyd or epoxy products.
In the case of zinc metallizing costs are again much higher. These differences are due, for the
most part, to the high prices of the materials and to the high costs of the technological process
needed to prepare the surface which requires skilled labor.
a) Moderately corrosive environmental conditions C3
b) Aggressive corrosive environment conditions C5M
Figure 5 Estimated costs for the first maintenance and repair and first major
intervention of the anticorrosive protection, with an annual inflation rate of 1%
Over the 100 year service life of the steel structure considered, depending on the type
of protection system chosen, the number of required interventions for inspection, maintenance
and repair is greatly influenced by the corrosion class, but most of all by the durability of the
protection system. As can be observed from figure 6, a protection system initially considered
inexpensive, painting with alkyd products, requires a large number of interventions which will
lead to a higher overall cost for the entire service life considered. Painting with epoxy
products, even though it requires higher initial costs will require fewer interventions then the
system using alkyd paint. Metallizing, which up to this point, from the point of view of costs
seemed to be completely ineffective, has proven to be an efficient solution when considering
the small number of interventions needed. Hot-dip galvanizing requires the least interventions
for inspection, maintenance and repair. This is also due to the long period of time from the
application of the protection system to the first need for repair (after 70 years) as has been
proven by numerous studies contained in the technical literature [8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 19] and as
can be seen in figure 7.
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a) Moderately corrosive environmental conditions C3
b) Aggressive corrosive environment conditions C5M
Figure 6 Estimation of the number of interventions for inspection, maintenance and
repair
a) Moderately corrosive environmental conditions C3
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b) Aggressive corrosive environment conditions C5M
Figure 7 Period that occurs after first inspection, first maintenance and first repair
In calculating the profitability of an anti-corrosive system it is preferable to have a
minimal number of interventions for inspection, maintenance and repair, and as long as
possible time between them. A small number of interventions for inspection, maintenance and
repairs, besides leading to reduced costs will also favor the increase of the time that the
structure can be utilized fully thus increasing the chances of obtaining a profit from its use.
From this perspective it is preferable to use an anti-corrosive protection system that uses hot-
dip galvanizing (small number of interventions spaced a long time apart) or zinc metallizing.
But the initial costs of metallizing are high, as are the maintenance costs. As a consequence,
hot-dip galvanizing is a technology that combines the advantages of small implementation,
maintenance and repair costs with the advantage of being able to use the structure for a longer
uninterrupted period of time, the interruptions of use due to maintenance and repair operations
only appearing after a long period of time (after 70 years) and reoccur after long periods of
time.
Figure 8 Reduced of execution costs and maintenance of anticorrosive protection by
coating or plating compared to hot dip galvanizing
The ratio of construction, maintenance and repair costs of anti-corrosive protection
systems that uses painting or metallizing to the costs required by hot-dip galvanizing, shows
that for a designed service life of 100 years of the structure, depending on the environment it
is placed in, the costs can be 80-96% higher (figure 8). So using hot-dip galvanizing can lead
to a significant reduction in costs necessary for implementation, maintenance and repair of the
protection system. Each of the technologies analyzed have advantages and disadvantages:
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painting with alkyd products has low initial costs but requires high efforts for maintenance
and repairs, frequent interventions which overall become costly. Metallizing has high
durability over time, the required interventions are few and far between, but the technology,
materials, preparation of the surface and the skilled labor required are all expensive. Painting
with epoxy products is the most convenient option from the group of painted anti-corrosive
protection systems, the number and cost of interventions over the 100 year service life, being
lower than for the alkyd paint, but with higher costs starting even with the raw material. Even
so, painting with epoxy products is, over the entire life of the structure it is 80% more
expensive than hot-dip galvanizing.
Conclusions
This study was conducted in order to highlight the advantages of using anticorrosive
protection achieved by galvanizing of steel compared with those obtained by dyeing
processes.
Based on the analysis of the technical literature, it was highlighted the significant
difference between bonding coverage achieved by galvanizing (much stronger bonding, based
on intermetallic contact), compared to the classic bonding of a paint coating to the steel
substrate, as well the role of the sacrificial anode of zinc towards the steel. This contributes
substantially to the increase of durability of anticorrosive protection achieved by galvanizing
and implicitly to reducing need for interventions needed for maintenance and repairs.
The estimations of execution costs, inspection, maintenance and repair, the whole
lifetime of considered steel structure, have indicated that:
- the execution costs of anticorrosive protection by galvanizing are compared to
those of protection by painting with alkyd products and smaller if the painting is
performed with epoxy or metallization. These is due to the increasing of costs of
painting because of the need of conformation of environmental conditions on one
hand, and on the other hand, of technological possibility of recovery and recycling
of many waste from hot dip galvanizing;
- throughout the whole life of the steel structure, because for about 70 years the hot
dip galvanizing coating (HDG coating) does not require interventions, costs are
much lower compared to other analyzed procedures which either are requiring
cheaper but more frequent interventions, either are requiring more rare
interventions, but more expensive;
- due to the low number of interventions for maintenance and repair, by galvanizing
is effectively extended the service life of the steel structure. Reducing the time in
which the structure activity is stopped for maintenance work and repairs, it can
function and earn income and thus a higher profit.
Bibliografie
[1] Andrade C, Alonso C., Corrosion rate monitoring in the laboratory and on-site,
Constr Build Mater 10(5), 1996, pp 315–328
[2] Akamphona S., Sukkasi S., Yuttanant Boonyongmaneerat Y., Reduction of zinc
consumption with enhanced corrosion protection in hot-dip galvanized coatings: A process-
based cost analysis, Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 58, January 2012, pp 1–7
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[3] Bhadra S., Gopalakrishnan B.;Chaudhari S., Energy efficiency in continuous
galvanizing lines, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference (IRSEC), 2013
International, 361 - 366
[4] Cook M., The General Galvanizing Industry in Europe – Challenges and
Oportunities, Proceedings of ZINC, Plobdiv, Bulgaria, 2006
[5] Cornet I., Bresler B. – Galvanized reinforcement for concrete – II, International
Lead Zinc Research Organization, 1981
[6] Hanna F., Nassif N., Factors affecting the quality of hot-dip-galvanized steel
sheets, Surface Technology, Volume 21, Issue 1, January 1984, pp 27–37
[7] Kong G., White R, Toward cleaner production of hot dip galvanizing industry in
China, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 18, Issues 10–11, July 2010, pp. 1092–1099
[8] Marder A. R. (2000), The metallurgy of zinc-coated steel, Progress in Materials
Science 45 Pergamon 2000, pp. 191-271.
[9] Manzini R., Noci G., Ostinelli M., Pizzurno E. (August 2004), Assessing
Environmental Product Declaration Opportunities: a Reference Framework, Business Strategy
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[10] Radu V, Ionita I., Simion C., s.a., Managementul proiectelor, Ed. Universitara,
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[11] Ramniceanu A. – Correlation of Corrosion Measurement and Bridge Condition
with NBSI Deck Rating, Departament of Civil Enviromental Engineering Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, 2004, pp. 5-25
[12] Reumonta G., Vogta J.B., Iosta A., Foct J., The effects of an Zn-Fe intermetallic-
containing coating on stress corrosion cracking behaviour of a hot-dip galvanized steel,
Surface and Coatings Technology, Volume 139, Issues 2–3, 15 May 2001, pp 265–271
[13] Schultz W-D., Thiele M. (2012), General Hot-Dip Galvanizing, Leuze Verlag,
Germany, ISBN 978-3-87480-262-8.
[14] Simion C., Rus M., Enulescu C., Comparative analisys of the methods used on
international level for cost estimation and price formation in construction activities, Acta
Technica Napocensis, 51, IV, 2008, pp. 73-80
[15] Sistonen, E., Peltola, S. (2005). Quality Specifications for Hot-Dip Galvanised
Reinforcement to Ensure the Target Service Life, Nordic Concrete Research - Research
Projects 2005, Proceedings Nordic Concrete Research Meeting, XIX Symposium on Nordic
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Norway, 12.-15.6.2005, Publication No. 33, pp. 133-134.
[16] Vermeşan H., Hegyi A., Rus V. (2014), Hot Dip Galvanizing in the Context of
Sustainable Development, Conferinţa de Cercetare în Construcţii, Economia Construcţiilor,
Urbanism şi Amenajarea Teritoriului, 9 Mai 2014, Bucuresti, Romania:, ISSN 2343-7537,
http://www.incd.ro/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/ATUAC7.pdf , 31-32
[17] ***Galvanizing and Sustainable construction. A specifiers‘guide
[18] ***Hot-Dip Galvanizing for Corrosion Protection: a Guide to Specifying and
Inspecting Hot-Dip Galvanized Reinforcing Steel, pp. 1-17
[19] ***Time to First Maintenance for Hot-Dip Galvanized Coatings, American
Galvanizers Association
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[20] ***Hot-Dip Galvanizing Costs Less, Lasts Longer, American Galvanizers
Association
[21] *** Performance of Hot-Dip Galvanized Steel Products, American Galvanizers
Association
[22] http://www.anaz.ro/
[23] http://www.egga.com/
[24] http://www.galvanizeit.org
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INTERNAL MIGRATION IN ROMANIA IN THE POST-COMMUNIST
DECADES: EVOLUTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., PhD, Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof.,
PhD, Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof., Phd, „Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: Nowadays, migration is a subject of great interest, as people continually look for
better living conditions. The present study approaches the Romanian migration issue in close
relationship with the demographic changes involved by this phenomenon. The data we used
were collected from various secondary sources such as statistical yearbooks and reports, and
was subsequently analysed and interpreted in accordance with the established objectives. We
intended to identify in our analysis the main reasons of migration, the areas from witch the
individuals are leaving and the regions towards witch they are directing to, the evolution of
the migration flows from the beginning of the ‘90s until present times, as well as the positive
and negative consequences of internal migration, in each region of the country. The
conclusions of the study reflect the fact that the individuals are motivated to migrate
especially by to the quality of the medical and educational services, by the easiness of finding
a job and by the higher incomes they could get in the destination areas. As expected, during
the analysed period, the main migration flows were directed towards the areas with a high
economic development. Thus, the West and Bucharest-Ilfov regions have a positive migration
balance, while the North-East, South East and South West areas show a negative balance. We
notice that, unlike in the 1990s, when the internal migration was from rural to urban areas,
after 2008, in the context of the economic-financial crisis, the direction of migration flows has
changed.
Keywords: internal migration, economic development, demographic changes, social changes,
human capital.
1. Introduction
The transition is a complex phenomenon, generating significant substitutions in the
socio-economic structures, during a certain period of time. At the same time, transition is a
comprehensive process aimed to achieve specific objectives. In the case of Romania, it
involved the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market one and from an
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undemocratic socio-political system to a democratic one, in the Western meaning of the word.
It was not an easy process, as a number of impediments have hampered and delayed the
reform steps. But, as Mises said, "there are no shortcuts to an earthly paradise. It takes time
and work" (Mises, 1998). However, after 25 years of major changes, the Romanian society
seems to be sufficiently changed not to resemble the country of the 1980s. But this result
involved sacrifices, failures, incoherencies and regrets. From all the shortcomings, those that
struck the citizens‘ wellbeing had the highest impact. Development inequalities between
Romania and other countries and among Romanian regions have generated an adjusting
effect, manifested by strong migration flows. There is nothing abnormal in the case of the
individuals who were looking for a marginal remuneration consistent with their expectations
(Haris-Todaro, 1970; Stark, 1991; Yap, 1977; Williamson, 1988). It is necessary to mention
that Haris and Todaro (1970) considered the income differences between regions to be more
important. Moreover, according to Hicks, the differences in net benefits, especially in wages,
are the main cause of migration (Hicks, 1932). Borjas (2008) also agrees with this statement,
saying that the expected earnings have to exceed the costs of migration. Unlike the
neoclassical approaches, which assume that migration occurs prior to find a job, the so called
searching theories assume that the migration takes place during or after finding a job at the
destination.
Migration occurs, most of the times, as a consequence of some economic, social,
political or even personal constraints. According to Miftode (1984), migration means
movement both within the social systems and between them, representing a "spatial
expression" of the desire for mobility. Other approaches see migration as a life strategy,
offering "a perspective of the sustainable relationship between goals and means" (Sandu,
2000), or as a form of protest to the changes and of abandonment of a society where one does
not find a suitable place.
If, most of the times, migration involves benefits for the migrants, at least material
ones, it is not very clear what the effects of migration are on the origin and destination
regions. Most of the approaches regarding migration address this issue from the cross-border
perspective. However, we should not neglect the internal migration, such as rural-urban,
urban-rural and underdeveloped-developed regions. This type of migration is determined,
most of the times, by aspects related to the labour market. Some authors believe that the
migration decision is also influenced by the opportunities offered by the destination region
(Korpi and Clark, 2013). Following this approach, Mariangela (2012) considers that prices of
real estates and rents, pollution, population density and crime rate are equally compelling
reasons to take the decision of moving to another region.
Trying to synthesize, the International Organization for Migration divides the
migration determinants in two categories (Deshingkar and Grimm, 2005): push factors (low
living standard, lack of jobs and poverty) and pull factors (high wages, higher living standard,
individual freedom and possibility of finding a better job).
If we consider the advantages and disadvantages of migration, then the approaches
can be divided into two categories: optimistic and pessimistic ones.
The optimists, who highlight the benefits of migration, belong especially to the
neoclassical school. According to the neoclassical theory, any economic activity reaches an
optimal point if the factors of production are marginally rewarded. For example, the owners
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of the labour are in search of the best remuneration while the employers are looking for the
lowest costs. The interaction between supply and demand leads to an increased mobility of the
labour and to an equilibrium of the wages. Moreover, mobility eliminates the shortage or the
abundance in certain areas, solving the problem of unemployment or that of the unjustified
increase of the labour force price. However, some authors consider that migration leads to the
accumulation of experience, to the acquiring new skills and knowledge and to the boost of
productivity. The remittances are also included among the advantages. The amount of money
sent to the families increases the living standards, improves children's education and may
stimulate the investments. The unemployment problem from certain underdeveloped areas can
be solved with the help of migration. The social pressure diminishes and, thus, a structural
solution for the problem can be found.
The pessimists consider migration a phenomenon which clearly disadvantages the
underdeveloped regions, depriving them of one of the most important growth factors: the
human capital. Studies show that, on the long term, the periphery to centre and the rural to
urban migrations lead to an increase of the development disparities. In most of the cases,
internal migration is permanent, the well trained individuals leaving the disadvantaged areas
definitively. However, there are several observations to make regarding this approach.
According to Borjas (2008), there are two types of individuals: the tide stayers – those people
willing to make personal sacrifices in order to stay with the partner who earns more in the
current location – and the tide movers – those who follow their partner even if this involves
lower revenues for him compared to those earned in the current location. When taking with
them their family, the remittance‘s argument no longer stands, the net loss being clear. Hence,
the vicious circle of underdevelopment no longer allows a readjustment of the phenomenon,
according to the scarcity of the production factors.
2. Internal migration in Romania
2.1. Literature overview
The internal migration phenomenon in Romania is significant and has amplified after
1990. During the last years of communism, the large urban centres were closed for the
migrants. Therefore, the pressure increased after removing these barriers, in 1990. A
significant flow of migrants from rural areas has put pressure on the labour markets of the
major cities.
According to Zaman and Vasile (2006), the dynamics of internal migration in
Romania has been influenced by demographic factors (number of population, population
growth rate, urbanization rate, population density, natural increase of population, population
structure by age and areas), by economic determinants (incomes and their distribution,
structural adjustments, activity rates, unemployment rate, investments, number and types of
jobs), by socio-cultural factors (historical relationships, literacy rate, participation rate in
secondary education, enrolment rate and consumption) and by political aspects
(democratization of the society and the rights/security of minorities).
Sandu (1984) believes that migration has historical roots, with specific features for the
analysed period. In a recent study, he shows that shock events, such as the ‘46-‘47 famine, the
deportations after the war, the forced industrialization in the ‘70s, the economic collapse of
the ‘90s have significantly influenced the migration phenomenon in Romania (Sandu, 2010).
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Other authors, such as Petre (2008) or Horvath (2008), have analysed the migration by age,
concluding that migration of young people is a representative feature of this phenomenon,
especially after 1990. Thus, as Kupiszewski et al. (1997) also mentioned, in Romania, a large
part of the migrants are young people, more often single than married and better educated and
prepared to take higher risks than the stayers.
Even though sex differences are not as significant as those between ages, empirical
evidences show that in Romania more and more women are migrating for work and not just as
accompanying spouses. In fact, as Deshingkar and Grimm (2005) noticed, the feminization of
migration is one of the main recent changes of population movement.
Many researchers consider that, from the demographical point of view, there are
several very important and visible effects of migration in Romania after 1989. First of all, we
can see that certain regions confront with the demographic aging problem due to the
migration of a large part of the young population (especially those between 20 and 35 years
old). The impact of this fact is felt by the labour market, because the share of the active
population decreases, augmenting the pressure on those who remained home to support the
elderly (Bălaşa, 2005), and also by the social services and educational systems (Sime and
Eşanu, 2005). Secondly, those areas with a large number of emigrants face a declining fertility
rate, changes in the gender and age pyramid and in the families‘ dimension.
2.2. Empirical findings
In 1990, the internal migration rate registered its highest level from the communist and
post-communist period (33.9‰), as a result of the cancellation of some restrictive legislation
regarding the free movement of persons (National Institute of Statistics – NIS, 2008).
Surprisingly, however, we notice that in 1991 the internal migration rate dropped sharply, to
11.3‰. An explanation for this could be the fact that many of the migrants registered in 1990
were de facto residents in those towns, who then had the opportunity to legalize their
residence.
Analysing the statistical data, we see that between 1991 and 2000 the internal
migration rate had a sinuous evolution, with ups and downs, the average rate being 12.12‰.
However, the migratory flows have increased especially after 2001, the highest value of the
internal migration rate, since 1990, being of 21.4‰, in 2010 (see Figure 1). Considering that
the first effects of the nowadays crisis have been felt in Romania only starting with the end of
2008, we can assume that the unfavourable economic situation from certain regions
determined a large part of population to change its residence in 2010, looking for better living
conditions.
Figure no. 1. Internal migration in Romania determined by permanent residence
changing, during 1990-2011 (rates per 1000 inhabitants)
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Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
Starting with 1990 and up to 1995, Romania faced the so-called ―rural exodus‖, the
rural-urban flow reaching the highest share in 1990: 69.8% of all migrants (NIS, 2008).
Several causes of this phenomenon can be found, such as the willingness to earn more, to
have access to a wider range of jobs and to better educational and sanitary systems.
In 1995 and 1996 we can see that the percentage of those migrating from rural to
urban, urban to urban, rural to rural and urban to rural are very close. However, the highest
value was registered by the flows from rural to rural areas.
Starting with 1997, the Romanian demography has faced a historical change: the
number of the rural emigrants was constantly surpassed by the number of those who came
into this space. Therefore, between 1997 and 2011 the urban-rural migration rate was about
30% of all the internal migrants (NIS, 2008; NIS, 2012). As we can see, the number of those
who were attracted by the rural areas has increased not only in the context of the economic-
financial crisis, but also during the more prosperous periods. This fact leads us to the
conclusion that the urban unemployment has determined a large number of people to return to
agriculture and, moreover, that more and more people want to invest in the rural areas.
According to the data offered by the National Institute of Statistics (2008 and 2012),
between 1990 and 2011, the most mobile population segment was the working age group 15
to 59, followed by the age group 0 to 14 years, while the share of the elderly population
registered the lowest rate of internal migration of all residence changes. We notice that the
young persons (15 to 34 years old) have migrated the most, totalling between 64% and 74%
of the migrants‘ age segment 15-59, during the analysed period.
Analysing the statistical data regarding the internal migration determined by
permanent residence change, by age group and area, it is obvious the fact that, if between
1990 and 1991 most of the people, from all age groups, preferred to migrate to urban areas
than to the rural ones, the situation has changed since 1992 (see Table 1). During the entire
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period 1992-2011, most of those included in the youngest segment moved to the rural areas.
Moreover, according to the statistics, after 1995 most of the migrants aged between 40 and 59
have preferred the rural areas.
Table no. 1. Age groups for which migration to rural areas prevailed during 1992-
2011
Years Age groups
1992-1994 Under 15
1995 Under 19 and between 45-54
1996 Under 19 and between 45-59
1997-1999 Under 19 and between 35-59
2000 Under 19 and between 35 and over
2001-2003 Under 19 and between 40-59
2004 Under 19 and between 40 and over
2005-2006 Under 19 and between 40-59
2007-2010 Under 19 and between 40 and over
2011 Under 19 and between 45 and over
Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
The statistical data collected over time show that, between 1990 and 2011, the internal
migration rate was always superior in the case of women than in that of men (see Figure 2).
The highest differences between the percentages of the men and women who migrated were
registered in 2001, while in 1990 the percentages was almost equal.
Figure no. 2. Internal migration determined by permanent residence changing, by sex,
between 1990 and 2011
Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
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Analysing the internal migration among the development regions we found out that the
situation did not change too much between 2007 and 2011. Therefore, while the rural
migration had a positive balance in all the eight development regions, the urban migration had
a negative balance, except for the region Bucharest-Ilfov, where in 2011 a positive balance
was registered. This fact indicates that the number of the in-migrants in rural areas is larger
than the number of the out-migrants, unlike the urban areas where the situation is reversed.
The region with the highest negative global balance of migration was North-East, both
in 2007 and 2011, followed by South-West Oltenia, South-East and, at a far distance, by the
Centre region. Among the favourite destinations of the out-migrants from the North-East
regions are the Centre, West and Bucharest-Ilfov regions (Daedalus Millward Brown, 2011).
Regarding the evolution of the in-migrants in North-East, since it is the poorest region of the
country, we notice that most of the population has chosen to move into the rural areas than
into the urban ones. In the South-East region, the only county which had a positive global
balance of migration in 2007 and 2011 was Constanta. Meanwhile, Braila and Galati recorded
the highest negative global balance of migration. A study conducted in 2011 by Daedalus
Millward Brown showed that the out-migrants from the urban areas of the South-East region
go either to the rural areas from the North-East region or to Bucharest-Ilfov. A large part of
those who migrate from South-West Oltenia also go to the capital, looking for a better living
standard.
A significant change occurred in the South-Muntenia region in 2011 compared to
2007. If in 2007 the number of the in-migrants was larger than that of the out-migrants, in
2011 a negative global balance of migration was registered. The only regions with positive
migration balance both in 2007 and 2011 were North-West, West and Bucharest-Ilfov
regions. It is not surprising since they have a high economic development level and offer job
opportunities in almost all the fields. However, compared to all other regions, Bucharest-Ilfov
has the highest attractiveness, being the largest economic, cultural, educational and political
centre.
3. Conclusions
After 1990, as a result of the cancellation of the restrictions regarding the persons‘
right of free movement, the internal migration augmented very much. However, a year after, it
dropped sharply, by one-third. Between 1992 and 2000 the internal migration rate had a
sinuous evolution, but staring with 2001 it increased very much, the highest level being
reached in 2010.
Analysing the information included in various statistical yearbooks and reports, we
found out several major aspects related to the internal migration in Romania. First of all,
regarding the directions of the migrants, we saw that if during the 6 years after the collapse of
communism there was a rural exodus, starting with 1997 the situation has changed. The
number of the in-migrants in rural areas overpassed the number of the out-migrants, the
urban-rural migration rate being approximately 30% between 1997 and 2011.
Secondly, we noticed that the most mobile age segment of population was represented
by the young people, especially those less than 19 years old, followed by those aged between
19 and 34. Most of migrants under 19 years old preferred the rural areas to the urban ones.
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Thirdly, during all the analysed period (1990-2011), the internal migration rate was
superior in the case of women than in that of men, fact that indicates that women became
more mobile and willing to improve their living conditions, not only to follow their partner
when moving to another region.
Last but not least, another significant conclusion of our empirical analysis shows that
while three of the development regions of the country (North-West, West and Bucharest-
Ilfov) had a positive migration balance during the period 2007-2011, other four regions
(North-East, South-West Oltenia, South-East and Centre) registered each year a negative
migration balance. Looking at the values, we can confirm the fact that the least developed
region (North-East) has the highest negative internal migration balance, most of the out-
migrants looking for a higher living standard in a more developed region. Meanwhile, the
highest positive internal migration balance can be found in Bucharest-Ilfov, the most
developed region of the country, which attracts the migrants from all the other regions.
As a final remark, we may say that the consequences for the areas that are losing
population are severe on the long term, as the effects are magnified by the loss of reproductive
capacity for the original community, transferred by the young people to the benefit of other
communities.
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Stark, O., (1991), The migration of labor, Oxford: Blackwell.
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THE IMPACT OF FISCAL PRESSURE IN THE CONTEMPORARY ECONOMY
Boby Costi, Assist. Prof., PhD, Marius Boiţă, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Eugen Remeş,
Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Vasile Goldiș” University of the West, Arad
Abstract: For this article is departed from the pressure analysis and fiscal policy in Romania
carried out on the basis of the standard theory of taxation, taking advantage of its general
coordinates as they were founded and formulated by great specialists in the field.
Analysis of fiscal policy in contemporary Romania lies in the relationship between the
general theory of taxation, the coordinates of the fiscal policies and concrete-historical
aspects of them in to time and space.
Fund units, the interdependence between genres state, human community types and
fiscal policies was synthetically expressed by the economist and sociologist Joseph
Schumpeter: „The spirit of a people, the culture, social structure, political facts, all this and
more can be found in its fiscal history. The one who knows how to listen to this message will
understand much better the turmoil of human history‖).
Another methodological basic principle was exposed, in a much broader concept, by
Romanian-born American Economist Nicolas Georgescu Roegen as follows: „The assertion
that the fundamental principles of the universal economy are valid can be true only in terms
of their form.
Their content is determined by the institutional framework. In the absence of
institutional content, principles are nothing but „empty boxes‖ from which we get „empty
generalities‖.
Society is not a constant entity; it evolves continuously in many forms varying both in
time and in place.
Keywords: gross domestic product, taxes, excise taxes, expenses, taxpayer.
JEL Classification: H20, H21, H26
INTRODUCTION
The term fiscal pressure is used extensively in the literature and in fiscal policy to
determine the extent of redistribution of national income (gross domestic product) by means
of the payment/receipt of taxes.
Sometimes they ignore the quality of tax payers (individual households, private
companies, public companies, joint ventures).
At other times, fiscal pressure is only defined at individual taxpayers, taxpayers of
direct taxes.
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There are situations when the appreciation of this pressure is taken into consideration
all kinds of state receipts, all sources of budget revenues (direct and indirect taxes, excise
duties, taxes of all kinds).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Conceptual distinctions
In a general sense, the fiscal pressure is a specialized term that expresses the average
intensity of the load or the obligation to all taxpayers to pay taxes to the central government's
power and the local authorities (Dictionary economics, 2001).
This relationship is known as a tax coefficient which is calculated as a percentage ratio
between payments/tax gains and gross domestic product or a report of other macroeconomic
indicator results (gross national product, gross domestic product).
The magnitude and dynamics of the fiscal pressure is measuring and assessment
through the rate of taxation.
The size of this rate indicates the proportion of national income taken by the state,
established by law or regulation.
A special form of the rate in question is marginal rate of taxation, which is the ratio of
the increase in tax obligations of taxpayers and the increase national income. This may be
bigger, equal or less than the average tax rate.
Both the average rate of taxation and the marginal rate of taxation have great
importance. Sizes and their dynamics are integrated into the strategy foundation for economic
growth and social development in the insurance policies of economic stability and promote
social justice.
Low rate of taxation implies a low pressure on taxpayers and relatively low receipts
from the state budget and local government budgets.
The concept of neoliberal authors is that a taxation rate like this can boost the overall
effort to achieve stability of the national income available for accelerating economic growth
and therefore lead to an increase in tax revenues to the budget.
High rate of taxation, especially a marginal tax rate rising, could give rise to tax
evasion, tax fraud, a decrease in the gross domestic product, so as a last resort, a decrease in
tax revenue to the State budget.
The optimal rate of taxation or fiscal pressure consists of that threshold up to which
tax and tax revenue beyond which are smaller.
An analytical tool which presents the optimal tax rate is the Laffer curve, named after
the American professor who explained the optimal relationship between the tax rate and the
size of the revenue collected for the state budget (The MIT Dictionary of Modern Economics,
1992). The American Professor Arthur Laffer has insisted that a rate that exceeds the
optimum level has a chilling effect on investors and employees.
2.2. Angles of approach and analysis of the fiscal pressure
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Fiscal pressure is deepened by taking into consideration the various planes of her
showing at the national level, at the level of individual taxpayers, the economic agents:
(a) Fiscal pressure at the national level has primarily in view the need for collecting
resources to cover public expenditure. Fiscal pressure is represented by the tax rate, which is
calculated as a ratio between total public financial resources obtained by the state in the form
of taxes and duties of a fiscal nature, and a macro-economic indicator of results (as a rule, the
indicator used is gross domestic product). The calculation formula is as follows (Anghelache
G., Belean P, 2003):
R fp
X 100
rf = PIB
(1)
where:
rf = tax rate;
Rfp = public financial resources of a fiscal nature;
PIB = the gross domestic product.
In total financial resources collected by the state are included along with taxes and
duties of a fiscal nature, the compulsory contributions paid by employers and employees for
the purpose of dedicating funds for the support of social security.
(b) Individual tax pressure shows the value that the taxpayer gives up or rather is
forced to drop relative to the size of his income in a given period of time. In this way, the
financial pressure causes changes in fiscal economic and social behavior of the taxpayer
because of the changes that occur at the level of consumption, but also saving, being regarded
as a psychological pressure, which examines the tax threshold of tolerance.
If the fiscal pressure is too high, this can have effects contrary to those pursued by the
country concerned, because taxpayers tend to alter economic behavior. However, we note that
there is a tendency to increase the level of compulsory levies, even if it causes a drop in
revenues. An explanation to this situation brings the model devised by two American
economists (J.M. Buchanan and D.B. Lee), a model that is built around two main ideas
(Greffe, X., 1997):
■ taxpayer reacts to changing tax rate being at a higher level or lower for taxation
depending on the situation;
■ the existence of a differentiation between short-term and long-term behavior;
The demand is inelastic in the short term, but long term can become elastic.
(c) Fiscal pressure at the level of an entity is the greater the share of taxes in the value
added by the operator is higher. The taxpayers are individuals and businesses. Obviously,
they are forced to pay various taxes to the state so from their point of view there is a fiscal
pressure.
The fiscal pressure of an economic agent is calculated as the ratio of taxes paid by the
operator and the value added to it. The obligations for payment shall include: income tax,
national health insurance and other taxes (buildings tax, land tax etc).
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Fiscal pressure felt by the economic agent is enlarged by indirect taxes, even if they
are not borne by the firm; they influence the volume of output, as well as competitiveness
through price.
2.3. Differentiations in terms of fiscal pressure
Fiscal pressure can fluctuate, depending on the fiscal policy adopted by the state, but it
is influenced by economic and political events, etc.
Precisely because of these influences it may be considered that fiscal pressure has
several limitations of a psycho-political, economical order (Hoanta Nicolae, 1997).
The limits of psychological and political reactions occur as a result of divergent
taxpayers due to increased compulsory levies, when they are considered too high.
Taxpayers in these situations resort to tax evasion, fraud; they reduce productive
activities and in the most severe cases occur riots and protests.
Economic limits are manifested especially in times when the compulsory levies are
growing very high. They can lead to a reduction of employment, savings and investments, as
well as the weakening of the entrepreneurial spirit.
The compensations induced by fiscal pressure. Compulsory levies in addition to
the negative aspect have a number of benefits directed to taxpayers because of public
spending funding.
The size of the fiscal pressure should not be regarded strictly as relative value obtained
in different countries to be able to make comparisons between them. It is necessary to take
into account the purchasing power of incomes that remain after tax. There are situations
where even if in different countries we meet the same fiscal pressure, the conditions are
totally different, since the remaining income after tax it is or not enough for subsistence
needs.
Through the fiscal policy adopted, states must be careful not to increase fiscal pressure
too much in trying to maximize tax revenues obtained, because the opposition to compulsory
levy increase can be manifested in many ways, generating adverse phenomena and processes
(Brezeanu P., 1999):
■ Risks of decline of productive efforts. It is known that a high fiscal pressure will
lead to discouraging taxpayers, whether individuals or legal entities, to invest, to save, to
produce work.
■ Political resistance. These resistances are taking different forms over time and
manifest itself as absolute claims for lower taxes, but also by taking a stand by voting.
■ Fraud and tax evasion. These practices have always existed, but they can be
stimulated to become the rule in situations in which compulsory levies are high.
■ The risk of inflation through taxation. Increasing tax rates has a direct effect on
prices set by manufacturers, thus trying to recover through price what they pay in the form of
taxes and social contributions.
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■ The demands of international competition. Any country succeeds by its own
competitiveness to determine growth and increased living standards.
Increasing taxes for businesses has as a result the reduction of the opportunities which
they have in competition with similar foreign companies.
Considering the rise of all contributions to be paid, it will always remain on the
question what is the maximum size which the fiscal pressure is allowed to reach, so as not to
obstruct economic and social behavior of the taxpayer, and the financial resources obtained by
the state to be the expected ones.
It is difficult to determine the optimal amount, to the extent that it would lead to
achieving all the macroeconomic and macrosociale set objectives.
High taxation removes potential investors, but mostly causes taxpayers to seek
measures to avoid the payment of various obligations [more or less legal measures] (Gorcea
C., 1997).
The ability to avoid higher tax pressure and simultaneously getting income is
represented by loans. However, recourse to loans, in an attempt to reduce the tax burden, is a
valid method only for short intervals.
Over long intervals of time, not only that fiscal pressure is not reduced, but because
these loans can grow, if the amounts borrowed have been unreasonable.
Lately it has been noticed an increase in fiscal pressure, which is explained by the
intervention of the state to a greater degree, both in the economy and in society (Ionescu C.,
2004).
We affirm this fact, since the financial resources gathered represent a fundamental
source to cover government spending, and the financial resources and fiscal pressure had the
same evolution as the public spending that is growing over time.
CONCLUSIONS
Taxation can occupy an important role in improving the current situation or in
providing a supportive environment for economic activities. It can be use two different
methods, both by making reference to the way it manages the fiscal pressure.
It can appeal to a high financial pressure, in which the state builds up a significant part
of gross domestic product at his disposal, thereby restricting the financial resources that
people might have. In this context, the state by taking over a significant part of the financial
resources can offer people a wider range of public goods and services, because it has limited
the population's access to goods and services acquired directly from the private market.
The second possibility is expressed through a reduced fiscal pressure. This has the
effect of acquisition of greater financial resources by population in return for which the state
will collect a small part of gross domestic product. The upshot is an increase in the quantities
of goods and services purchased on the private market and a decrease in the size of public
goods and services offered by the state.
In both situations, the importance is the way in which financial resources are managed.
If these resources are not used effectively, the population will feel the fiscal pressure with
greater severity and will feel more burdened than in reality.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Anghelache Gabriela, Belean P. (2003). Public finance of Romania, Economic
Publishing House Bucharest, p. 115
2. Brezeanu Petre (1999). Taxation, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 133-
138
3. Georgescu R., Nicolae I. (1979). The entropy law and the economic process,
Political Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 520
4. Gorcea Corneliu (1997). Sanctions and penalties tax code, Economic Tribune
Publishing House, Bucharest
5. Greffe Xavier (1997). Economie des politiques publique, seconde edition, Dalloz
6. Hoanta Nicolae (1997). Tax evasion, Economic Tribune Publishing House,
Bucharest
7. Ionescu Cornel (2004). State Flourishing, Economic Publishing House
8. Schumpeter Joseph (2002). History of Economic Analysis , in Lipsey – Christal –
Principles of economy, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, p. 657
9. *** Dictionary of Economics, Second Edition, (2001), Economic Publishing House,
Bucharest, p. 367
10. *** The MIT Dictionary of Modern Economics, (1992), MIT Press Editions, p. 238
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A PRELIMINARY MODEL TO ASSESS THE COMPANY’S READINESS FOR
AN ISO / IEC 27001:2013 INFORMATION SECURITY MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
Bogdan Ţigănoaia, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Politehnica” University of Bucharest
Abstract: An Information Security Management System is one of the modern solutions in
order to assure information security in an organization. Through an ISMS, the necessary
framework for achieving the organizational objectives and efficiency and efficacy is assured.
The paper presents some aspects regarding the news / changes in ISO / IEC 27001:2013
international standard, an analysis regarding the correlation between business needs and
features and benefits of the ISO 27001:2013 standard. There is also proposed a model to
assess the organization‘s readiness for an ISO / IEC 27001:2013 Information Security
Management System. It is a self-assessment of the organization through the proposed model
which allows to identify where is the organization in the ISO / IEC 27001 process. The self-
assessment can be also considered for an organization a starting point in a further decision
regarding the implementation in the company (quickly or not, depending on the level of
readiness) of an ISMS according to new international standard, ISO 27001:2013.
Keywords: information security, management systems, self-assessment, organization‘s
readiness, ISO standards.
1. Introduction
Information security in an organization is very important in achieving protection,
predictability and finally profit. According to B.S.I. Group (British Standards Institution),
successful businesses understand the value of accurate information and secrecy. One modern
solution (with a lot of advantages – see chapter 2) to achieve security for organizational
information is through an ISMS - Information Security Management System, according to the
international standard ISO/IEC 27001:2013. A first step in a further decision regarding the
adoption of an ISMS according to ISO / IEC 27001:2013 is a self-assessment, through a
(preliminary) model, in order to establish the level of company‘s readiness for an ISO
27001:2013 Information Security Management System.
An organization can be in one of the following situations:
in the organization is implemented and certified an ISMS according to ISO
27001:2005 and the company is interested to make the self-assessment (use the
model) in order to see where is in the ISO 27001 process (related to the
requirements of ISO 27001:2013). Based on a guide for transition from ISO
27001:2005 to ISO 27001:2013, the organization can achieve (quickly or not,
depending on the level of readiness) the requirements of the new standard;
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in the organization is not implemented an ISMS and the company is
interested to make the self-assessment (use the model) in order to see where is
in the ISO 27001 process (related to the requirements of ISO 27001:2013). If
the organization has a high level of readiness, it is an easier and quicker
process of implementation and certification. If not, the organization must have
attention regarding the requirements and more work is necessarily in order to
implement and certify an ISMS.
2. News in ISO 27001:2013. The correlation between the business needs and
features& benefits of the standard
The previous version (2005) of the ISO 27001 was replaced by a new version in 2013.
There are a lot of changes in the newer version of the standard, some of them are
presented below:
changes to the structure of the standard - the new structure of the standard
is aligned with Annex SL to Part 1 of the ISO/IEC Directives. It is intended
that all management system standards will adopt this format at their next
revision. This will introduce further consistency for organizations that have
integrated management systems that cover multiple standards, such as ISO
9001, Quality Management Systems and ISO 14001, Environmental
Management Systems [1]. The new structure of the ISO/IEC 27001:2013 is:
0. Introduction
1. Scope
2. Normative references
3. Terms and definitions
4. Context of the organization
5. Leadership
6. Planning
7. Support
8. Operation
9. Performance evaluation
10. Improvement
some new requirements were introduced (selection - the number of chapter
in the standard):
4.2(a); 4.3(c);
5.1(b);
6.1.1(a); 6.2(b);
7.3(a); 7.4(a);
8.1;
9.1(c); 9.1(d); 9.1(f);
10.1(a); 10.1(a)(1); 10.1(a)(2); 10.1(e); 10.1(f).
some requirements were eliminated (selection):
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4.3.3 the controls needed for the identification, storage, protection,
retrieval, retention time and disposition of records shall be
documented and implemented [2].
8.3(e) the revision of the taken preventive actions;
8.2, 8.3 the documented procedure for corrective and preventive
actions must define requirements in this direction;
requirements for documented information – in ISO 27001:2013 there are
requirements for documented information, not for documented procedures and
records, as in ISO 27001:2005. According to the new version of the standard
[3], the following documented information are mandatory for certification:
ISMS scope ( 4.3)
Information security policy ( 5.2)
Information security risk assessment process (6.1.2)
Information security risk treatment process (6.1.3)
Statement of Applicability (6.1.3 d))
Information security objectives ( 6.2)
Evidence of the competence of the people ( 7.2)
Documentation information determined as being necessarily for
effectiveness ( 7.5.1b)
Operational planning and control information (8.1)
The results of the information security risk assessments (8.2)
The results of information security risk treatment (8.3)
Evidence of the monitoring and measurement results (9.1)
Evidence of the audit program(s) and the audit results (9.2)
Evidence of the results of management reviews of the ISMS (9.3)
Evidence of the nature of nonconformities identified and any
subsequent actions taken and corrective actions (10.1)
In the next section, an analysis (based on [4]) regarding the correlation between the
business needs and features and benefits of the ISO 27001 standard is presented.
Table 1. The correlation between business needs, features of the standard and benefits
Business need Feature of the Benefits (what is useful for the
standard business in the standard)
Fewer incidents.
Procedure for the Fewer disruptions.
To reduce risk of incidents identification of Less time spent on
and to assure information relevant risks, responding to accidents and
security understanding of how incidents.
the risk is formed and More time to spend on
evaluation of proactive measures.
improvements. Lower client audit
requirements.
Less resource spent on
To attract more clients and Operational controls to finding new customers and
investors. be in place. investors.
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1. To protect and enhance Less negative press
reputation. meaning less time and money
2. Confidence in spent on damage limitation
organization to all Operational controls to measures.
interested parties be in place Better able to reassure
3. Market assurance (an customers, internal and external
ISMS is a powerful interested parties.
marketing instrument) Opportunities for positive
PR.
1. Roles and
responsibilities to
be defined.
2. Staff to be trained Greater productivity.
Informed business decision and competent. Less time and money spent
making. 3. Worker on responding to incidents.
communication,
participation
and consultation in the
ISMS required.
1. Operating controls to Understanding of business
To control information but be in place. information processes.
not unduly affect business 2. Procedures for Better able to reassure
processes. overview and testing customers and internal parties.
to be in place.
3. A model to assess the organization’s readiness for an ISO / IEC 27001:2013
Information Security Management System
According to A. A. Purcarea (2003) [6], a model is the representation of a system
which indicates an image of reality (a system of objects, phenomenon, concepts). The models
can be classified in (selection, function of the science which they operate in) [7]:
Economical models;
Sociological models
Biological models
Organizational models etc.
In another classification, function of the tool used for their description, the models can
be [7]:
Graphical models;
Analogical models;
Mathematical models;
Physical models;
Reference models etc.
The steps for elaboration of a model are [6]:
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The wording of the model – the first step has a preparatory target, the system
studied must be well-known; the wording of the problem, what the model is
prepared for, implies the existence of clear and valuable information;
The elaboration of the model – the second step consists of the application of some
tools used for pattern making; the correlation between the results and the tools
used must be done;
The validation of the model – the implementation of the model in a real system and
then the improvement of the model or simplification of it (if it is possible). The
quality of the model can be evaluated by comparison between the working of the
model and the system.
The implementation and certification of an Information Security Management System
in an organization according to ISO 27001 provides confidence to all interested parties
(stakeholders) – clients, business partners etc. The assessment, through a model, of the
company‘s readiness for an ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System is an
important step done before the implementation and certification of an ISMS. This paper
proposes such a model that is based on the ISO 27001:2013 (and other standards from ISO
27000 family) international standard and tries to bring together, through an original thinking,
aspects and requirements presented in international standards in the field of information
security. The proposed model is especially suitable for organizations (all types and
dimensions) that already have implemented (and certified) an ISMS according to ISO
27001:2005 and want to achieve the new requirements of the ISO 27001:2013, or have the
intention to implement and certify an ISMS according to ISO 27001:2013. The model is not
an exhaustive one, it is very difficult to do that. All organizations are different and this model
needs to be interpreted in the context of the individual needs of each organization. The
organization is helped to make a self-assessment / analysis of its readiness for an ISO/IEC
27001 Information Security Management System.
The model was designed related to the new structure of the ISO 27001:2013 and some
aspects are based on [5]. It has the following elements / modules that are presented in the
Figure 1. and detailed below:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ISO 27001:2013
LEADERSHIP PLANNING OUTPUT
INPUT
The commitment of the The level of
top management readiness
SUPPORT OPERATION
PERFORMANCE
IMPROVEMENT
EVALUATION
SECURITY
CONTROLS
Figure 1.The preliminary model to assess the company‘s readiness for an ISO/IEC
27001 ISMS
LEADERSHIP – 19 points:
Does the management of the organization provide commitment to the ISMS
(example: establishing the information security policy and objectives and
communicating the importance of meeting these objectives to the organization)
? – 5 points
Are the required resources to establish, implement, operate, monitor, review
and improve the ISMS determined and provided? - 5 points
Are responsibilities regarding information security assurance in organization
defined? – 4 points
Are there periodical courses for employees responsible for information security
assurance in organization? –3 points
Do employees responsible for information security assurance have the required
competence and training to perform their duties? – 2 points
PLANNING – 18 points:
Is there an approved information security policy? - 3 points
Has the scope and boundaries of the Information Security Management System
(ISMS) been defined? – 2 points
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The management of risks is very important in organization - have the levels of
risk been periodically estimated and determined as being within the acceptable
level or requiring risk treatment (have options for risk treatment been identified
and evaluated?) ? - 5 points
Has the business impact for loss of confidentiality, integrity and availability,
and the likelihood of security failures, been analysed and evaluated? – 3 points
Has a risk assessment method and the acceptable levels of risk been defined
and documented? – 3 points
Is there a Statement of Applicability? A SA is showing which controls from
ISO/IEC 27001 Annex A have been selected, the reasons for selection or non-
selection, and the status of implementation - 2 points
SUPPORT – 5 points:
Are the documented information - documents and records, related to the
information security management system managed and controlled according to
defined procedures? – 5 points
OPERATION – 17 points:
Is there a risk treatment plan (actions, resources etc) for managing information
security risks? – 4 points
Has the risk treatment plan been implemented? – 4 points
Is the operation of the ISMS (including the resources that are necessarily)
being managed? – 4 points
Have controls (for detection and response to security incidents) been
implemented? – 3 points
Has a training and awareness programme been implemented? – 2 points
PERFORMANCE EVALUATION – 15 points:
The internal ISMS audits are conducted at planned intervals – 3 points
Are there monitoring and reviewing activities or processes to detect processing
errors, attempted or successful security breaches, performance of people and/or
technology, prevention of security events and to determine whether actions
taken are effective? [5] – 3 points
Are regular reviews of effectiveness undertaken using the results of audits,
incidents, measurements and feedback from interested parties? [5] – 3 points
Are risks (the acceptable level, residual risks etc) reviewed at planned
intervals? – 3 points
Management reviews of the ISMS are made at planned intervals – 3 points
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IMPROVEMENT – 6 points:
Are improvements identified, implemented and evaluated (in order to achieve
the organizational objectives)? – 3 points
Are appropriate corrective and preventive actions identified and implemented?
– 3 points
SECURITY CONTROLS – 20 points: according to the author‘s experience and
thinking a list of important security controls is proposed:
The organization has an access control policy (rules for audit logs of user
activities, system events, access to operating systems, removable media, access
to network, management of privileges and passwords, user registration
procedure etc) based on business and security requirements – 3 points
Are networks managed and controlled in order to protect from threats and
maintain security for systems and application, and is there an agreement in
place to maintain these security requirements? [5] – 3 points
Do you take regular backups of information and software, and are backups
tested regularly in accordance with an agreed backup policy? [5] – 3 points
Information security risks from external parties are identified by the
organization – 3 points
The assets are inventoried (an asset has an owner and rules for use) - 2 points
Do you perform background verification checks of all candidates for
employment – in accordance with relevant regulations and in proportion to
business requirements? [5] – 2 points
There is in organization a physical security perimeter (for security sensitive
areas etc) – 2 points
Do you have confidentiality and / or non-disclosure agreements within your
conditions of employment and contracts with suppliers? [5] – 2 points
Regarding the level of readiness, some thresholds can be proposed as follows:
80-100 points: high level of readiness;
60-80 points: good level of readiness;
30-60 points: satisfactory level of readiness;
<30 points: not satisfactory level of readiness.
4. Final aspects
The paper helps the organizations to discover news, features and benefits of the ISO
27001:2013 international standard related to the business needs. The proposed model is a tool
that can be used by organizations to assess the company‘s readiness for an ISO 27001:2013
Information Security Management System. The model, by its output / results, helps an
organization to identify where it is in the ISO 27001 process. The model / self-assessment can
be also considered for organizations an important starting point in a further decision regarding
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the implementation and certification of an ISMS according to ISO 27001:2013 in the
company.
Acknowledgements
The work has been funded by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources
Development 2007-2013 of the Ministry of European Funds through the Financial Agreement
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132395.
References
[1] SAI Global report – New ISO/IEC 27001:2013 Information Security Management
Systems, http://www.saiglobal.com/, accessed in 2014.
[2] B.S.I. report: Mapping between the requirements of ISO/IEC 27001:2005 and
ISO/IEC 27001:2013, 2014.
[3] ISO 27k family of standards (http://www.iso.org/iso/).
[4] BSI report: ISO 27001 Information Security - Features and benefits, accessed in
2014.
[5] B.S.I. document: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - Self-
assessment questionnaire, accessed in 2014.
[6] Purcărea A. A, Management şi inginerie industrială. Modele matematice, Ed.
Niculescu, Bucuresti, p. 320, 2003.
[7] C. Fisher., Researching and Writing a Dissertation, 2nd edition, FT Prentice Hall,
2007.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
PARTICULARITIES OF COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS IN CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS
Cezar Simion-Melinte, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Economic Studies,
Bucharest
Abstract: Cost - benefit analysis is a method of assessing a project that quantifies in monetary
terms the value of all the effects of the project on the investor and / or society. The main
purpose of cost - benefit analysis is to base funding decisions and implementation of
construction projects. Cost-benefit analysis can be done ex - ante, ex post, during the project
or during project operation. The analysis can aim a comparison between ex-ante and ex-post.
This comparison is very useful to determine the effectiveness of a cost benefit analysis as a
tool for evaluation and decision making. The most commonly used is the ex-ante which is
usually done in the feasibility phase of construction projects.
Keywords: cost, benefit, analysis, construction, projects.
1. Introduction
The main objective of cost-benefit analysis is useful in making decisions for
construction projects or modernization / expansion / rehabilitation of existing ones. You must
determine whether the analysis is carried out adopting a local, regional, national, EU or global
level. Appropriate level of analysis to be determined in relation to the size and scope of the
project and in relation to group / area in which the project has a relevant impact.
The purpose of cost - benefit analysis is to identify and quantify (i.e to give a
monetary value to) all possible impacts of the action or project in question, in order to
determine appropriate costs and benefits. All impacts should be assessed: financial, economic,
social, environmental, etc.
2. Steps to achieve cost-benefit analysis
Cost - benefit analysis for construction projects is divided into seven stages:
Definition of objectives ;
Identify project ;
Feasibility and options analysis ;
Financial analysis ;
Economic analysis ;
Multi-criteria analysis;
Sensitivity and risk analysis.
The first step can be considered preliminary. The most important steps are the
financial and economic analysis. The purpose of financial analysis is to use the project's cash
flow projections to calculate the appropriate return rates: IRR and NPV financial .
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Projections regarding future trends of the project should be made for an adequate
period of its useful economic life and long enough to consider the impact on the medium /
long term. The choice of time horizon may have a crucial effect on the results of the
evaluation process. More specifically, the choice of the time horizon affects the calculation of
key indicators of cost-benefit analysis. The economic analysis evaluates the project's
contribution to the economic wellbeing of the region or country. It is made on behalf of the
entire company (region or country) instead of just the facility owner that the financial
analysis.
3. Typology of analysis cost – benefit
There are two main types of cost-benefit analysis. Cost-benefit analysis ex-ante, which
is a cost standard -beneficiu performed while a project is still anthem study before
implementing or starting to. Cost-benefit analysis is done you are ready to decide whether or
not scarce resources will be allocated for a specific construction project. Ex-ante analysis is
performed in the feasibility phase of the project. Usually in Romania, it is part of the
feasibility study. The contribution of cost-benefit decisions is direct, immediate and specific.
Cost - benefit analysis is carried out ex-post at the end of the project, when all costs
are allocated, meaning that resources have been used in the project. The value of ex-post
analysis is more comprehensive, but less direct because it provides information not only about
the project but about the final efficiency of resource allocation for the project. Ex-post
analysis can be an organizational learning tool for policy makers on the opportunity or
funding of certain projects.
Other cost - benefit analysis is conducted over the life of a project, ie in medias res.
Certain elements of this analysis are similar to those of ex-ante analysis while others are
similar to the ex-post analysis.
A special type of cost-benefit analysis are comparing an ex -ante with one ex post or in
medias res analysis for the same project. A similar type of cost-benefit comparison of greatest
utility for policy makers because it demonstrates the effectiveness of cost-benefit analysis in
terms of decision making.
Table no.1
Class of analysis
Comparisons
The value of ex ante/ ex
cost - benefit Ex - ante In medias res Ex-post post sau ex
ante/ in
medias res
If the analysis If already
is accurate, it allocated
The decision helps to select resources are
Too late, the As in medias
to allocate the best project low, the
project is res analysis or
resources to a or lead to the available
completed. ex post.
project decision to resources
continue or to could be
abandon the diverted. If
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
project. not, should
continue.
Poor
Finding the
estimation - Best estimate - Best estimate - As in medias
current value
uncertainty of reduce reduce res analysis or
of a particular
future benefits uncertainty. uncertainty ex post.
project
and costs.
Good. The
Very useful,
more is done
although errors
Contributing Unlikely to later, the
may occur and As in medias
to find out the have a contribution
require res analysis or
current value significant they grow.
adjustments ex post.
of similar contribution Adjusting for
for different
different
projects.
projects .
Provides
Research
information
omissions,
about errors
errors of
and the
estimating,
No No No accuracy of
measuring and
cost - benefit
evaluating the
analysis for
cost-benefit
similar
analysis
projects.
4.Case Study - cost-benefit analysis for the construction of a nursery
The building will have in plan dimensions of 19.80 mx 10.22 m and height of the
ground floor for a group: 18 children. Length of investment is 12 months. The estimated cost
of the investment was based on technical solutions for the project. The total investment for the
project "Construction of a nursery group" is 360,240 thousand lei including VAT Values
presented in euro has used an exchange rate of 4.2139 lei / euro at the rate BNR. Total cost
proposed investment objective is presented as general estimate. According to some specialists
‖not in all the analyzed methodologies calculation has as purpose the general quotation or the
quotation on object‖ (C.Simion, M.Rus and C.Enulescu, 2008).
For cost-benefit analysis were considered two options:
zero option (no investment) is a variant of the status quo which involves keeping the
current situation without making any investment. This option, however, would not
provide the minimum conditions for raising children whose parents want to re-engage.
maximum variant (variant with maximum investment) investment project involving
children's nursery with a group. This would increase the number of parents who want
to re-engage.
In the financial analysis were quantified income and expenses arising from
infrastructure created significant impact on local councils as beneficiaries of the investment.
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The discount rate used to determine indicators was 5%, a rate considered normal for
this type of project in the current socio-economic context.
Financial analysis resulted in two tables summarizing the cash flows for the chosen
option, as follows:
1.Table financial sustainability
2 Table of calculating the internal rate of return on equity investments
The values of the efficiency indices obtained are shown in the following table:
Table no.2
Results efficiency indicators for financial analysis of the project
Indicator Value
Internal Rate of Return
0,54%
(IRR)
Net Present Value (NPV)
150.422
(lei)
Benefice- cost ratio (RB/C) 1,088
Since the project is not generating income NPV is positive although this is not
significant because the project is important in terms of economic and social, so from the point
of view of economic analysis.
Table no.3
Verification of project sustainability
Year
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9
Specification 10
INPUTS
Financial
360.240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Resources
Income from
115.000 115.000 120.750 126.788 133.127 139.783 146.772 154.111 161.817
operations
Total inputs 360.240 115.000 115.000 120.750 126.788 133.127 139.783 146.772 154.111 161.817
OUTPUTS
Operation and
maintenance 0 79.988 113.470 112.564 114.495 115.640 117.123 118.628 120.155 121.703
costs
Investment
360.240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
costs
Total
360.240 79.988 113.470 112.564 114.495 115.640 117.123 118.628 120.155 121.703
outputs
Cash flow 0 35.012 1.530 8.186 12.293 17.487 22.660 28.144 33.956 40.113
Net Cash
0 29.410 1.530 8.186 12.293 17.487 22.660 28.144 33.956 40.113
flow
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Cumulative
Net Cash 0 29.410 30.940 39.126 51.419 68.906 91.567 119.711 153.667 193.780
Flow
Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year
Specification 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
INPUTS
Financial
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Resources
Income from
169.907 178.403 187.323 196.689 206.523 216.850 227.692 227.692 227.692 227.692
operations
Total inputs 169.907 178.403 187.323 196.689 206.523 216.850 227.692 227.692 227.692 227.692
OUTPUTS
Operation and
maintenance 123.275 124.507 125.752 128.484 131.316 134.254 119.148 128.824 139.355 142.724
costs
Investment
3.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
costs
Total
126.275 124.507 125.752 128.484 131.316 134.254 119.148 128.824 139.355 142.724
outputs
Cash flow 43.633 53.895 61.571 68.205 75.207 82.595 108.544 98.868 88.337 84.969
Net Cash
43.633 53.895 61.571 68.205 75.207 82.595 108.544 98.868 88.337 84.969
flow
Cumulative
Net Cash 237.413 291.308 352.879 421.084 496.292 578.887 687.431 786.299 874.636 959.605
Flow
Table no.4
Calculation of IRR Financial
Year
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9
Specification 10
INPUTS
Income from
project 0 0
financing
Income from
115.000 115.000 120.750 126.788 133.127 139.783 146.772 154.111 161.817
operations
Residual
value
Total inputs 0 115.000 115.000 120.750 126.788 133.127 139.783 146.772 154.111 161.817
OUTPUTS
Operation and 0 79.988 113.470 112.564 114.495 115.640 117.123 118.628 120.155 121.703
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maintenance
costs
Investment
costs 360.240 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total
outputs 360.240 79.988 113.470 112.564 114.495 115.640 117.123 118.628 120.155 121.703
-
Cash flow 360.240 35.012 1.530 8.186 12.293 17.487 22.660 28.144 33.956 40.113
Net Cash -
flow 360.240 35.012 1.530 8.186 12.293 17.487 22.660 28.144 33.956 40.113
The discount
rate 5%
The discount
factor (a=5%) 0,952 0,907 0,864 0,823 0,784 0,746 0,711 0,677 0,645 0,614
Net present -
value 343.086 31.757 1.322 6.735 9.632 13.049 16.104 19.049 21.889 24.626
Revenues to
date 0 104.308 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341
Costs to date 343.086 72.552 98.019 92.607 89.710 86.292 83.237 80.292 77.453 74.715
Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year Year
Specification 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
INPUTS
Income from
project
financing
Income from
operations 169.907 178.403 187.323 196.689 206.523 216.850 227.692 227.692 227.692 227.692
Residual
value
Total inputs 169.907 178.403 187.323 196.689 206.523 216.850 227.692 227.692 227.692 227.692
OUTPUTS
Operation
and
maintenance
costs 123.275 124.507 125.752 128.484 131.316 134.254 119.148 128.824 139.355 142.724
Investment
costs 3.000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.000 0
Total
outputs 126.275 124.507 125.752 128.484 131.316 134.254 119.148 128.824 142.355 142.724
Cash flow 43.633 53.895 61.571 68.205 75.207 82.595 108.544 98.868 85.337 84.969
Net Cash
flow 43.633 53.895 61.571 68.205 75.207 82.595 108.544 98.868 85.337 84.969
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The discount
rate 5%
The discount
factor
(a=5%) 0,585 0,557 0,530 0,505 0,481 0,458 0,436 0,416 0,396 0,359
Net present
value 25.511 30.011 32.652 34.448 36.176 37.838 47.357 41.082 33.771 30.499
Revenues to
date 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 99.341 94.611 90.106 81.728
Costs to date 73.830 69.330 66.689 64.893 63.165 61.503 51.984 53.529 56.335 51.230
IRR
0,54%
Financial
NPV 150.422
Benefice/cost
1,088
ratio
The methodology used to assess the proposed project's contribution to economic and
social welfare of the local environment as well as to the region and the country consists of:
converting market prices used in the financial analysis accounting prices to correct
price distortions caused by imperfections of market mechanisms;
evaluation and inclusion in the analysis of externalities that lead to social costs and
benefits that were not considered in the financial analysis;
in assessing inputs and outputs, value added tax and social security payments were
excluded from the calculation.
To assess the cash flow of economic analysis to use a standard conversion factor SCF
= 0.84.
In the economic analysis identified a number of positive and negative externalities that
influence directly or indirectly the project.
The economic analysis was considered as positive externalities:
1. Direct socioeconomic benefits:
additional wages for labor employed during execution (40 people with an average monthly
salary of 1,000 lei);
2. Annual benefit limit spending
3. Indirect socioeconomic benefits:
• income parents use the active labor force;
• revenues from increased efficiency in the organizations pharmaceuticals;
• revenues from reducing the incidence of specific diseases.
The economic analysis of the project were considered as the main negative
externalities:
the opportunity cost for the space provided by local authorities;
specific cost of waste collection.
Table no.5
Results of efficiency indicators for economic analysis of the project
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Indicator Value
Internal Rate of Return
17,29%
(IRR)
Net Present Value (NPV)
918.228
(lei)
Benefice- cost ratio (RB/C) 1,42
The project of making a nursery is proving to be effective in terms of its contribution
to the national economy. Therefore justify project funding from national public funds.
5.Conclusions
Cost-benefit analysis of construction projects highlighted a number of features
especially the case study on the construction of a nursery. The most important features that
appear in cost-benefit analysis of construction projects are high during operation which can
increase the uncertainty of future revenue and expenditure; difficult to quantify the revenues
that are due exclusively to construction; reflecting the lack of technical progress in the period
under review and how it affects the operating cycle and overhaul costs; the difficulty of
estimating the post-use cost / income.
Therefore, in our opinion, cost-benefit analysis of construction projects is an
especially useful tool for decision makers in the public domain but must be supplemented by
other methods such as multi-criteria analysis . Given the degree of risk associated with long
operational cycle is useful to use sensitivity analysis to reflect the impact on indicators for
assessing potential risks to project effectiveness.
Bibliography
1.Boardman A,. Mallery W.., Vining A. – Learning from Ex Ante/ Ex Post Cost-
Benefit Comparisons: The Coquibala Highway Example, Socio-Economic Plannig
Sciences, 28, no.2 (1994)
2. Boardman A,. Greenberg D., Vining A., Weimer D. – Cost-benefice analysis:
concepts and practice, Prentice Hall, 2001
3.Radu V., Curteanu D. - Managementul proiectelor de construcţii, Ed.
Economică, Bucureşti, 2002
4.Radu V. (coord.) - Managementul proiectelor, Ed. Universitară, Bucuresti 2008
5., Simion C., Rus M. , Enulescu C., - Comparative analysis of the methods used
on international level for cost estimation and price formation in construction activities,
(2008), Proceedings of the International Conference, Constructions 2008, Acta Technica
Napocensis: Civil Engineering & Architecture Vol. 51, No. 4, (2008) , ISSN 1221-5848
6.*** - Guide to cost – benefit analysis of investment projects, European
Commission, Directorate General Regional Policy, 2008.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT TOOLS FOR DECISION-MAKING - VALUE ANALYSIS
Cezarina Adina Tofan
Abstract: Value analysis can be considered the method that defines the competitiveness of the
enterprise, being an organized and creative method that satisfies the needs of the beneficiary
by a specific activity of the products design, systems or services in terms of their functionality,
economic and multidisciplinary. It is a useful method for stimulating and organizing the
innovation. Although generally definition for the value analysis is known as a method of
reducing the costs, in fact, it is a method that explains and responds to the client's
expectations (within the functions of the product).
In the context of the contemporary competition it is necessary a permanent control of the
products under the double aspect: of the functions they perform (respective of the
concordance with the request) and of the costs1. A useful step in this regard is the value
analysis. This method aims to optimize the whole product life cycle both at the manufacturer
level (cost optimization) and the user level (function optimization). It should be made
judicious assessment for the purpose of deciding which criteria are the most critical and in
that of determining the degree of accuracy necessary for the data required in order to take a
decision. Furthermore, it was shown that the early stages of the value analysis are intended to
reduce the degree of uncertainty. This uncertainty relates equally to the marketing,
production and financial aspects of a business and the enforceability of its technology.
Keywords: Decisional analysis, adopting the decision, cost of production, decisional methods
and techniques, value analysis
JEL Classification: M10, M11, M15, C8.
Introduction: The general term of the value analysis universally refers to a
technological investment necessary to determine whether the proposed innovation can be
translated into a physical reality.
It is customary to invest very little money outside the technical area before the
enforceability to be demonstrated.
Inevitably, the physical form of the final innovation has a major influence on many
non-technical factors and limits the amount of useful information that can be collected until it
reaches a degree of certainty about the main characteristics of the product.
The method was developed towards the end of the Second World War due to the
shortage of the strategic raw materials caused by the high demand for the armaments
production. Created situation has made necessary to use some substitutes for these materials,
which imposed to redesign the products manufactured in the new conditions.
1
Maria Niculescu, Diagnostic economic, vol. 1, Economică Publishing House, 2003, p 278 – 279;
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Method and discussion
Value analysis is a method of research and systematic and creative design which, by
the functional approaching aims to objective function study to be designed and implemented
with minimal cost in condition of quality, reliability and performance to meet the user
requests. Some publications which treats this method use the phrase ―Value Analysis‖, while
others use ―Value Engineering‖, but leaving it clear that it is actually basically the same
methodology, but with names that differ depending on the time of the study.
Value Analysis (AV) - applies to the existing objects, being a systematic process of
improving them by eliminating unnecessary costs acting on the feedback mechanism.
Value Engineering (IV) - applies to the new objects, being a systematic process to
prevent and eliminate the causes that generate the unnecessary costs by making the functions
with minimal cost, without neglecting the performance, applying from the concept and design
phases and acting on the best-before mechanism.
Briefly, the objective of a study of AV can be expressed by the relation:
AV = max (VIG/CP) (1.1)
where:
VIG - value of global use (utility) of the studied object (degree of satisfaction of the
consumer needs);
CP - cost of production of the studied object
Economic dimensioning of the functions using the value analysis The product, from
the point of view of the manufacturer, must be analyzed by answering the questions like:
What means or resources are consumed to achieve the product and its functions? How much
do the product and its functions cost? The production cost is: ―A sacrifice of resources or
value‖.
An acceptable definition is the production cost represents the total consumption of
resource required at a certain level (workshop, department, company) to achieve a product or
activity. The notion of cost of production is very complex.
There are numerous classifications of the production costs from several perspectives,
which there are presented in Table 1.
Typology of the production costs Table 1
N Classificati Types of
Description Examples
o. on criterion costs
1. Changing - variables - it changes with the - consumption of raw
the production production volume; materials; of working time;
volume - partial - are basically variables but - wages that have constants
variable they have fixed components; components;
- are basically constants - machinery maintenance
- partial
but they contain variable
costs;
constant components; - machinery depreciation.
- not change with the
- constant
production volume.
(fixed)
2. Distribution - direct - can be individualized for - direct raw materials; direct
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on each product each product wages;
- indirect - are common for more - Administrative expenses;
products
3. Relationship operational - refers to the technological - material consumption
with production administrative
operations - interest, penalties
process household - not directly related to the
process
4. Content of - passed work - refers to materials and - materials
the work - manpower equipment
- refers to operations - wages research expenses
carried out by people
5. Control - standard - refers to the planned - standardized costs
system consumption
- real - refers to the incurred - exceeding standards
expenses
6. Making the - accounting - are recorded in the - raw materials, utilities, rents,
decision accounting records taxes - consumption of materials
- marginal - refers to the change of the
total cost, to achieve the last units - operating costs
- incremental
of product
- refers to any change in - cost of giving up at the
- relevant the total costs advantageous command
- are affected by the
- management
of decisions - research expenses
opportunity - refers to the losses
incurred with respect to an ideal - consumption of materials,
- discretionary
situation labour
- are determined by
- technicalmanagement decisions - depreciation costs
- are determined by the
- incorporated
production - insurance, taxes
- are created by previous
- irreversible
decisions and can not be modified
- are fixed by a previous
decision
7. Economic - expenditure - regard to the nature of - raw materials; recoverable
content items (primary) expenses materials; fuel; depreciation; wages;
social security contributions;
unemployment contributions; tax on
wages, etc.
- direct: raw materials,
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- articles of recovered material
computing - are considering achieving
phases of expenditures - Indirect costs of maintenance
and operation of machines, general
section, general
8. Responsible - of - are determined by - standardized costs
for conducting conception constructive solution and the
designed technology - deviations from norms
- of execution - are determined by failure
of the project - service expenses
- of use - are determined by
imperfect project and
implementation
after processing Condurache G., Ciobanu R.M., Niculae M., Analiza si ingineria
valorii, Performantica Publishing House, Iasi, 2004, p. 28-30
To facilitate reasoning of the economic sizing functions, the following practical rules
are considered useful:
R1. After the way in which a landmark, an operation or, in general, an element of cost
involved in carrying out the functions, we distinguish:
a) Parts (operations, cost elements) that participate to achieve a single function.
In this case:
aij 1; k ij 100% cij ci
;
b) parts (operations, cost elements) that causes several functions in known
proportions, rigorously.
For this, the economic sizing parameters are determined.
c) Parts (operations, cost elements) that cause several functions in proportions
difficult to determine based on physical principles, objectives, rigorous.
In this case there are necessary techniques for gathering the ideas, brainstorming
methods of creativity or similar type and/or statistical investigation between the specialists.
R2. To reduce the risk of misinterpretation in the economic dimension of functions
there are recommended few rules of analysis:
a. In the table of the economic sizing (landmarks/functions matrix) will perform
analysis from both parts to function and reverse.
b. To be convinced that a cost element contributes to achieve a function is useful its
modification for increasing, decreasing or elimination. If the function modifies its usefulness
we can conclude that there is a link between the element and function.
c. For the same purpose, to determine the rate of participation of the cost element in
carrying out the functions is necessary to modify the item to ascertain to what extent it
induces changes to the functions. Functions that are more strongly influenced will have a
higher coefficient of determination of analysed landmark (item).
Economic sizing of the functions and calculation weighting of the functions in the cost
of production Economic sizing of the function represents the operation that determines the
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cost of each function. It requires a good knowledge of the constructive-functional solution of
the product, of the value engineering techniques and a very intense work.
In the value analysis, the quantitative and qualitative assessments as a starting point
the cost functions based on the following arguments:
a) Looking a product just as a physical body, its cost can be considered in the first
instance, fully justified if we consider only the design complexity and the quality of the used
materials.
So, the cost of a product just expresses what and how much it was consumed, not what
has been achieved.
If, for example, the production cost for a reference of type fuel pump, such as 10,000
lei, it is highlighted only the economic effort, and not the characteristics that required these
expenditure and their levels of quality and performance.
b) In the value analyzing, the product is not only defined as a set of materials
component (parts, assemblies), but primarily as a set of utilities determined by the
relationship between object, user and environment. Therefore, the costs will be assessed in
relation to the services that the user obtains from the product, the functions cost expressing
more clearly the link between the economic effort and the economic effect.
Deepening analysis based on previous observations, the product cost can result as
unjustified. Continuing the previous example, and anticipating some methodological issues,
we assume that:
- ―Fuel transfer‖ is not continuous, uniform, even though for the engine, coal and hose
were spent 7,700 lei;
- ―Reliability‖, ―aesthetics‖ and ―handling‖ are in doubt, although each attribute
required the technical and economical effort etc.
In this case we can conclude that it spent too much for some features of the part, both
the costs of some functions and the total cost are too high.
To achieve the economic dimensioning of the functions, we must emphasize the
following key concepts in relation to a product:
- Function is determined (materialized) of a part of the studied object, of one or more
pieces taken as a whole or partial;
- Each Ri piece has a (ci) cost, consisting of the following items of expenditure:
ci cmi S i ui (1.2)
where:
cm – material expenses; Si – wages costs (direct labour)
K
S i S ik
k 1 (1.3)
sik – wages costs (direct labour) for each technological operation ―k‖;
ui – general expenditure of section:
d Si
ui
100 (1.4)
d –key of distribution of the section general expenses for ―i‖ piece;
n –total number of pieces (i=1...n); K -the number of technological operations
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Economic dimensioning of the functions can be performed globally or detailed by
following the steps, with examples for a product: a) Develop the diagram of relationships
between pieces and functions and between the technological operations and functions. b)
Establish the participation weights of each Ri piece at the Fj functions, respectively, of each
technological operation (k) at the Fj function. c) Distribution of the material and workmanship
costs of the pieces on each function. d) Calculation of the costs and the functions weights in
the total cost of the product.
The objective of the systemic analysis of the functions is to identify the critical
functions/ oversized economically, namely the functions whose costs are much higher than the
value of their use2.
To achieve this objective, there is compared for each function the two types of weights
determined at the earlier stages: the use value weights (qj) with the weights of production cost
(pj).
In relation to the coordinate system qjOpj, all functions of an ideal product will be
located on a line (1) inclined at 45.
At a real product, its functions may be located in qjOpj plan both on a regression line
(2), and in its vicinity, the line will not be inclined at 45 ° (Figure 1).
Through such graphs we can assess whether there is disparity between the functions
cost and their contribution to the product value.
The line equation (2) is pj = b·qj and the angular coefficient (b) is determined by the
method of the least squares.
N
p
j 1
j qj
b N
q j 1
2
j
(1.5)
arctg b (1.6)
where:
S - Entropy of the system, showing the degree of dispersion of the points Fj in qjOpj
plan.
Clearly, the smaller S is, the closer Fj points are on the (2) line. It may be considered
that an object is well designed if S 0.01.
In Figure 1 it is shown that the F3, F5 and F1 functions are critical functions for the
presented case because their weights in the use value are much lower than weights in the cost
of the product and they have to redesign.
2
Condurache G., Ciobanu R.M., Niculae M., Analiza si ingineria valorii, Performantica Publishing House, Iasi, 2004, p. 32
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Figure 1 Systemic analysis for a real product
Conclusion
It may be considered that the analysis of value should be the concern for reducing
uncertainty in all areas that have an impact on the commercial success of an innovation, as the
selection procedure and evaluation to reflect all these factors, as the organizational structure
to provide the framework of working in which the evaluation can take place, and finally, it
might be necessary to decide more resources than usual for collecting information related to
the assessed object.
As a technique for investigating the value analysis is expensive and difficult to
achieve. But its application represents a modality to improve the products and company
performance. It allows an optimal product, means a product that will perform the required
functions necessary from the point of view of the buyer needs, in accordance with a minimal
cost.
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled “Horizon 2020 -
Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence,
Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied
Scientific Research”, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-
financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human
Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!
References:
1. Condurache G., Ciobanu R.M., Niculae M., Analiza si ingineria valorii,
Performantica Publishing House, Iasi, 2004.
2. Doval, E., Negulescu, O., Eficienta economica, Fundaţia România de Mâine
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2013
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
3. Niculescu M., Diagnostic economic, vol. 1, Economică Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2003
4. Petcu M., Analiza economico-financiară a întreprinderii, Economică Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2003.
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EMERGING ECONOMIES VERSUS INDUSTRIALIZED ECONOMIES. ARE
THERE CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH?
Alina-Petronela Haller, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Romanian Academy, Iași
Branch
Abstract: The 21st century and the third millennium started as a period marked by great
challenges. The present ambiguity makes us focus on industrialized and emerging economies
in relation to current trends and, especially, to economic growth.
In 2008, officially, the global economy responded to the situation created on the American
market with the most powerful economic crisis since 1929. Despite a slightly exaggerated
optimism, based on unsustainable positive growth rates, economic uncertainty continues to
remain high. In addition, the more and more delicate European geopolitical context sketches
a complex socio-economic picture characterized, again, by almost certain recessionary risks.
In this paper we analyse, by descriptive, unitary and compared methods, the current
conjuncture and the economic growth of several emerging and industrialized countries that
we consider representative. We want to draw a conclusion regarding the future potential
growth of some emerging and industrialized economies or by considering the holistic view.
Keywords: emerging economies, industrialized economies, economic growth, recession, crisis
Introduction
The present paper aims to be a theoretical analysis of the current economic situation,
from pre-crisis to present. Obviously, the complexity of the topic will not allow us an
exhaustive approach. And this is actually not our objective. The mathematization, as a
dominant tendency in the field of research has become somehow obsolete. Some optimistic
scenarios, foreseeing a solid economic and social future, overlaid on a fragile reality,
disorientated the specialists and not only. In a period when globalization, as a phenomenon,
and the estimations and the prognoses, as methods, transformed the economic cycle into a
continuously ascendant straight line, the cycle theory demonstrated its validity. However, we
speak undoubtedly about the goal of growth, the alpha and omega of economic processes.
Any action and effort comes from and directs itself to growth. The industrialized and the
emergent countries, at the same time, aim at the growth target. To what extent this is possible
remains a subject of meditation and analysis.
As exemplifications and for comparison purposes, we will focus on nine economies,
three industrialized ones (USA, Japan and Germany) and six emergent ones (the BRIC
countries, Romania and Poland).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The emergent markets make up a pseudo-homogenous group of countries that face
similar challenges and form together the biggest economic block of the world today1.
The concept of emergent economy was introduced in 1981 by Antoine van Agtmael in
his work The Emerging Markets Century, while Jim O'Neill used the BRIC acronym to refer
concomitantly to the four emergent states: Brazil, Russia, India and China.
Signs of decline
Andrew Mellon2 stated, at the end of the Great Depression, that nothing similar would
occur ever again. And he was not the only one. How many adepts of globalization have not
made similar affirmations, blinded by the illusion of continual progress, and removing from
the analysis factors with a pseudo-latent action but overwhelmingly important?
During the World War II, the Keynesian policies were introduced and became decisive
for all developed economies. Everyone observed them for a simple reason: they function
pretty well3. The World Bank imposed Hayekian policies on all developing countries, with
consistently catastrophic results4.
Although the measures proposed by Keynes ensured three decades of economic
growth, one can see that each new economic cycle needs bigger and bigger efforts for the
State to provide a sufficiently high surplus, necessary for the support of the demographic
growth and of the exponentially increasing needs.
Robert Lucas and Ben Bernanke stated that the problem of the economic cycle was
solved, the descendant phases being not priority, but much easier ones. According to Lucas,
the economic cycle was tamed, so that the gravity centre moves on the long-run economic
growth. In spite of the crises characterizing the 1970s and stagflation, the two continued to
declare that economy will occasionally suffer recoils, but that the era of really severe
recessions and especially of world economic depressions was passed over5. The remedy
against recession was simply coining money6.
During the full economic ascension of the 1990s, the Asian countries, the so called
tigers, give the first signs of disequilibrium. From rise to crisis the distance was so small, that
the castling was made almost brutally.
1
Ciobanu Ceslav, 2012, ―The Global Financial Crisis: Emerging Markets Prospects for Economic Recovery and Democratic
Transformation‖, Cogito, p. 3, http://cogito.ucdc.ro/en/nr_3_en/13%20-
%20THE%20GLOBAL%20FINANCIAL%20CRISIS%20_eng_.pdf
2
Andrew Mellon (1855-1937) was a banker and businessman, Ambassador of the US to UK and Secretary of the US
Treasury. He militated for the reduction of tax level with a view to diminishing the federal deficit. The tax plan Mellon
proposed brought forward the reduction of the tax on income from 77% to 24%, as he was convinced that the money will
come back, by means of expenses, in economy, the reduction of taxes on small incomes from 4% to 0.5%, as well as the
rationalization of governing. The measures he proposed contributed in the reduction of public deficit, but his popularity
decreased at the beginning of the Great Crisis, when he made this statement: liquidate labor, liquidate stocks, liquidate
farmers, liquidate real estate... it will purge the rottenness out of the system.
3
Médaille John Chrysostom, 2012, Spre o piaţă cu adevărat liberă. O perspectivă distributistă asupra rolului guvernării,
taxelor, asistenţei sanitare, deficitelor şi multor altor lucruri [orig. title Toward a Really Free Market: A Distributist
Perspective on the Role of the Government, Taxes, Health Care, Deficits and More], Bucharest: Logos, p. 19.
4
Ibid., p. 20.
5
Krugman Paul, 2008, Întoarcerea economiei declinului şi criza din 2008 [orig. title The Return of Depression Economics
and the Crisis of 2008], Bucharest: Publica, p. 19.
6
Ibid., p. 24.
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In the 1990s again, Eastern Europe opted for the capitalist system, and China started
its ascension, in spite of the manifest scepticism, while being still considered a country with
an auxiliary role.
Globalization allowed for the transfer of technology and capital from the industrialized
to the emergent countries. The cheap labour, the technology and the capital helped the
emergent countries to join the world market and to compete with the industrialized states. We
refer to countries in the regions of Eastern Europe, Asia and Latin America. Yet, the Mexican
crisis, also known as the Tequila crisis, at the end of 1994, proved to be an extremely serious
one. It extended all over the Latin America, especially in the vulnerable Argentina, in an
almost identical way with what happened in 1982.
Japan, a crediting country, independent from the good will of foreign investors,
crosses, in the 1990s, periods when growth and more and more serious recessionary boosts
succeeded each other. Japan received the title of Asian tiger in the period 1953-1973. From a
mainly agrarian country, it became one of the greatest world exporters, a major economic
power and a model of economic growth. Japan did not enter depression suddenly. From one
year to the next, the economic growth rate decreased. Japan registered a growth recession
extended over a whole decade. This decline led it so far downward, under the level it was
supposed to be, that it reached the limit of an uncommon phenomenon: a depression of
growth7.
The USA, in its turn, started the restless period of financial speculations. Credits over
credits, the euphoria of the easily gained money, due to the generosity and inventiveness of
the financial institutions, money made on command, out of nothing, that fiat money8 with no
real cover, represented speculative bubbles. The unreal money created the mirage of
happiness for many American, whose conviction was pretty clear: the speculative bubbles
were so solid, that they would never pop. Until one day, when the crisis turned into the reality
of America and of the whole world. The financial problems generated a deficit of trust. This,
in its turn, devaluated the currency, interests rose, and economy started its decline. We can
actually speak about a whole complex of causes. To these we can add an excessive
augmentation of house prices and the collapse of the real estate market of USA, the low or
even negative savings rate before the crisis on the USA market, very high savings rates in
countries that are traditional exporters and depending on exports, imbalances of the current
account9, which are all interconnected and interdependent causes.
Crisis and post-crisis
The globalized world is hypersensitive. Small changes bring forth big changes. The
crises, unavoidable, cyclical and capable of destroying values in the short run, but fertile in
terms of innovations, of new technologies created and disseminated by the entrepreneurs,
which allow the ending of crisis and the launching of a new phase of expansion, are part of
the history of capitalism, just like Schumpeter said10.
7
Ibid., p. 78.
8
Médaille John Chrysostom, op.cit., p.75.
9
Ciobanu Ceslav, op. cit., pp. 2-3.
10
Brăilean Tiberiu, 2011, Teoeconomia. Religii economice, Iaşi: Junimea, p. 111
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We have been crossing, since the end of 2007, the crisis of the ultra-liberal economic
system. The weakness of the world economy results from massive debts, so big that the
possibility of the incapacity to pay them back is not excluded. Instead of fiscal and monetary
harmonization, we assist a genuine economic war between the main continental blocks11. The
economic wars open the gate to the military ones. Let us not forget that the USA, Saudi
Arabia, Iran, India or Russia invest in the military field, as if they were preparing to act.
Furthermore, the local conflicts from different parts of the world have been smouldering for
some time with no solutions, but with international involvement. We only mention here the
tense situation between Ukraine and Russia, with extended political, military and economic
implications. If the political conflicts do not degenerate, the current crisis will be exceeded.
But other crises will appear: demography, energy, food, environment, resource related ones.
Like any other crisis, the current one will leave traces. Economic recovery will be
slow, both for the developed and for the emergent states, the unemployment rate will increase,
the purchasing power will reduce, the public debt will rise and globalization will probably be
reconsidered.
The current crisis is a challenge to the future economic stability. Both categories of
countries, industrialized and emergent ones, are forced to rethink their policies and actions, in
order to restructure economy and to eliminate weaknesses.
In the future, the threats and the opportunities will be proportionally big. The
economic system needs to be rethought around the concept of durable, ecological and social
growth.
Growth opportunities for the industrialized economies and the emergent
economies
The end of the last century brought to the fore the emergent economies, deemed
secondary by then in the wide range of world economies. China, India, Russia and Brazil
developed to the extent to which they became quasi-independent in relation to the Western
ones. Immediately after the crisis began, more precisely in 2009, economic growth came from
the emergent economies. They got out of the shadow where they spent decades,
demonstrating their potential, generating change and adaptation to change.
Both state categories have growth potential: the industrialized (developed) ones and
the emergent ones. Yet, we can mark differences between the economic growth potential of
the two groups in favour of the emergent ones. Where does this gap come from?
First, we speak of positive rates of demographic growth in the emergent countries,
compared to the developed ones. We do not exclude, in the future, a demographic crisis. The
population‘s aging is visible in the industrialized states, but not in the emergent ones,
especially not in India and China. Out of the over 7 billions inhabitants of the planet, over 4
billions live in Asia. In China and India live almost half of Asia‘s population.
Table no. 1: Rate of demographic growth (%, 2009-2013)
11
Brăilean Tiberiu, 2011, Teoeconomia. Religii economice, Iaşi: Junimea, p. 130
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Industrialized economies
USA 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7
Japan -0.1 -0.1 0.3 -0.2 -0.2
Germany -0.3 -0.2 0.0 -1.7 0.2
Emergent economies
Brazil 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
India 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2
Russia 0.0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.2
China 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Romania -0.8 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.6
Poland 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.9 0.0
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
A current characteristic of developed states is the population‘s aging and the reduction
of the demographic rate of growth. The emergent states, being economies under rapid
development, acquire the characteristics of the industrialized ones as they keep on
progressing. This is illustrated in Table no. 1. In the interval 2009-2013, only two states of the
analyzed ones registered negative rates of demographic growth: Japan and Romania. In the
case of Japan, the demographic problems are not recent. The pyramid of ages reversed along
with progress. The life expectancy increased, in its turn, without synapses. Germany
registered a slight refreshment of the demographic rate in 2013, under the pressure of the
measures of stimulation of birth rate, whose effectiveness is uncertain, considering that their
enforcement is not a recent order. Only USA registered pusitive subunit rates of demographic
growth. The correlation between degree of poverty – demography is demonstrated.
Statistically, one can notice the rise of the birth rate in the poor environments, where the
schooling, education and culture degree is lower, and its augmentation in the environments
where the life and culture standard is high. This tendency is a dangerous one for economy and
society. The rise of the birth rate mainly in poor environments makes nothing but prolonging
poverty, lack of culture and social deficiencies. Mortality rate is higher in the poor
environments and lower in the developed ones. In the context of reforms and measures meant
to improve the medical systems and the quality of life all over the world, including the less
developed environments, the mortality rate tends to decrease. Let us not forget that USA has a
high percentage of poor persons, a cultural and ethnic mosaic that seems to outline the
possibility to maintain a positive demographic rate, in spite of the status of great power.
Although the ratio of inverse proportionality between the development degree and the
demographic rate is real, it has negative economic consequences in the long run.
In the group of emergent countries we analyzed, Romania has registered negative
demographic rates. Unlike the already demonstrated theory shows, the tendency is not related
to the degree of development, but to a visible deterioration of the standard of life. The
negative demographic growth rate occurred in the context of a decrease in the purchasing
power and in incomes, together with the rise of the unemployment rate and the creation of
jobs in fields with low wages and with no long-term certainty. The BRIC states register
positive subunit demographic growth rates, except for India. Poland, a country that felt the
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crisis less strongly or not at all compared to the rest of Eastern Europe, also registers, in its
turn, a reduction of the demographic rate.
Life expectancy at birth is an important indicator, which reflects the potential of
growth and, at the same time, the social effects of growth.
Table no. 2: Life expectancy at birth (years, 1994-2012)
1994 2000 2006 2012
Industrialized economies
USA 76 77 78 79
Japan 80 81 82 83
Germany 76 78 78 81
Emergent economies
Brazil 68 70 72 74
India 64 62 64 66
Russia 64 65 67 70
China 70 72 74 75
Romania 70 71 73 75
Poland 72 74 75 77
Sources http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
The more developed an economy, the higher the life expectancy that the population
enjoys. Progress in all fields marks people and their lives. Incomes, the health system, the
system of social protection, comfort, infrastructure, all of them contribute in the improving of
life conditions and prolongation. Japan enjoys the highest life expectancy. In Germany, the
life expectancy is slightly higher than in the USA. All the developed countries enjoy a high
life expectancy rate. The efforts of economic growth and development are positively reflected
in this indicator. Correlated with the reduced or even negative demographic rate, economic
outcomes will not be the expected ones in the long run. An increasingly aged population will
require the allocation of substantial sums of money through programs of social protection,
difficult to support by a decreasing active population. In the case of the emergent countries,
one can confirm the direct proportionality relation between the life expectancy and the
economic growth. We notice that Poland enjoys the highest life expectancy rate, followed by
Romania. Poland has, in 2012, a life expectancy rate similar to that of the USA and of
Germany in 1994, but not exceeding that of Japan of the same year. From the standpoint of
this indicator, the gap between the industrialized and the emergent countries is big. The
lowest life expectancy rate is registered in the BRIC countries, and especially in India, where
the average life expectancy was, in 2012, only 66.
Second, the potential of economic growth derives form the sustainable industrial and
energetic one (the less polluting possible and in the longest run possible). The potential of
industrial development is higher in the emergent countries. The explanation is simple. The
developed economies are industrialized economies. Development is based upon industry,
especially the energetic one. The process of industrialization, as it occurred starting with the
first industrial revolution until now, brought the world on the verge of two crises: the
energetic and the environment ones. The industrial activity exhausted the renewable resources
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and polluted the environment. The future progress will depend on the discovery,
implementation and utilization of modern techniques of production of alternative energy. The
biggest financial potential for research and development is that of the developed countries.
The emergent economies have the advantage of taking over and using techniques and methods
of production of alternative energy by escalating the costs associated to the processes of
research, innovation and testing. This is similar to the situation in which the emergent
economies, by taking over the existing technologies and know-how burn phases of their
economic evolution. On the other hand, lacking an industrial production equivalent to that of
the developed states, the emergent ones maintain a lower pollution level. The amoral manner
to pose this problem seems paradoxical. The emergent states can theoretically afford to
pollute more. In the Kyoto Convention, the developed countries of the world stated, in
writing, their responsibility for reducing the pollution degree on the planet, once the
environment crisis, of the clime changes was officially validated, after the exposition of a big
number of optimistic scenarios that were wrongly argued or with a view to hidden interests.
Table no. 3: Pollution degree / CO2 emissions (tones per capita)
1994 2000 2004 2007 2008 2009 2010
Industrialized economies
USA 19.5 20.2 19.8 19.3 18.6 17.3 17.6
Japan 9.4 9.6 9.9 9.8 9.5 8.6 9.2
Germany 10.6 10.1 10.0 9.5 9.5 8.9 9.1
Emergent economies
Brazil 1.5 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.2
India 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.7
Russia 11.6 10.6 11.1 11.7 12.1 11.1 12.1
China 1.5 1.9 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.2
Romania 5.1 4.0 4.4 4.8 4.6 3.9 3.9
Poland 8.7 7.9 8.0 8.3 8.3 7.8 8.3
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
The biggest polluter of the world remains the USA. Although at Kyoto it stated its
responsibility in the reduction of pollution, USA is not willing to reduce its energy intensive
industrial activity. At the other end of the spectrum, Germany has already taken measures to
develop less polluting technologies and to produce alternative energy. The initiative of
Germany is admirable, as this is one of the few states of the world who took real measures in
this direction, taking also the consequences of individual costly actions. The emergent states,
except for Russia, are not among the great industrial producers, or among the great polluters.
The more developed the energy intensive industry, the highest the contamination level. We
could consider this indicator with negative impact an indicator of industrial development. The
emergent countries register low carbon emissions compared to the developed countries, as one
can see in Table 3. In the BRIC group, Russia is the only state that registers a high rate of
emissions. Russia holds oil, coal and natural gases deposits, whose industrial processing is
accompanied by negative externalities. Poland, the country with the most developed economy
in Eastern and Central Europe, registers, as it develops its industrial capacity, increasing
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emissions. Unlike it, Romania has renounced since 1990 its industrial capacity, accepting the
status of outlet for the products made in the developed countries. The reduced amount of
emissions of carbon dioxide does not reflect the utilization of non-polluting methods and
technologies, but a smaller and smaller industrial capacity. The year 1990 marked the change
of the economic system and was, for Romania, a transition from an economy with an
increasingly developed industry, almost independent from the resources and technology of the
external partners, to an economy without industry, in which the biggest polluting factors are
the cars. Romania renounced, shamefully fast, almost everything that before 1990 was its
industrial activity, contenting itself with the status of outlet market for other countries and
placing itself on a severely dependent position upon the external space.
An alternative to the reduction of the pollution degree is the externalization of the
energy intensive industrial production, from the industrialized to the emergent countries.
Regarding from this standpoint, we notice that the emergent states are the victims of the
developed ones. How much and by what means certain economies will develop is the decision
of the industrialized states, according to the interest they have.
Third, the potential of economic growth results from the characteristics of growth.
This represents the process of increasing the dimensions of economy, the macroeconomic
indicators and especially the GDP/capita, in an ascendant but not necessarily manner, with
positive effects upon the economic-social sector12.
Out of the nine economies we analyzed, from the standpoint of economic growth
Japan stands out. Japan‘s economic growth was considered a miracle. The rates of economic
growth of over 8% helped it to successfully join the group of the developed states of the
world13. To Japan‘s economic growth contributed, among other things, the abundant labour,
the inclination toward savings, toward innovations, the protectionist policy, the transition,
over time, from the heavy industry, with high energetic consumption, to the production of
advanced technologies, with high added value, the support of the big conglomerates, the
policy of replacing the imports and supporting the exports, and, above all, the mentality
favouring and the inclination for work. (The case of Japan is similar to that of Germany. The
basic factors of the process are almost identical. The culture and typology of the system are
different.) Since the 1970s, the great Japanese companies, sogoshosha, have dominated
industrial branches like electronics, robotics, machine and car construction. Each big
company relies upon a bank that provides it financial support. This preferential support
proved to be damaging. In 1997, the outcomes of this system took the form of a financial
crisis that extended all over the Asian region, without degenerating.
Japan‘s model of growth was an example for the rest of the world. It was successfully
borrowed by its neighbouring countries, due to the economic and social similarities. In the
1990s, the newly industrialized Asian countries, and especially the ascension of China, were
more and more often topics of discussions. India and China are, presently, the economies that
attract everybody‘s attention. The progress of China, of India, of Russia and of Brazil (BRIC)
over the last decades, the potential they have and the economic evolution in the period of the
12
Haller Alina-Petronela, 2008, Exporturile - Factor de dezvoltare şi creştere economică [Exports – A Factor of Economic
Development and Growth], Iaşi: Performantica, p. 7.
13
***, 2007, Japan's Economy in an Era of Globalization, Japan Fact Sheet, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Website, http://web-
japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/e04_economy.pdf
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crisis started in 2008 make us consider a change of the ratio of strengths on the world market,
to place trust in the emergent countries and especially in the BRIC countries.
China‘s process of industrialization started in the 1950s, in an autarchic way. China‘s
opening and the beginnings of the economic reforms are to be placed in 1978, but the passage
to the concept of the state establishes the rules of the game, and the market guides the
companies is relatively recent14.
Table no. 4: Rate of economic growth (%, 2007-2013)
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Industrialized economies
USA 1.8 -0.3 -2.8 2.5 1.8 2.8 1.9
Japan 2.2 -1.0 -5.5 4.7 -0.5 1.4 1.5
Germany 3.3 1.1 -5.1 4.0 3.3 0.7 0.4
Emergent economies
Brazil 6.1 5.2 -0.3 7.5 2.7 1.0 2.5
India 9.8 3.9 8.5 10.3 6.6 4.7 5.0
Russia 8.5 5.2 -7.8 4.5 4.3 3.4 1.3
China 14.2 9.6 9.2 14.4 9.3 7.7 7.7
Romania 6.3 7.9 -6.8 -0.9 2.3 0.4 3.5
Poland 6.8 5.1 1.8 3.9 4.5 1.9 1.6
Source: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.GROW
The crisis affected the rates of economic growth of all countries; more powerfully in
the case of those holding, in the bank system, consistent foreign currency deposits, and less
powerfully those holding external liabilities15.
Reflecting upon the rates of growth in the three industrialized countries we analyzed,
we can notice that the current crisis surprised these countries with modest rates of economic
growth. 2009, a climax year, hit more powerfully Germany and Japan, the latter recovering
easily in 2010. In the case of Japan, the natural factor contributed to the new fall of 2011.
Once again, this country demonstrated its great capacity of economic recovery, starting its
growth in 2012 with rates higher than those of Germany. The latter took over the role of
supporter of EU states. In the context of the efforts of recovery that all the 28 EU member
states made, to which the complex situation between Ukraine and Russia adds, whose
negative economic outcomes will be strongly felt starting the end of 2014, Germany and part
of the EU countries will end 2014 most likely with positive subunit or even negative
economic growth rates. The political crisis becomes a factor with negative impact upon the
European states and not only, because it has much too wide and complex implications, from a
political, military, economic and social standpoint.
The emergent economies responded the crisis differently. Naturally, the reduction of
the rates of economic growth demonstrates their vulnerability. Even if they have a high
14
Rowthorn Robert, 2006, The Renaissance of China and India: Implications for Advanced Economies, Discussion Papers
No. 182, October, United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, p. 20, www.unctad.org
15
Bleaney Michael, Vargas Liliana Castilleja, 2012, ―Real Exchange Rates, Valuation Effects and Growth in Emerging
Markets‖, Credit Research Paper, no. 07, p. 18.
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potential, they do not have the financial power to recover in force, on the contrary. The BRIC
countries, especially China and India, maintained their positive rates of economic growth,
except fro Russia and Brazil. Both registered, in 2009, negative rates. India, China and Poland
are the countries where the crisis did not manifest itself in a convulsive way. We cannot say
the same thing about Romania. The climax years of the crisis were characterized by negative
rates of economic growth, the subsequent recovery being slow, based upon foreign loans
meant for consumption (fragile, unsustainable basis). For 2014, the estimations are not very
optimistic. Romania‘s economic growth is very likely a negative one, or, in the happiest case,
a positive subunit one.
The demographic and economic growth tendencies for the emergent states are
expressive. The active population of these countries will rise with 1.4 millions in the period
2010-2016, and the GDP will increase with 60% in the same interval of time16.
The emergent markets offer the foreign investors multiple opportunities, like the
frontier ones, which are nothing else but pre-emergent economies whose characteristics tend
to become similar to the emergent countries‘ ones17. The risks manifested on the emergent
markets are associated to currency devaluation and stability, the guaranteeing of sustainable
economic growth and inflation18.
Conclusions:
Our starting point in the present paper was a rhetorical question: is there potential of
economic growth left in the emergent and in the developed countries? The world is
continuously changing. The rhythm of change is more and more rapid. It complicates the
situations, the decisions, the challenges. We do not speak any more about one, financial,
crisis, but also of a political crisis, a demographic crisis, an environment crisis, a food crisis, a
cultural crisis, and there is still plenty of space for other typologies. Overwhelmed by these
multiple crises, we posed the problem of the existence of the necessary potential to deal with
them, to reduce their intensity and, why not, to eliminate them. There exists an idea that only
the industrialized economies have enough potential to face the economic difficulties. Over the
last years, one could see that the emergent states, those states whose model and objective of
growth and development is represented by the industrialized economies, have the capacity to
resist economic shocks or they can develop it, while facing unfavourable situations. In the
future, emergent countries like those in Eastern and Central Europe and BRIC will be more
visible in the global economy, as the demographic, environment, energetic or any other kind
of problems will be more serious. Economic growth remains the main objective of all
economies in the short run, the medium run and the long run. If the industrialized countries
managed to reach a relatively satisfying level of development, the emergent ones just tend to
reach it. Consequently, these states will use all their potential and capacities to ensure
economic and social progress, in order to impose themselves and to find their place in a
currently tripolar world.
16
***, 2013, Emerging Market Entry - Key to Succes, Accenture,
http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/Accenture-Emerging-Market-Entry.pdf
17
Jaffer Kamar (ed.), 2013, Investing in Emerging and Frontier Markets, London: Euromoney, pp. 19-21.
18
Kouwenberg Roy, Solomons Roelof, 2012, Value Investing in Emerging Markets: Local Macroeconomic Risk and
Extrapolation, http://som.rug.nl
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Bibliography:
1. Bleaney Michael, Vargas Liliana Castilleja, 2012, ―Real Exchange Rates, Valuation
Effects and Growth in Emerging Markets‖, Credit Research Paper, no. 07
2. Brăilean Tiberiu, 2011, Teoeconomia. Religii economice [Theo-economy. Economic
Religions], Iaşi: Junimea
3. Ciobanu Ceslav, 2012, ―The Global Financial Crisis: Emerging Markets Prospects for
Economic Recovery and Democratic Transformation‖, Cogito,
http://cogito.ucdc.ro/en/nr_3_en/13%20-
%20THE%20GLOBAL%20FINANCIAL%20CRISIS%20_eng_.pdf
4. Haller Alina-Petronela, 2008, Exporturile - Factor de dezvoltare şi creştere
economică [Exports – A Factor of Economic Development and Growth], Iaşi:
Performantica
5. Jaffer Kamar (ed.), 2013, Investing in Emerging and Frontier Markets, London:
Euromoney
6. Kouwenberg Roy, Solomons Roelof, 2012, Value Investing in Emerging Markets:
Local Macroeconomic Risk and Extrapolation, http://som.rug.nl
7. Krugman Paul, 2008, Întoarcerea economiei declinului şi criza din 2008 [orig. title
The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008], Bucharest: Publica, p.
78
8. Médaille John Chrysostom, 2012, Spre o piaţă cu adevărat liberă. O perspectivă
distributistă asupra rolului guvernării, taxelor, asistenţei sanitare, deficitelor şi
multor altor lucruri [orig. title Toward a Really Free Market: A Distributist
Perspective on the Role of the Government, Taxes, Health Care, Deficits and More],
Bucharest: Logos, p. 75
9. Rowthorn Robert, 2006, The Renaissance of China and India: Implications for
Advanced Economies, Discussion Papers No. 182, October, United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development, www.unctad.org
10. ***, 2007, Japan's Economy in an Era of Globalization, Japan Fact Sheet, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs Website, http://web-japan.org/factsheet/en/pdf/e04_economy.pdf
11. ***, 2013, Emerging Market Entry - Key to Succes, Accenture,
http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/Accenture-Emerging-
Market-Entry.pdf
12. http://cogito.ucdc.ro
13. http://data.worldbank.org
14. http://som.rug.nl
15. http://web-japan.org
16. http://www.accenture.com
17. www.unctad.org
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THE BOARD OF DIRECTORS AS A COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE
Elena Chițimuș, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The Board of Directors is an integral part in the analysis of a company and its
compliance with the requirements of corporate governance. Over time, under the influence of
several financial scandals (Lehman Brothers, Washington Mutual, WorldCom, Enron,
General Motors, CIT Group), the composition of the board has evolved from a job given to a
young talented amateur to a job that requires seriousness, experience, dedication. Moreover
the board is seen as becoming a competitive advantage. That is why this paper analyzes the
Board of Directors not only from the compliance point of view, but also taking in
consideration its contribution to the development of the company, through vision, strategy
and innovation.
Keywords: Board of Directors, Corporate Governance, competitive advantage, value
creation, performance.
Introduction
Strongly connected to the corporate governance analysis are the debates about the role
of the Board of Directors (BoD). This governing body is elected by the shareholders to ensure
the safety of their investment, that the future decisions of the management will guarantee a
continuous development of the company, that the short and long term objectives are taken
following a fair analysis of the company and they do not depend on the will of the
management to gain bonuses. Many studies review the Board of Directors analyzing
provisions and legal constraints: size, remuneration, evaluation of its activity, the role of the
board‘s chairman, if the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) fills in also the place of the chairman
of the board (Ionașcu et al, 2011; Ștefănescu, 2011; Brown and Caylor, 2004; Hopt and
Leyens, 2004; Chtourou, Bedard and Courteau, 2001).
When we think at the BoD responsibilities first we have to discuss its role of
monitoring, of surveillance of the risk level adopted by the company, or the analysis of the
decisions taken by the management. The literature that debates this subject ( Nadler, 2004;
Leblanc and Gillies, 2005; Hassed, 2012; McCahery and Vermeulen, 2013; Whitehead,
2013), has developed in the last years a new side of the analysis underlining that the BoD
should be more than ―an eye‖ for the shareholders and support for the management, and that
is very important to become a competitive advantage, giving support, defining the future
strategy of the company, through informal advice given to the management, by knowing the
field in which the company activates.
So we are entitled to ask these questions:
- What is the role of the BoD?
- Which is the most effective mix of directors?
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- Which are the BoD responsibilities that could lead to good governance?
Current practice and arguments towards new standards
If the role of the BoD stands for more than supervising and limiting the deviations
committed by the management and maximizing the company‘s value for the shareholders,
how is a board that will be a competitive advantage put together?
When summarizing debates on this subject it seems that we need independent
members that have to come with a professional experience that will help the company to
promote the profitable activities and to develop the fields that show signs for an above
average evolution. The board has to protect the interest of all the shareholders, including the
minorities, but also of all the interested parties, avoiding thus the embezzlement of assets of
any kind.
McCahery and Vermeulen (2013) researching on the diversity importance in a
company, found important differences between companies in terms of age, diversity of the
members and their experience in the activity developed by the firm. Their work shows that the
shareholders who activated in the venture capital market play an important role as
independent members in administration boards based on their accumulated experience. The
authors mentioned above use as an object of study ―Apple‖, a company with a worldwide
reputation, that had Steve Jobs as a CEO, that has managed, using among others the
experience and the knowledge of BoD members, to make Apple the brand that is today. For
Jobs it was more important to know the industry and the company‘s products than being
independent and having appropriate qualities for monitoring risks. In the process of making
the BoD a competitive advantage, Jobs used as criteria the experience in the IT field, the
passion for the Apple products and loyalty. After Jobs returned to Apple in 1997 and regained
quite fast the control over the company business, lost in 1985, the BoD had the following
composition: Mr. Woolard - Chairman and ex CEO of Dupont1, Mr. Chang – executive
manager at Hughes Electronics2, Mr. Ellison – with software experience and co-founder of
Oracle3, Mr. York - ex CFO with experience in reorganizing in Chrysler4 and IBM5, Mr.
Campbell – CEO of Intuit6 and vice-president of the Sales Department of Apple, and also
Steve Jobs himself. Under the traditional role model of corporate governance, the BoD
evolved towards the fulfillment of a monitoring role, independent from the CEO and the
executive management. Under the Apple model, the BoD exists like an extension of the
management, giving expertise and experience where and when is needed.
The BoD like a competitive advantage might be a surprising concept for some people,
because most consider that the ability of the company to have a superior performance than of
the competitors can come from the quality of their products, low production costs, the ability
to deliver their products on time, new technological processes, adaptability to the changes that
1
Dupont – with over 200 years of experience the company brings innovation through products and inventions in domains as
agriculture, nutrition, electronics, safety and protection, constructions, transportation and clothing.
2
Hughes Electronics – manufacturer of electronic assemblies and bare printed circuit boards.
3
Oracle – software solutions for business and hardware systems.
4
Chrysler – manufacturer of automobiles.
5
IBM – manufacturer of high tech in software and hardware.
6
Intuit – American software company that develops financial and tax preparation software and related services for small
businesses, accountants and individuals.
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happen in the market. But a well prepared BoD could fulfill its responsibilities so well that it
could be the difference between a company and its competitors.
For a company to enjoy the positive effects of this kind of board, constant training
should be taken into consideration. The board as a unit must prove experience in the
company‘s field of work, understand the life cycle of the company, which are the major risks
that the company is facing, what are the inconsistencies in the financial reports, and we
shouldn‘t forget about the communication skills so that its decisions reach the management
and employees undistorted and with a clear message. A board already at work needs a
periodic evaluation of their competence and obtained performance to identify the necessity of
professional development or different criteria that a new member should fulfill. The process
of members‘ selection on specific criteria is a long term process that can fail if it does not start
from the will of having a competent board but only from the will of following the
requirements coming from the legislators or from the interested parties.
The current norms for corporate governance, which most of times are overregulated,
tend to put their accent on monitoring and risk management. In this way a new impediment
surfaces on the path of transforming the board into a competitive advantage – it is too busy
following the compliance requirements, making it hard to concentrate its efforts on other
fields of interest. To guarantee that legal requirements are fulfilled, the companies tend to
bring to the board lawyers, governance and financial experts, forgetting about persons with
strategy defining expertise. But most recommended is for the company to be able to see the
big picture, to think about expanding the business and not only about guarding their assets by
creating a board that has only a police role.
Another subject of interest is the non - executive director and the qualities it should
hold for giving the team value. Whitehead (2013) points five absolutely necessary skills that a
non - executive director should possess: intellectual approach, independence, integrity,
communication skills and the will to get involved. Over the years the non – executive director
evolved from a job filled in by a lucky talented amateur that had the proper studies or had the
proper social connections, to a profession that requires responsibility, which is seen in the risk
associated with the job.
Nadler (2004) concentrates his attention on the transformation process suffered by the
board over time, evolving from a reminiscence of a gentlemen‘s club, characterized by
ceremony and uniformity, to a job that suggests passion that makes the general director work
efficient without making him omnipotent. The best results come from solidary boards, which
activate as a dedicated and involved team.
The recruitment companies aren‘t looking for an independent director that could only
fulfill the job description by skills and experience, but also for someone that is going to adapt
and be a good contribution in the board‘s structure. Whitehead (2013) gives example of 10
questions that anyone willing to fulfill the job should ask himself/herself:
1. What do I have to offer?
2. How do I find the right board? (Patience is a virtue, as it may take some time.)
3. How dedicated do I have to be? (You have to be strict and discuss with experts, read
books, expand the area of expertise, read previous minutes of meetings.)
4. Do I have enough time for this kind of commitment?
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5. Can I bring my contribution? (Find out if you can bring value that is going to make a
big difference.)
6. Am I going to learn? (Be curious and open minded.)
7. Will it be entertaining?
8. How much time will I have to spend? (One of the pitfalls is underestimating the time
you will spend for this kind of job.)
9. Is my employer going to support me?
10. Can I expect a training period?
Another important benchmark in the board‘s work is the fear of overlooking a
compliance requirement. In this way the board members will evolve towards a ―check the
box‖ vision, without having the slightest interest of seeing the bigger picture, and going
beyond the description of the job and the supervisory authority. Taking as example big
financial scandals and the losses they brought (Lehman Brothers, Washington Mutual,
WorldCom, Enron, General Motors, CIT Group) the regulatory bodies focused their attention
on improving the legal provisions of the corporate governance, or we can even say making
them stricter. Even though the new rules as for example ―comply or explain‖ have increased
the shareholders protection, it has also seen many directors focusing their work on
conforming to the rules and leaving performance on the second place.
The companies can now benefit from a new board with added value. The road that
leads to success is found when the adding value board transforms into a competitive
advantage, and works alongside with other strengths given by other sectors of the company.
The adding value board assumes the strategic direction of the organization, knows its
responsibilities and how they differ from the ones of the CEO‘s, has long - term plan of
succession and a chairman capable of leading and managing conflicts. The president must let
everyone share their opinion, but in the same time he has to know when to stop a debate so he
can take proper decisions in a timely manner. An adding value board can easily find the weak
points in a business strategy, discuss internal and external risks, bring valuable connections
with interested parties or even with government representatives. Also they could add
credibility to the company and take an active part in the innovative challenges of the
organization.
A board that becomes a competitive advantage has all the characteristics of a value
creating board, but also holds communication skills and is able to obtain a maximum gain
from its member‘s interaction. Nadler (2004) mentions that good governance lies in the
creation of a good work relation between board and management, in the social dynamic of the
interaction between the board members and in the competence, integrity and the constructive
commitment of every single director.
Leblanc and Gillies (2005) show three major factors that make the difference between
a board that is a competitive advantage and the one that brings added value:
- the way the board works and the process of decision making.
- ―the human factor‖ in the decision making process.
- the compatibility of the directors and how they interact with the team in the decision
making process.
Hassed (2012) believes that the board that has managed to be a competitive advantage
has a superior decisional process because the members of the board respect everyone‘s
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opinions, they openly present their ideas without having a hidden agenda, they bring to the
table new and challenging subjects, that could lead the way to innovation.
The way to a competitive board has to go first through a process that creates value. To
get to a value creating board there is a long and hard way to go that requires competence,
integrity and a constructive involvement of every director.
Whitehead (2013) comes with an interesting proposal that could lead to obtaining a
board that will have both conformity and strategy as tasks. His idea is to separate the role of
surveillance from the one of building a strategy. In this situation we get two boards, each one
with different tasks - one with compliance and the other dealing with commercial challenges.
Even though it sounds good in theory, this separation could lead to a dilution and a
fragmentation of the leading board and of the responsibilities that follow. It‘s a possibility that
a unitary board, well informed and structured, can have better chances of succeeding than two
individual ones.
Nadler (2004) believes that a high-performing board as like a dynamic team must be
competent, coordinated, and collegial and has to have a well-defined objective. He considers
that such entities don‘t just evolve but they need to be built using a very clean cut pattern.
The entity has to possess a well-defined plan of succession especially because there is
a slight possibility that unexpected events may occur and the director might not rise to the
challenge. Also the administration board must always be refreshed, for example in the UK an
independent director cannot fill the position for more than 9 years; if the company decides
that his presence is valuable than he must go through a re-election process.
The discussions about the structure, composition and administrative board practice
must unfold taking in consideration the growth potential and value creation of a company and
not only the agency problems. Because of numerous fastidious claims coming from the
market, it‘s time to implement a new research approach over corporate governance that
redirects the role of a company‘s board towards the consolidation of the decision making
process of the management, future growth and value creation. The board must evolve and
expand in parallel with the organizational needs of a company at any given time.
Conclusion
Assuming that the members of the board are dedicated to the company, visionary
leaders, predicting future events, they can investigate the decisional process of the
management, can identify opportunities and interact with governs, companies, investors and
other interested parties, might hold knowledge about the development of the company
product, sales strategy and discovery of new talents.
In order to have a well-balanced board, a company should take into consideration
other criteria of selection beside the traditional ones such as independence, integrity,
competence, confidence, a good judgment, a good financial state. In these difficult times, it‘s
preferable to search for a BoD oriented towards the product and the market, capable of asking
the right questions at the proper time, question that usually are difficult and technical.
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The Financial Times, 10.04.2013
13. WhiteHead, P. (2013) Think-tank searches for good-governance, The Financial
Times, 11.12.2013
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USING THE HOLONIC STRUCTURES TO OPTIMIZE THE OUTPUT OF
BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS
Ciprian Ionel Hrețcanu, PhD Student, ”Ștefan cel Mare” University of Suceava
Abstract: In this study we intend to argue that holarchies and holonic networks can be a
"model" or pattern according inspiration to be designed / developed various forms of
strategic alliances between firms. In other words, we take into account the theory of the
concept of holon, and system as well as various developments related to these two concepts to
define briefly the concepts of holonic network, and holarchie in socioeconomic perspective.
We intend to look more closely to the holonic networks as horizontal structures, this pattern
being de facto followed / implemented under various forms of strategic alliances of some
companies.
Keywords: holarchie, holonic network, strategic alliance, holonic structure, holonic
enterprise
1.Introduction
For any observer of economic life, it is obvious that over the past years reflects
modification / changes in global, regional and local level on the conduct of business; besides
other solutions within the reach of decision makers, building strategic alliances / strategic
networks (through various types of cooperation, collaboration, partnerships, etc.) provide
companies with solutions to create a competitive advantage. In the world economy there has
been an intensification of competition, and especially after 2008, the business environment
become more uncertain and therefore more unstable technological conditioning, competitive
practices and customers requirements have "forced" somewhat the firms all over the world to
invent solutions and adapt to the trends recorded by global competition.
2.Specificity of holonic networks
Holonic structures "network" type is characterized essentially by the fact that the n
holons constituents are distributed predominantly horizontally and, consequently, the current
operating mechanism of these structures is one of a horizontal nature. In other words, any
structure type "network" in nature, society and economy, including business administration,
approaches clearly the functioning mechanism of holonic networks. However, when we refer
to the economic arrangement and / or to operation of holons just under a raised horizontal
form, involuntarily, some questions: How does sharing of information / knowledge in the rec
members if there is a coordination center or mediation? Are there characteristics of holons
(union, aggregation, development, etc.) kept and others disappear in the operation of holonic
networks?
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In our opinion, the complexity of economic and evolutionary adaptive and relatively
autonomous feature of various "actors" that make this life (namely firms) recommends the
appeal to two basic concepts summarized by holons theory:
Holarchy - type holonic patterns;
Network - type holonic patterns.
In other words, the appeal of top management to both categories of holonic patterns
allows hypothetically to optimize the performance aimed at by a company and the results of a
group of companies which are in league with a partnership. Our idea is shown in the
following figure.
Ascending and
CEO descending
holarchies
N holons in
the network
Existing patterns in
companies or deliberately
constructed
N holons in the
network
PERFORMAN
Holarchies CE
OPTIMIZATIO
N Partner 1 Partner 2
+
Holonic Network
networks node
Partner 3 Partner 4
Figure 1 Application of holonic patterns to optimize the output of business
organizations
(Source: own elaboration)
From the above figure we can easily deduce that from the perspective of business
organizations, it is preferable to mix permanently holarchies and holonic networks in the
attempt of decision maker to optimize the performance of managed entities. In this sense, with
respect to the aim previously invoked, one can easily deduce from Figure 1 the fact that the
analysis of holonic networks can be highly mode by antithesis with certain characteristics and
functioning mechanism of holarchies. Equally, we conclude that it is preferable to share
holonic network analysis on two hypothetical applications of holonic patterns in the business
world, namely:
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a). When we refer to the firm and its associated organizational chart (top right side of
the figure used) It is obvious that holonic networks and holarchies are / get combined / mixed
in the usual functioning mechanism of any entity of this type. In other words, both ascending
and descending holarchies and different types of holonic networks (such "network" type
patterns will always be found when analyzing the specific business operation of one
hierarchical level) may be useful in the construction of targeted strategies by top management.
More specifically, the deep connection (we intuitively can discuss automatic connection /
implicit for all the systems that give content to the real economy) between the two types of
holonic patterns. Current operation of firm is easily inferred from Fig. 2.
H1(0) - CEO
H11(1) – Vice President of H21(1) – Vice President of Operations
Production
H111(2)- H211(2)- H121(2)- H221(2)- H121(2)-
Accounting Financial Marketing
Production Director of
Director
Manager Research Director Director
H1 H2 H1 H1 H2 H1 H1 H2 H3
111 111 211 121 121 221 321 321 321
(3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3) (3)
- - - - - - - - -
Ser Ser Ser Ser Ser Ser Ser Ser Ser
vic vic vic vic vic vic vic vic vic
eA eB eC eD eE eF eG eH eI
Figure 2 Organizational chart as ascending / descending holarchy
(source: processed and adapted from Mesarovich, Theory of hierarchical, multi-level
systems, New York, Academic Press,1970)
From Figure 2, we can easily notice all components providing a company with the
operating mechanism were intentionaly joined (the graphical structure proposed by us in this
figure is apparently similar to descending one described by Mesarovich holarchy; in fact, it is
not just a simple analogy between an organizational pattern and outline Unie holarchie
downward as we have emphasized the current relations between the n distinct holons on any
hierarchical level). In addition, we can n immediately notice that any hierarchical level of any
organization has a distribution network type which is essential for the holonic cooperation and
interaction between the members of a level n; collaboration and interaction both upward and
downward in the same organizational chart functioning are essential as well. In other words,
de facto both holonic structures (holarchies and networks) may explain, at least partly the
strategic directions that should be taken by top decision maker.
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According to my views, the identification of characteristics specific to holonic
networks will be based on implementing antithesis of properties and / or characteristics that
are already known in any organizational chart operation (considering the organizational chart
consisting of n hierarchical levels) as against the to the features previously mentioned on
holarchy functioning. So, by referring to the first direction throughout the application of the
two concepts, namely private company as an entity on its own, we formulate the following
question: "To what extent are or are not certain characteristics of holarchies available in an
organizational chart operation?" "What are the specific properties of holons ordered
hierarchically which maintain their action in the operation of a hierarchical level of
organization chart?" "What theoretical conclusions can we drawn from the joining of
components of a descending holarchy (the segment added by us in Figure No. 2)?" "What
theoretical conclusions can we draw by applying integrative properties of holons on one
hierarchical level of any company‘s organizational chart?".
In our view, there result quite nuanced theoretical implications when mixing or
"overlay" holarchies and holonic networks with the aim to identify potential applications for
any type of company; it is difficult, we consider, to formulate complete answers to the
questions raised above.
As results from the mixing of the two types of holonic structures (mention should be
made that we foresee potential applications only in the case of type firm / company Entities),
we deduce that certain features that are found in the operation of the holarhies from n holons
are kept and / or included in the operation of holonic networks as predominantly horizontal
ordered structures. Among such characteristics or properties that are preserved and / or found
in holonic network operation we mention:
union property, since normally the same hierarchical level employees cooperate
closely and follow the same course of action to achieve certain objectives (their efforts to
work as an efficient team);
aggregation property because heads of service / department can join their
subordinates in various work teams and they pursue them;
interaction property because any branch of the company cooperate / interact with
another department but each department is supervised / watched distinctly by that department
head;
internal coordination property, because any departments / sections / workshops are
coordinated individually by a chief, and one chief is the coordinator of all;
development property because the results of the department's daily production
depend on previously acquired raw material purchasing department.
Also, from the mixing of the two types of holonic structures (correlated with the
questions raised by us) we may conclude that certain characteristics or properties of
holarchies are harder to be revealed in the operation of holonic networks, namely:
external coordination property, whereas normally any employee of an
organization does not receive / accept external coordinate directions; it is possible that the
only exception to this rule is met if the component company will be involved in a holonic
network with other businesses in the form of strategic alliance, partnership, etc. (in such cases
there will be a double subordination of managers and executives);
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open ended property, started by Koestler, because other employees, other
departments, other workshops, etc. cannot be endlessly added to the company organization
chart; This can only happen if the company is expanding into other areas.
b. When we refer to a holonic network consisting of n firms, the theory discusses
various types of strategic alliances, collaborations and partnerships of different types;
potential directions of applying the concept of holonic are nuanced in this case with reference
to the business world.
A network of organizations, as a group of companies, brings together their forces to
share resources and information in order to increase the competitiveness of the supply
network minimizing the barriers of space, time, cost and other considerations.1 Theoretically,
the new structure consistly of n firms may have tasks and / or specific role of autonomous
business organizations (so we can discuss about holonic firm).
The holonic company is corporated by integrating two or more independent companies
in a network, taking into account some criteria:
which ones are common customers and what they want in the future;
autonomous companies products or services offered to the market is a
reference standard (originally cit has been considered that theoretically only
companies that reached a stage of excellence in their field could aspire to their
inclusion into a holonic network, but then the realities of the global economy
have shown that such a conditioning is exceeded);
which ones are the practices of competitors and other sectors to gain or
maintain competitive advantage.
In a holonic firm the information technology plays a decisive role. Any business
holonic system is based mainly on a network such as the Internet. By its means, data and
knowledge are instantly distributed and people base their decisions on them. The authors of
this concept consider that "business holonic system is primarily a system where the
management system is embodied in real-time entirely by computers. Therefore, holonic
network is the first business system that really depends on the most modern information
technologies"2.
Theoretically, two or more companies that aim to establish a network can conceive
holonic collaboration / cooperation between them, with or without other hierarchical
structures that are intended to manage the new network. The figure below graphically present
the synthesis of variants to form a holonic network of companies.
Partner 1 Partner 2 Partner 1 Partner 2
network
node
Partner 3 Partner 4
Partner 3 Partner 4
1
Dumitru Oprean, Victoria Oprean - Managementul afacerilor pe Internet, Cluj-Napoca, 2010, p.46
2
Patrick McHugh, Giorgio Merli,William Wheeler - Beyond Business Reengineering – Towards the Holonic Enterprise,
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, UK, 1995
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Option I: Direct cooperation/collaboration Option II: Centralized
cooperation/collaboration
between all n firms (without a new hierarchical between n firms through a
Partner 1 Partner 2
network
node
Partner 3 Partner 4
network node structure
Option III: Decentralized cooperation / collaboration between
n firms and the existence of a network node
Figura 3 Options for setting up a network of holonic firms
(Source: own elaboration)
If we look from the point of view of its contents or internal nature a holonic network
consisting of n firms, we find that the four fundamental features of a holon suggested by Piero
Mella and holons properties of a complex set of Andrew Wallace in "Holons and holonic
society "is kept for each firm individually (each firm in the network is considered a holon):
» Self-preservation: any company within the holonic network can maintain its
original structure, although, over time, its components (ie company employees) changes.
Through this self-preservation, the company retains its own identity, even if it can be part of
one or more networks holonic companies.
» Self-adaptation: a firm part of a network, the holonic part of a larger whole; that is
the firm itself is an integer but, at the same time, it is part of a larger whole, called holonic
network. Being part of a network, the company must be able to adapt and create links with
other firms in the network and respond to their requests / suggestions / requests; that is firms
in a holonic network of n firms must work together.
» Self-transcendence: a holonic network is dynamic and creative, aspect that allows
the inclusion of new companies in the network.
» Self-dissolution: only applies if a company wants to withdraw from the holonic
network, which is highly unlikely. Self-dissolution of the entire network can occur if the
outgoing network node, or if all n firms in the network cease their collaboration in the
network.
» Scalability: the holonic network of n firms is autonomous and can operate with
limited information from other companies; therefore, we can add other companies to the
network without affecting the network operation of previously existing firms. A good
organization will lead to a positive influence of new companies on the network.
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» Robustness: refers to autonomy resulting from the network. Due to the scalability
feature new companies can be added to a holonic network, but a firm can also be removed
from the network, without affecting the functioning of the network as a whole of other
companies. This is a holonic network of n firms can operate smoothly and n-1 firms (provided
that n> 3 because if a network of two companies is deleted, then there is no company
network).
» Simplicity of control: each firm in the network gets well-defined tasks, aspect that
facilitates the system verification and control.
Patrick McHugh, Giorgio Merli, W.A Wheeler believe that holonic network favors
knowledge exploiting as a new resource type. A piece of information are becomes a "new
asset" of the company that is freely available to all. Operation and prosperity of holonic firm
can be explained by the widespread exploitation of information / knowledge - using
information technology - a resource for the future, based on past and present. In this
reorganization, there are three main variables to be considered: customers, competition and
change process.3
Companys networks is a form of cooperation between independent firms legally, but
sharing common economic interests that are geographically dispersed.
The concept of company network refers, in addition to a number of advantages to a
major weakness point that stands out especially if there is mutual distrust between partners
which can lead under extreme conditions to network collapse. Thus trust between network
partners supports both the premise of network foundation and the basis of effective
collaboration. It should be kept in mind that confidence about significant invests both in
financial terms and in terms of time consumption, on the other hand trust is a concept unstable
and precarious.
An advanced concept of company networks is the collaborative network of innovative
technological system that is configured to coordinate cooperation between various
organizations that pursue a common goal, namely economic, social, cultural and political
development of a region.4 Implementation of this concept involves the creation of clusters by
exploiting local industries and other skills (universities, financial institutions, local
government).5
Company networks is a convenient and beneficial option, especially for small and
medium enterprises to cope with globalization and the current complexity and to boost
innovative capacity to ensure and improve competitiveness. Within networks, otherwise
independent members assume some collaboration on certain issues, can create such synergies
by coordinating resources and expertise. They remain, however, at the same time,
independent of each other, thus avoiding the risk of having to build costly bureaucratic
structures and thus losing flexibility.
The created / designed networks offer cost advantages components to companies by
exploiting conjunctly resources, and within company networks risks can be also conjunctly
3
Patrick McHugh, Giorgio Merli, W. A. Wheeler - Beyond Business Process Reengineering: Towards the Holonic
Enterprise, John Wiley & Sons, 1995, England
4
Carlos Scheel - Knowledge clusters of technological innovation systems, Journal of Knowledge Management, 2002, Vol.6,
4, p.357
5
Adrian Dumitru Tanţău (coord) - Ghid de bună practică pentru clustere şi reţele de firme, Print Group Bucureşti, 2011,
pp.5-6
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born whith, such as the financing of investment goods which requires significant capital, and
in the case of staff hiring. As the number of entrepreneurs who bear certain risks is higher,
you can take bold decisions at the firm level can be taken and decision-making processes are
secured by the expertise of a larger group of entrepreneurs. The success of such association is
justified by the special characteristics of organization form called, network which is due to be
describe further succinctly. Networks have been described in the literature on network
management since early as a mixed form between hierarchical organizational patterns and the
market ones.6
Firms may associate in networks that are not hierarchical (version I figure 3), unlike
holarchies, the purpose of a network is to encourage cooperation availability of its members,
without obtaining this by constrain aspect which leads to a kind of cooperation significantly
oriented towards success. Companies will remain in the network only when convinced that
work together within the network brings a certain advantage. Since collaboratin with other
firms leads to success this make companies be willing to share knowledge and resources. In a
competitive relationship, as in an organization, there is good reason to hide some information,
but the operation of networks is peculiar because information is often distributed quickly and
accurately. Networks provide the opportunity to incorporate extremely heterogeneous partners
in a cooperative relatiomship.
Networks often start with a lot of enthusiasm, but quickly lose it a certain form of
awareness is crystalized when it turns out that the objectives to be achieved can not be easily
achieved, when those involved are not targeted in the same direction, but they have divergent
interests, that behind the apparent and free cooperation of any hierarchy there are still power
structures and that sympathy, initially shown should be confirmed throughout day-by-day
collaboration. Working with successful networking is really a very demanding activity that
requires a high degree of flexibility, communication and especially patience.
Network pattern is essentially a paradox: on the one hand mesh structures require
mutual trust between participants to work, but on the other hand this trust can really develop
only in the cooperation between participants. Namely, we can say that a trust is both the
premise and the result of networks.7
Therefore, structuring a successful company network involves building trust between
those involved and care that this confidence is not damaged due to false expectations and
disappointment.
3.Conclusions
Entrepreneurs must be able to experience under real collaboration that the cooperation
between them is useful, that members have similar goals and are willing to actually work
together in a constructive manner. At the same time, a successful network can be driven from
the outside, the way it will be designed later is a matter that ultimately should be taken into
consideration by these involved organizational responsibilities. So, there is no certainty about
6
Walter Powell – ‖Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization.‖ în: Research in Organizational
Behavior, vol.12, 1990, JAI press Inc., pp. 195-336.
7
Jost Wagner – ‖Trust in Network Relationships‖, Review of International Comparative Management, Vol.11, nr. 4, October
2010, pp.646-655
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how the network will look like and what forms of cooperation will emerge. The possibilities
are significant, but what should be implemented depends on the participants.
At this point it is hard to predict which the basic feature of the global market /
capitalist economies for the next period, ie we can not predict the mechanism by which
markets will operate; In our opinion we think that they will be combined and will be
completed in different formulations / variations based on clear rules as well as on competition
and cooperation needs determined by common goals. Therefore, we believe that theorists
interest in concepts such as holons / holarchies and holonic networks will increase
significantly in the future.
References
McHugh P., Merli G., Wheeler W.A. - Beyond Business Process Reengineering:
Towards the Holonic Enterprise, John Wiley & Sons, 1995, England.
Oprean D., Oprean V. - Managementul afacerilor pe Internet, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-
Napoca, 2010.
Powell W. – ‖Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization.‖ in:
Research in Organizational Behavior, vol.12, 1990, JAI press Inc.
Scheel C.- Knowledge clusters of technological innovation systems, Journal of
Knowledge Management, 2002, Vol.6(4).
Tanţău, A.D.(coord) - Ghid de bună practică pentru clustere şi reţele de firme, Print
Group Bucureşti, 2011.
Wagner J. – ‖Trust in Network Relationships‖, Review of International Comparative
Management, Vol.11, nr. 4, Octombrie 2010.
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SOUND AS AN AESTHETIC ELEMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN
MARKETING
Corina Paula Tarţa, PhD Student, Ioan Plǎiaş, Prof. PhD, ”Babeș-Bolyai”
University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Sounds are everywhere, but we are so used to them, that we stop noticing that we
actually hear something. This doesn‘t mean that they are meaningless, on the contrary sounds
have symbolism that can be used as a competitive advantage. The purpose of this paper is to
offer to the reader a background image on sounds as an aesthetic element. The article
describes what sounds are, sounds‘ categories, their meanings (sounds‘ symbolism) and how
we may use them as a marketing tool. The findings are based on a qualitative research and
show the things you should know before incorporate sounds into your strategy and how to use
them as an effective marketing instrument (atmospherics, brand and identity, product, ads).
Making these steps can lead to a strong element of differentiation (well-known sounds that
you can never forget – e.g. MGM‘s lion). Of course, it is important to align it to the
consumers‘ expectations. This paper contributes to unifying one‘s knowledge in aesthetics
and also, it is drawn on a wide range of sources.
Keywords: consumer, sounds, sound symbolism, aesthetics, marketing tool.
Introduction
Walking on the street and hearing the noise made by cars, watching a musical act or
maybe relaxing in a quiet place and listening only to the birds‘ voice, no matter which of
these situations you recognize, all are different types of sounds.
Nowadays, aesthetics is the element that makes the difference between products
because the technical functions are easily copied. When buying a phone, we all analyze what
it can do, but we don‘t even think for a second how it would be if it wouldn‘t sound when
somebody is calling or more, the quality of the sound. When entering the shop in which the
phone is, we find it normal to hear an environmental music, likewise we recognize the jingle
of a brand but as a consumer we are not always aware of its effect. Because all these influence
consumer‘s decision at a conscious or subliminal level, companies should study sounds and
used them in their marketing strategy in order to achieve awareness and a bigger number of
clients.
In this article, firstly, we analyze what sounds are, their characteristics and their
structure, in order to have a better understanding of them and being able to make connections.
Then, we present their meanings, so the firms can use them properly when deciding their
identity, the values they want to share and what mood to be created. Last, but not least, we
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describe the main marketing applications of sounds, thereby, companies can have a big
picture of how to develop a complex and successful strategy based on sounds.
Method
The main purpose of this research is to make an extended review on the literature
review regarding the role and the importance of sounds in marketing. The information
identified in the existing literature are analyzed in order to offer a clear image regarding the
main functions that sounds can have as a marketing tool. So, this study is an exploratory one
and will enrich one‘s knowledge on sounds as an aesthetic elements, presenting a useful
classification regarding their applications in marketing to both, theorists and practitioners.
Body
What are sounds and their elements
What are sounds?! Known also as auditory sensations, they are generated by sound
waves and are the result of periodical air rarefaction and condensation, made by the physical
corps‘ vibration (Schmitt and Simonson, 2002; Raichel, 2006). According to Schmitt and
Simonson (2002) sounds can be divided in 3 categories: verbal, musical and noises. The
verbal sounds implies the recognition of sounds made by speaking a language. The musical
ones are actually the musical notes and noises refer to discordant sounds. Özcan and van
Egmond (2012) group the sounds in 2 categories: consequential sounds and intentional
sounds. The first includes those sounds made by a product as a result of its function (e.g. the
sound made by the hairdryer when it‘s working or the one produced by a car‘s engine). The
second category represents the sound that are not mandatory for a product, but the producer
add them in order to create an additional value (e.g. parking sensors for cars). Comparing
these two approaches we have noticed that even if the categories presented by Schmitt and
Simonson and Özcan and van Egmond are very different, at a closer look, we realized that
due to the technological progress, consequential sounds can include music and noises,
whereas intentional ones are music and may be verbal (e.g. when the food in the microwave is
ready, a sound is made; in a few years, probably there will be devices that will actually say
―It‘s ready!‖). So, the second approach is more complex and it includes the first one.
Beside the categories in which are divided, sounds have also different features through
which can be characterized and interpreted. These are: frequency, amplitude and form, known
also as intensity, duration and tonality (Schmitt and Simonson, 2002). Bruner (1990) said that
sounds are illustrated through tone (an ascending or descending scale), rhythm (time) and
texture (volume and timbre). Even if, the expression is different, the words have the same
signification, no matter what approach we choose, the meaning is identic.
Sounds‘ symbolism
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Why it is important to know all these?! Because the sound made by a product can have
a functional role (Özcan and van Egmond, 2012); for example the more powerful the engine
of a car is, the angrier it will sound (of course, nowadays specialist want to develop silent
cars, but the persons that are passionate about cars, will always love to hear sound made by
the engine of a Ferrari – collection cars). So, depending on the categories from which the
product is, the sound made is associate with different noises. More, the individual makes also
mental connotations which lead to a lexical representation; for example when a person hear
the syntax ―sport‖ will reflect on the object, whereas when it will hear ―sport car‖
automatically will think at its functional characteristic. This happens not only due to the
sound, but also due to the reason that causes the sound (Vanderveer, 1979; Gaver, 1993;
Fabiani et al., 1996; Marcell et al, 2000). That‘s why it is important to study sounds‘
symbolism, which is defined as the mental association made by individual between sounds
and different attributes (Spence, 2012). Sounds are linked to products‘ positioning (Klink,
2001; Lowrey and Shrum, 2007), decision regarding the price (Coulter and Coulter, 2010),
logo‘s design (Klink; 2003), preference for a particular product (Klink, 2001) and the creation
of the brand (Abel şi Glinert, 2008; Begley, 2002; Belli, 2001; Collins, 1977; Douglas, 1981;
Lowrey and Shrum, 2007; McNeil, 1982; Vanden Bergh et al., 1984; all cited in Spence,
2012). Sounds symbolism can be analyzed from 2 points of view: the sounds of letters and the
features of sounds (tonality, intensity, etc. – presented above).
Sounds‘ symbolism – the sound of letters
The most well-known and analyzed letters by the researchers are: k, i and e. the first
example that turn ―k‖ into a big success was the brand ―Kraft‖, followed by Kellog‘s, Kodak,
KFC, K-Mart, IKEA and others (Schloss, 1981; Vanden Bergh, 1990; Vanden Bergh et al.,
1987; Abel and Glinert, 2008). ―I‖ is considered to be a veritable key point for the stores that
commercialize cheap products or little ones (small size) (Edgar Sapir, 1929; Hinton et al.,
1994; Newman, 1933; Davis, 1961; Diffloth, 1994 and Ultan, 1978 all cited in Spencer,
2012). Successful examples are: Aldi, Lidl, Londis, Iceland, Mini Cooper (Spence, 2012).
Letter ―e‖ is also correlated to something small, thinner or softer (French 1977; Klink; 2000).
Of course, there are other examples that don‘t respect these rules and are successful. For
example, respondents, when were put to choose between Frisch and Frosch ice-cream, most
of them chose Frosch because it sound more creamy due to the letter ―o‖ (Yorkston and
Menon, 2004). Another aspect noticed in the literature is the difference that appears between
particular consonants (stop consonants or fricative), vowels (front or back vowels), their
position in word and the pronunciation generated (Ladefoged, 1993; MacKay, 1978 Yorkston
şi Menon, 2004; Klink, 2000; Walker şi Smith, 1985). Unfortunately, there exist also
unsuccessful examples such as, Cadbury‘s Koko chocolate (Spencer, 2012).
As it can be seen the sound of letters is an important aspect to be taken into account
because it can help you in achieving success. The situations in which the company should pay
attention to this are when creating the name - the brand, the slogans and the jingles. They have
to make this if they want to transmit the right message.
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Sounds‘ symbolism – the features of sounds
The second category that includes the features of sounds analyzes the meanings of
tones, rhythm and texture. Because it creates different moods (Table no. 2) it can determine
different behavior as in the table below:
Table no. 1 – The influence of sounds‘ symbolism on consumer behavior
Influence Authors
Buying intention Alpert and Alpert (1986, 1988);
Perceived activity and appeal Holbrook and Anand (1988);
Choice behavior Gorn (1982), Kellaris and Cox (1987);
Shopping behavior Milliman (1982); Smith and Curnow (1966)
In-restaurants behavior Milliman (1986);
Cognitive and affective response Stout and Leckenby (1988);
Expressing emotions Clynes and Nettheim (1982), Gundlach (1935); Hevner
(1953 a, 1936, 1937); Kinnear (1959), Van Stone
(1960); Rigg (1940a,b); Scherer and Oshinsky (1977);
Swanwich (1973); Watson (1942); Wedin (1972);
Vinovich (1975);
Perceived and preferred Heyduk (1975);
complexity
Pleasure Smith and Cuddy (1986);
Source: information and authors are cited from Bruner, 1990, pp. 96 – 97
Analyzing table no. 1, we can notice that sounds‘ symbolism has an influence upon
several aspects regarding consumer when going shopping. More, these auditory sensations
may accompany the individual during the entire process of buying (starting from the moment
that a person is just seeking a product till he actually buy it). For example: when someone is
searching for a new car; the first moment in which he meets sounds is when he enters the
showroom and hears environmental music – this music can make him stay or can determine
him to leave, so he will shape his behavior according to the noises he hears. Considering that
he stayed, further, he can be attracted by the sound made by the engine, by the audio system
or maybe by the closing doors. All these will lead to receiving a cognitive or affective
response from the consumer regarding his experience that can transform in forming the
buying intention. The problem that can appear in situations like this one refers to the fact that
each individual may prefer another type of music or a different tonality and intensity. Given
this, researchers concluded that there exist different variations of sounds that induce different
moods. In the table below you can find what tone determines a particular state of mind.
Table no. 2 – mood determine through music
Musical element
Mood
Mode Tempo Pitch Rhythm Harmony Volume
Serious Major Consonant Medium
Low Firm
Sad Slow Dissonant
Minor Slow
Sentimental Medium Flowing Consonant
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Serene
Humorous
High Medium
Happy Major Fast
Exciting Uneven
Medium Tare
Majestic Medium Firm Dissonant
Frightening Minor Slow Low Uneven Varied
Source: taken from Bruner, 1990, p. 100
Knowing all these ties that can be done, firm can use them in their advantage in order
to create the atmosphere they desire and that aligns to consumers‘ expectations. Going further
with the example presented above, but now analyzing it through the eyes of the seller
(showroom), respecting the rules mentioned can give them the confidence that the client
won‘t leave the showroom because the environmental music is not appropriate, because they
knew how to choose the sounds that determine a serious or exciting state of mind and not a
sad one.
Investigating deeper the sounds‘ symbolism, specialists discovered that auditory
sensations can be also connected to others aesthetics‘ elements, such as: color, form and
tastes. In table no. 3 you can see a description of them.
Table no. 3 – Associations between sounds, colors, forms and tastes
Tone- Instrument Musical
Vowels Consonants Form Color
pitch parameters
Oral-
somatosensation
Carbonation Front Plosives - - - Angular Red
Creamy,
smooth, - - - - Rounded -
Back
rich texture
Thickness - - - - -
Crunchy/Cri
- - - - -
spy Plosives
Angular
Taste
Front/ Low-
Bitterness Brass Legato Green
Back pitch
Plosives/ Softer, lower,
Sweetness Front Piano Rounded Red
Fricatives High- and consonant
Sourness pitch Dissonant and
- Voiceless - Angular Yellow
(acidity) fast
Staccato, and
Saltiness - - - - dense in wide musical - White
intervals
Umami Low-
- - - - - -
(savory) pitch
Flavor
Syncopated
Citrus - - - - rhythm, and bright, sharp Angular -
timbre
Slow adagio),
Vanilla - - - - -
Piano, and soft, dull timbre
woodwind
High-
Fruit - - - - -
pitch
Source: taken from Spence, 2012, p. 46
Knowing all these connections can help a company in developing an aesthetic product
with a complex strategy which can improve the process of recalling, thanks to the links
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between all these interconnected aesthetic elements – like this, the individual will have many
ways to identify a product, so if he can‘t see, will hear or taste and so on.
Sounds as an aesthetic element and its importance in marketing
Why it is important to analyze the auditory style as an aesthetic element?! Firstly,
because it has a great impact on consumer‘s buying decision. Due to this, a magazine was
established, ―Marketing through Music‖, that actually is studying only its influence.
Moreover, all famous marketing agencies have a vice-president specialized only on music as a
marketing tool (Garfield, 1988). Last, but not least, sounds have a key role in their relation
with branding and advertising (Schmitt and Simonsn, 2002; Moore, 2010), an effect upon the
consumer‘s experience and judgment regarding the product (Blauert and Jekosch, 1997;
Spence and Zampiri, 2006) and can affect affective and cognitive stimulus (Clynes, 1980;
Seidman, 1981; Clynes and Nettheim, 1982).
So, how can a company use sounds as a marketing tool?! In our research, we have
identified 4 main functions. In the table below, you can find them presented in a synthesized
way and also their description and main purpose.
Table no. 4 – The applications of sounds in marketing
Authors who have
Marketing
Description studied their
function
importance
Through music it can be created both, a positive and Kotler, 1973;
negative atmosphere. Rossiter, 1982;
Its importance is demonstrated by the time a consumer MacInnis & Park,
is willing to spend in a store. The more he stay, the 1991; Bitner; 1992;
chances to buy a product and spend more money that Areni & Kim,
he proposed, increase. For a company, choosing the 1993; Mattila &
Atmospherics right environmental music can contribute in Wirtz, 2001; North
recognizing the store‘s identity and the way et al, 2004;
consumers evaluate it. North, Hargreaves and Donovan &
McKendrick (1997) showed that depending on the Beverland et al,
environmental music played into a store can be a 2006;
selection criteria between a French and a German
wine.
Sounds‘ symbolism contribute to the increase of Klink, 2000;
brand‘s awareness due to the fact that facilitates the Schmitt &
process of learning and remembering a word. More, Simonson, 2002;
through the sound made by a letter you can transmit Yorkston &
Brand and
different moods; for example, according to Begley Menon; 2004;
identity
(2002), the letter ―v‖ from Viagra communicates Lowrey & Shrum,
energy or according to Erlich (1995), the letter ―z‖ 2007; Klink &
from Prozac reveal ―efficiency‖. Athaide, 2012;
Klink & Wu; 2013;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Sound is a very important element for the product Lageat, et al.,
itself, having 2 main roles: functionality (e.g.: the 2003; Laurant,
sound made by the car‘s engine proves that is working 2003; Zeitler,
or maybe if is more like a noise shows that the engine Ellermeier, &
Product has a problem) and additional value (e.g.: the parking Fastl, 2004;
sensor help you in the process of parking making it Susini, et al., 2004;
easier for you, so you can park better without making van Egmond, 2008;
an accident). Özcan & van
Egmond, 2012;
Ads without sounds seem like something that Farnsworth, 1969;
happened 50 years ago. Music and sounds play a key Holbrook &
role in an ad because through them you can transmit Schindler, 1989;
your slogans and jingles which may imprint easily in Alpert & Aplert,
consumers‘ mind. 1990;
Ads
The ways through which music can contribute in Bower, 1991; Dube
(Commercials)
creating an advertisement are: entertainment, structure et al, 1995; Schmitt
and memorability (Schmitt and Simonson, 2002). & Simonson, 2002;
Companies should include them in their strategy North et al, 2004;
because they can elicit emotional and behavioral
responses.
Conclusions
Before opting for a strategy based on sounds, a company should know the 2 main
categories that sounds are divided in, because only like this it would be able to implement it
successfully. Moreover, when doing this, a firm should keep in mind the products‘ symbolism
in order for it to make the right choice when choosing an environmental music, the name of
the brand/jingle or the sounds made by the product when it‘s working.
The main application of sounds in marketing are: atmospherics, brand and identity,
product and ads. When transforming them in a competitive advantage a company should pay
attention in making them congruent to the consumers‘ expectations. Applying all these
correctly will lead in the development of unique sounds that will be known for many years
and which will become priceless. Giving these facts the companies will want to register and
make them a trademark (for example: Nokia tune, Intel and MGM‘s lion (Moore, 2010)).
Future research
In order to validate the marketing applications of sounds, which we have identified
after conducting the research above, we would like to realize (as a future research) a
quantitative study which will analyze the consumers‘ perceptions regarding sounds‘
importance and functions and the influence of sounds on consumers‘ buying decision.
Acknowledgements
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectorial
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115, project title ―Performance and Excellence in Doctoral and
Postdoctoral Research in Romanian Economics Science Domain‖
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CONTEMPORARY CRISES AND THE POWER OF MODERN STATE
Cristian Băhnăreanu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Carol I” National Defense University,
Bucharest
Abstract: The contemporary crises and their management are a major concern for the
involved states, the major powers and the regional/international organizations taking into
account the complexity and the impact they have on people, property, material assets and
cultural environment. The recent economic and financial crisis proved that the
interconnection of national economies may cause instability of the global financial and
economic system, with effects in all other aspects of security.
This paper examines the crisis theory and different types of crises (political, economic,
financial, social, environmental, and military), the way in which they affects the state power,
the society, and the national security and underlines the need to diagnose the problems we
face in order to prevent, limit, and resolution the crisis situations.
Keywords: crisis, contagion effect, society, national security, crisis management
1. Conceptul de criză şi efectul de „cascadă”/contagiune al crizei
În evoluţia unui stat sau a unei societăţi, criza reprezintă un moment critic, care duce
fie la conflict pentru impunerea intereselor unei părţi, fie la reîntoarcerea la starea de
normalitate prin armonizarea intereselor divergente. Ea constituie o constantă a lumii
contemporane, care, de regulă, apare ca urmare a unor dificultăţi de natură economică,
socială, politică etc. şi reprezintă o perioadă de tensiune, de tulburare, de încercări, adesea
decisive, care se manifestă în societate1. Definiţia crizei poate fi redusă la nevoia de
schimbare, adică dezorganizare în vederea unei noi organizări.
Desigur, criza poate fi şi acea formă de înfruntare neconcretizată, destinată a cântări
greu în balanţa decizională a celuilalt, pentru a-l constrânge să renunţe la interesele sale
legitime şi a obţine de la el concesii care nu corespund mizei, pentru a evita riscul războiului
total2. În viziune americană, criza este „un incident sau o situaţie care implică existenţa unei
ameninţări la adresa unei naţiuni, a cetăţenilor şi forţelor sale militare sau intereselor vitale ale
acesteia, care evoluează rapid şi creează premise de natură diplomatică, economică sau
militară ce obligă la analiza angajării forţelor militare şi resurselor pentru a realiza obiectivele
naţionale‖3. Ameninţările pot viza atât teritoriile, resursele şi cetăţenii ţării respective, cât şi
valorile, instituţiile sau infrastructurile strategice ale acesteia, cu consecinţe negative în
domeniul securităţii.
1
Academia Română, Institutul de lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan‖, DEX – Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române, Ediţia a II-a,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureşti, 1998, p. 241.
2
Jean-Louis DUFOUR, Crizele internaţionale. De la Beijing (1900) la Kosovo (1999), Editura Corint, Bucureşti, 2002, p. 15.
3
US Department of Defense, JP 1-02. DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 8 November 2010 (As Amended
Through 15 August 2014), p. 60, www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/jp1_02.pdf.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Criza poate fi definită şi ca o situaţie care îndeplineşte una sau mai multe din
următoarele circumstanţe: se manifestă un dezacord fundamental asupra a ceea ce cel puţin
una din părţi consideră a fi un interes vital; apare o prăpastie între interdependenţa dintre piaţă
şi societate; apare un eşec instituţional în ceea ce priveşte regulile şi normele procesului;
apare un eşec din punctul de vedere al comunităţii4. În majoritatea cazurilor, ea este generată
de faptul că factorii responsabili scapă de sub control pârghiile activităţii şi proceselor
politico-diplomatice, economico-financiare, socio-culturale, militare etc., ceea ce duce la
disfuncţionalităţi în modul de organizare şi funcţionare a sistemului. Ieşirea din criză se face
fie prin schimbarea structurală a sistemului, fie prin importante modificări adaptative ale
structurii sale5. Prin urmare, revenirea la starea de normalitate a sistemului se va putea realiza
doar în condiţiile adaptării sau modificării formei, conţinutului sau structurii acestuia.
În prezent, când abordăm problematica de securitate, trebuie să avem în vedere
multiplele ei dimensiuni, de la cea politică, până la cea ecologică 6. Cerinţele realizării
securităţii fiind profund interdependente, orice disfuncţionalitate din unul dintre domenii
influenţează semnificativ celelalte planuri de manifestare a securităţii. Prin urmare, crizele
dintr-un sistem se transferă în celelalte sisteme şi chiar în sistemele de sisteme. Menţinerea
unei situaţii de criză generalizată7 sau de criză permanentă, prin trecerea de la o criză la alta,
de la cea economică la cea socială, de la cea socială la cea politică, are ca finalitate inevitabilă
crearea unor condiţii favorabile fie de eşuare sau colaps a statului respectiv, fie de agresiune
armată.
Modelul de interconectare/înlănţuire al diferitelor tipuri de crize spre declanşarea unui
conflict armat ar putea fi următorul: criză financiară – criză economică – criză socială – criză
politică – criză militară şi, în final, agresiune armată. Un astfel de model este pur teoretic, în
practică neputând fi identificat cu uşurinţă un astfel de efect de „cascadă‖, având în vedere că
progresivitatea evenimentelor este destul de rapidă, iar etapele (crizele) adesea se suprapun,
rezultând o criză generalizată la nivelul societăţii respective.
Pe scurt, trecerea de la criză financiară şi economică spre agresiune/conflict armat se
realizează în câteva etape, prezentate succint în cele ce urmează. Astfel, valorile anormale ale
majorităţii indicatorilor macroeconomici utilizaţi la evaluarea unei economii reliefează
declanşarea crizei şi chiar a recesiunii economice, ce va fi, de regulă, coroborată cu o criză
financiară ca urmare a incapacităţii statului respectiv de a-şi rambursa datoriile. Această
situaţie duce, inevitabil, la creşterea preţurilor, inflaţiei şi şomajului, scăderea producţiei,
consumului şi investiţiilor, dar mai ales la o diminuare a veniturilor şi economiilor populaţiei.
Prin urmare, nivelul de trai al populaţiei va fi serios afectat, în special al persoanelor cu
venituri fixe, ceea ce va declanşa criza socială.
În această fază avem de a face cu ineficienţa puterii politice – lipsa deciziilor
guvernamentale eficiente şi a transparenţei, discrepanţele între necesităţile populaţiei şi
politicile economico-financiare, alocarea defectuoasă a resurselor pentru satisfacerea nevoilor,
precaritatea instrumentelor interne de intervenţie, lipsa competitivităţii economiei respective
4
Jeffrey J. ANDERSON, G. John IKENBERRY, Thomas RISSE (eds.), The End of the West? Crisis and change in the
Atlantic order, Cornell University Press, 2008, p. 12.
5
Cătălin ZAMFIR, Lazăr VLĂSCEANU (coord.), Dicţionar de sociologie, Editura Babel, Bucureşti, 1993, p. 144.
6
Barry BUZAN, Popoarele, statele şi teama. O agendă pentru studii de securitate internaţională în epoca de după Războiul
Rece, Editura Cartier, Chişinău, 2000.
7
Criza generalizată semnifică faptul că majoritatea sau toate sistemele statului respectiv se află în criză.
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etc. – în realizarea obiectivelor politicii economice şi susţinerea unui nivel acceptabil al
calităţii vieţii. Proasta guvernare poate declanşa aşa-numita criză politică, caracterizată de
instabilitate internă, luptă politică şi durată redusă a regimului politic, structură politică
inadecvată, lipsă de responsabilitate a decidentului, grad scăzut de descentralizare a deciziilor
şi de adaptare legislativă, calitate precară a reglementărilor, politicilor publice şi programelor
sociale, raport nerealist între deciziile politice şi capabilităţile disponibile, nivel redus de
reprezentare politică, scădere a încrederii populaţiei în instituţiile statului şi chiar nerespectare
a puterii politice etc. Aceste circumstanţe pot provoca, uneori, o criză militară şi, mai apoi, o
posibilă agresiune armată.
De asemenea, crizele se pot manifesta, în funcţie de actorii angajaţi şi implicaţii, la
nivel local, naţional, frontalier, regional (zonal), continental, internaţional (global). Efectul de
contagiune de la un nivel la altul este extrem de rapid, dat fiind gradul ridicat de
interdependenţă.
2. Tipurile de criză care pot afecta statul şi societatea
Toate crizele care afectează sistemele politice, economice, sociale, ecologice şi
militare sunt, în esenţa lor, de sorginte politică. Anumite decizii sau circumstanţe de natură
politică pot genera o disfuncţie care dă naştere la o criză în sistem. Ele provin din apariţia şi
dezvoltarea unor disfuncţionalităţi grave în primul rând în cadrul fluxurilor pe care se definesc
relaţiile dintre sisteme sau dintre componente ale sistemelor. Acestea se accentuează în
permanenţă, dacă nu se iau măsuri imediate.
Puterea statului modern poate fi diminuată de manifestarea unei crize în oricare dintre
componentele sale specifice (politică, economică, tehnologică, socială, demografică,
culturală, ecologică, militară, informaţională etc.), aflate într-o puternică relaţie de
interdependenţă. În continuare, ne vom opri asupra celor mai importante tipuri de crize ce ar
putea afecta societatea şi securitatea naţională.
Criza politică este definită ca un moment extraordinar când existenţa şi viabilitatea
ordinii politice este pusă sub semnul întrebării. Acest tip de criză se manifestă atunci când
conflictul ameninţă integritatea ordinii8. În acest stadiu, se accentuează anumite contradicţii şi
disfuncţii ce nu mai pot fi rezolvate în cadrul sistemului, ci doar prin înlocuirea sa.
Criza politică este cauzată, în principal, de ineficacitatea aparentă a politicilor sau
eşecul controlului raţional al economiei, precum şi de problemele privind legitimitatea atunci
când sprijinul public este retras. Ea este un moment în care „puterea‖ (Preşedinte, Parlament,
guvern, partidul cu majoritate, toate împreună sau doar o parte a acestor instituţii) nu mai are
legitimitate în timpul exercitării mandatului. Acest tip de criză apare atunci când schimbarea
echipei aflată la guvernare, prin alegeri anticipate sau la termen, nu are loc suficient de repede
pentru a detensiona raporturile dintre puterea politică şi societate.
Practica democratică oferă destule exemple când diverse tensiuni şi incompatibilităţi
au generat crize politice extrem de grave. O astfel de criză poate fi declanşată de anumite
mecanisme interne sau de joc politic (grevă parlamentară, demisie în bloc, căderea guvernului
prin moţiune de cenzură etc.), dar şi prin creşterea numărului de partide politice şi menţinerea
unor structuri învechite şi rigide. Totodată, anumite schimbări majore pe plan regional şi
internaţional fac ca echipa aflată la putere să nu mai poată gestiona problemele ţării ghidându-
8
Jeffrey J. ANDERSON, G. John IKENBERRY, Thomas RISSE (eds.), op. cit., 2008, p. 12.
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se după vechile principii. Prin urmare, criza politică apare atunci când decidenţii politici nu
sunt conştienţi de aceste slăbiciuni sau nu fac tot ce le stă în putere pentru a îndrepta lucrurile.
Spre exemplu, Belgia a funcţionat mai bine de un an şi jumătate (2010-2011) cu un
guvern interimar din cauza neînţelegerilor dintre partidele flamande şi cele francofone. După
535 de zile de criză politică, cele şase partide angajate în negocieri au ajuns la un consens
pentru formarea unui guvern. Şi în cadrul Uniunii Europene crizele politice apar periodic, mai
ales în soluţionarea unor probleme ce necesită consensul statelor membre. Astfel, o situaţie de
blocaj la nivel politic a apărut în 2005, atunci când Tratatul de instituire a unei Constituţii
pentru Europa a fost respins prin referendum, în Franţa şi Olanda.
Conform ideologiei marxiste, criza economică se naşte din antagonismul claselor,
acumularea bogăţiei într-o parte şi a sărăciei în cealaltă parte9. În practică, ea este generată de
faptul că factorii responsabili scapă de sub control majoritatea sau toate pârghiile activităţii şi
proceselor economice, ceea ce duce la o serie de disfuncţionalităţi.
În ultimele decenii, crizele economice şi financiare au avut loc pe întreg mapamondul,
inclusiv în state dezvoltate. Datorită dinamicii tot mai alerte a mediului şi circuitelor
economice globale, nici o economie nu este imună la perioadele de criză. De altfel, criza face
parte din oricare ciclu economic şi se referă la tranziţia treptată spre recesiune, adică perioada
în care procesul normal al activităţii economice sau financiare suferă din cauza unui
scurtcircuit temporar.
În timp, activităţile şi procesele economice nu au o evoluţie uniformă, liniară, ci sunt
perturbate de fluctuaţii sezoniere (au loc în anumite perioade de timp şi pot fi, în general,
previzibile), întâmplătoare (accidentale, de scurtă durată, determinate de factori aleatori) şi
ciclice (caracterizate de o durată mai lungă de timp, intensitate mai mare şi o anumită
regularitate, alternând perioadele de expansiune cu cele de depresiune a activităţii
economice). Totuşi, trecerea de la expansiune la încetinire/stagnare economică nu presupune,
neapărat declanşarea unei crize economice. Această trecere poate fi generată fie de unele
măsuri restrictive (adoptate de către guvern sau parteneri externi), fie de epuizarea cauzelor
care au stat la baza expansiunii.
În faza de criză a activităţii economice, criză ce poate cuprinde diferite ramuri şi
sectoare sau economia naţională în ansamblul său, mediul de afaceri se degradează treptat
deoarece apar unele dezechilibre. Indicatorii macroeconomici înregistrează valori anormale şi
se manifestă tendinţa de scădere a investiţiilor, producţiei, cererii de consum, ocupării forţei
de muncă, salariilor, profiturilor, vânzărilor, exporturilor sau a cursului titlurilor de valoare,
ceea ce restrânge şi scumpeşte creditul. Concomitent, se ajunge la rate mari ale inflaţiei
(dezechilibru ce se manifestă prin creşterea generalizată a preţurilor şi reducerea puterii de
cumpărare a unităţii monetare), ceea ce poate duce la scăderea nivelului de trai, în special al
persoanelor cu venituri fixe. De asemenea, slăbirea capacităţii concurenţiale a firmelor
naţionale afectează creditul şi descurajează economiile, privilegiază debitorii, determină
redistribuirea veniturilor între diferite sectoare, ramuri şi categorii de populaţie, creşte
şomajul, sporeşte rapid importurile, majorează deficitul bugetar, extinde economia subterană
şi criminalitatea economico-financiară, generează fluctuaţii ale ratei de schimb a monedei
naţionale.
9
Karl MARX, Capitalul: Critica economiei politice, Editura Alexandria Publishing House, Suceava, 2009.
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Fără îndoială, o criză economică sau financiară de anvergură poate fi generată de
schimbarea bruscă şi profundă a regimului politic sau de liberalizarea comerţului 10. În această
fază a ciclului economic, putem avea de a face cu lipsa bunei guvernări sau ineficienţa
acesteia în realizarea obiectivelor politicii economice. Cu toate că criza economică poate
apărea ca urmare a unei crize politice, tot guvernul este cel în măsură să adopte măsuri
anticriză (anticiclice) în virtutea funcţiei acestuia de regulator al activităţii economice.
Pârghiile economice – preţ, credit, salariu, dobândă, profit, cost – şi instrumentele specifice de
politică economică, financiară şi fiscală, monetară şi de credit joacă un rol deosebit de
important în procesul de depăşire a perioadei de criză şi de dinamizare a economiei. Prin
urmare, trebuie restabilite unele echilibre economice prin lărgirea accesului la resurse şi
restructurarea şi reînnoirea factorilor de producţie, ceea ce va necesita un cost social ridicat.
În evoluţia economiei mondiale, alternanţa perioadelor de expansiune cu cele de
contracţie a dovedit că nu este posibilă evitarea totală a unei crize financiare. Finanţele
constituie „motorul‖ oricărei economii a lumii, extrem de puternic şi complex, dar câteodată
extrem de vulnerabil şi fragil.
Criza financiară poate fi interpretată ca orice situaţie în care sistemul financiar naţional
nu mai este capabil, indiferent din ce motiv, să asigure resurse financiare suficiente pentru
îndeplinirea funcţiilor şi obligaţiilor statului respectiv (de exemplu, rambursarea datoriilor),
ceea ce poate perturba funcţionarea normală a celorlalte sisteme, putându-se ajunge chiar la
incapacitate de plată. Ele pot lua diverse forme precum: criza monetară, colapsul sistemului
bancar, creşteri accentuate ale datoriilor pe termen scurt, presiuni pe piaţa internă asupra
ratelor dobânzii, perioade de inflaţie ridicată. O astfel de criză determină pierderea încrederii
în moneda naţională şi alte active financiare ale ţării respective, ceea ce duce la retragerea
investitorilor străini şi a capitalului internaţional.
Criza financiară poate fi declanşată de o multitudine de factori, precum: politici
macroeconomice nepotrivite şi lipsa de transparenţă din partea băncilor centrale şi a
guvernelor; menţinerea unui regim de curs de schimb fix sau devalorizarea/supraevaluarea
voită a monedei naţionale; atacurile capitalurilor speculative; tendinţa unei crize financiare
declanşate într-o ţară de a cauza crize în alte ţări; împrumuturi externe mult prea mari; plata
datoriilor externe din rezervele valutare; tranziţia ţării respective de la net exportator la net
importator.
Ţările trec periodic prin crize economice şi financiare, vulnerabile fiind mai ales
economiile neindustrializate şi cele ale Lumii a Treia. Cauzele ce duc la astfel de crize sunt
multiple, naţionale sau internaţionale, de la managementul ineficient al activităţii economice,
dezechilibru între cheltuielile guvernamentale şi veniturile la buget, până la schimbările
produse în economia mondială, precum: scăderea cererii şi preţuri reduse ale bunurilor
exportate, volatilitatea preţurilor petrolului şi circuitul rapid al capitalurilor în căutare de
profituri rapide sau speculative. Ca urmare a acţiunii cumulate a acestor factori, guvernul nu
mai poate finanţa anumite activităţi din sectorul bugetar şi de servicii publice, rambursarea
datoriilor şi dezvoltarea infrastructurii. Pentru a trece peste aceste perioade de incapacitate,
autorităţile apelează adeseori la fondurile şi asistenţa asigurate de organizaţiile regionale sau
10
Nauro F. CAMPOS, Cheng HSIAO, Jeffrey B. NUGENT, Crises, What Crises?, IZA Discussion Paper No. 2217, July
2006, p. 4.
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internaţionale competente (Fondul Monetar Internaţional, Banca Mondială, Organizaţia
pentru Cooperare şi Dezvoltare Economică, Uniunea Europeană).
În lumina celor de mai sus, putem spune că criza economică este o stare complexă,
negativă, ce apare ca urmare a unor manifestări, măsuri sau reforme economice care afectează
valorile fundamentale ale dezvoltării economice a statului respectiv. Majoritatea cazurilor
anterioare demonstrează faptul că astfel de crize sunt inevitabile şi „contagioase‖, dar pot fi
gestionate. Problema principală nu este cum poate fi evitată criza, ci cum poate fi scurtată
perioada de manifestare şi diminuate intensitatea şi efectele acesteia.
Un exemplu extrem de concludent şi complex de criză economică şi financiară,
probabil la fel sau chiar mai gravă faţă de cea din anii ‘30, este cea care continuă să se
manifeste pe plan global de la sfârşitul anului 2008 încoace. Ea a fost urmată de recesiune,
apoi de o oarecare redresare şi mai mult ca sigur de un nou posibil colaps. Criza economico-
financiară a pus mari probleme în majoritatea ţărilor dezvoltate, în curs de dezvoltare sau mai
puţin dezvoltate şi a antrenat o serie de alte tipuri de crize. Cea mai gravă se dovedeşte a fi
criza socială, cetăţeanul simplu fiind cel care suportă cel mai mult efectele acestei situaţii
economice dificile.
Criza socială poate fi definită ca un complex de condiţii ce determină o situaţie
instabilă şi periculoasă în societate, implicând o schimbare iminentă, şi pe care statul, în sine,
nu o poate rezolva. Acest complex de condiţii înglobează anumite decizii, evenimente sau
conjuncturi nefavorabile care perturbă viaţa socială a individului.
Conform lui Richard LaPiere, criza socială poate fi definită ca o situaţie în care
„...adversitatea progresivă face ca populaţia să se îndoiască şi apoi să renunţe la speranţa unui
viitor mai bun, adică împlinirea aşteptărilor sociale, pierzându-şi astfel încrederea în valoarea
practicilor, instrumentelor şi structurilor sociale tradiţionale prin care aceste aşteptări sunt în
mod normal îndeplinite...‖11. Prin urmare, criza socială reprezintă momentul critic în care
forţele interne ostile ajung la un punct de cotitură, iar tensiunile ating cote maxime. Populaţia
îşi pierde încrederea în autorităţi. Situaţia socială existentă nu mai poate fi tolerată sau
gestionată, iar o schimbare majoră şi decisivă este iminentă.
O criză de acest tip este puţin probabil să aibă cauze numai din domeniul socialului, ci
cel mai adesea apare ca o consecinţă a unor decizii sau conjuncturi politice, economice şi de
mediu proaste. Criza socială se declanşează, de regulă, ca urmare a nesoluţionării celor din
domeniul politico-diplomatic, economico-financiar sau ecologic, care direct sau indirect au
efecte asupra individului şi comunităţii din care el face parte.
Prin urmare, criza socială este o situaţie nou creată în viaţa socială, ca urmare a
apariţiei unor manifestări şi ameninţări la adresa obiectivelor sau intereselor sociale ale unei
naţiuni, care afectează valorile fundamentale sau unele valori prioritare de natură socială12. Ea
reprezintă un proces care, sub efectul unui eveniment social declanşator, pune în mişcare o
serie de disfuncţionalităţi fie la nivelul unei sau unor comunităţi locale, fie la nivelul
comunităţii statale.
11
Richard T. LAPIERE, A theory of social control, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954 apud Ronald A. KUYKENDALL, Social
Crisis and Social Demoralization: The Dynamics of Status in American Race Relations, First Edition, Arissa Media Group,
2005, p. 41.
12
Mircea MUREŞAN, Gheorghe VĂDUVA, Eugen BOAMBĂ (coord.), Criza, conflictul, războiul, volumul III, Editura
Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 40.
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Deşi, criza socială are la bază o doză destul de ridicată de subiectivism, adică percepţia
individuală atribuită unui eveniment sau altuia, membrii unei colectivităţi care se confruntă cu
o criză de acest tip tind să adopte atitudini şi comportament comun. Criza socială poate slăbi
mecanismele de control social şi însufleţi membrii societăţii, pe de o parte, sau poate slăbi
moralul maselor şi duce la demoralizare socială, pe de altă parte.
Lumea în care trăim oferă multe momente în care forţele care operează în societate nu
mai pot fi tolerate, deoarece nu mai îndeplinesc aspiraţiile populaţiei, ceea ce necesită
evaluarea şi eventual modificarea sistemului de relaţii sociale. Principalii factori care pot fi
duce la criză socială sunt daţi de recesiune economică, război, terorism etc. În lumea
contemporană, criza socială apare de regulă pe fondul recesiunii economice, al incapacităţii
economiei de a se reproduce, de a genera surse de venituri şi bunăstare sau al îndatorării
excesive. Este cazul Greciei, care este obligată să implementeze o serie de măsuri nepopulare
pentru a-şi reduce pe termen lung uriaşa sa datorie, ceea ce generează ample proteste şi
mişcări sociale.
Criza de mediu sau criza ecologică poate fi înţeleasă în termeni de declin a capacităţii
Planetei de a susţine viaţa, prin încălcarea a trei legi fundamentale ale ecologiei şi anume:
interdependenţa tuturor formelor de viaţă, stabilitatea ecosistemelor datorită diversităţii şi
complexităţii, caracterul finit al resurselor.
Ea constituie o deteriorare dramatică, neaşteptată, rapidă şi ireversibilă a mediului ce
duce la reducerea semnificativă a bunăstării. De exemplu, diminuarea lentă a numărului de
specii la nivel mondial nu reprezintă o criză ecologică. Evenimentul respectiv trebuie să aibă
o probabilitate mică de apariţie, nu ca în cazul exploatării excesive a hidrocarburilor unde
elementul de incertitudine nu mai există – finalul este epuizarea completă a lor. De asemenea,
o componentă de ireversibilitate este necesară. Dacă recuperarea după o tragedie ecologică
necesită un timp îndelungat, atunci fără îndoială că va exista mult mai multă preocupare şi
grijă faţă de mediul înconjurător.
Cel mai recent exemplu de tragedie ecologică care au avut efecte extrem de grave
asupra mediului înconjurător a fost cutremurul cu magnitudinea de 9 grade pe scara Richter
din 11 martie 2011, în apropierea coastelor din nord-estul Japoniei, ce a provocat un tsunami
uriaş ce a inundat centrala de la Fukushima, provocând cea mai gravă catastrofă nucleară din
ultimii 25 de ani.
Criza militară care poate fi definită ca o situaţie naţională sau internaţională
caracterizată prin existenţa unei ameninţări la adresa obiectivelor, intereselor sau valorilor
fundamentale ale părţilor implicate, pentru a cărei rezolvare acestea folosesc violenţa armată
în scopul impunerii prin forţă a obiectivelor sau intereselor proprii 13. Având în vedere ce
afirma şi Carl von Clausewitz „războiul este continuarea politicii, dar cu alte mijloace‖, putem
spune că întotdeauna o astfel de criză are loc pe fondul unor decizii politice, ceea ce înseamnă
că ea devine o criză de tip politico-militar.
În studiile de specialitate americane, criza politico-militară este definită prin trei
factori: interesele-cheie sau cele vitale ale actorilor implicaţi; existenţa elementului de timp
sau a sensului de urgenţă; progresele majore sau ameninţările (sau ambele) la adresa
13
Ibidem, p. 57.
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intereselor tuturor părţilor sunt posibile, inclusiv ameninţarea cu un conflict militar, iar în
cazul marilor puteri o ameninţare potenţială la adresa structurii sistemului internaţional14.
Criza de acest tip este particularizată de o serie de indici 15, precum: concentrarea de
forţe în apropierea frontierelor naţionale prin notificarea sau nu a activităţilor; realizarea de
alianţe militare cu scop nedeclarat sau mascat; reorganizări ale sistemului militar din unele
state vecine; redislocări de comandamente ale marilor unităţi şi unităţi în apropierea
frontierelor; pregătiri intense ale marilor unităţi de aviaţie, concentrări în baze militare,
exerciţii, simulări, antrenamente într-o concepţie de „învăţământ‖ sau sub alte forme de
mascare; reorientări doctrinare ca urmare a mutaţiilor produse în politica militară a unora din
statele vecine; nerespectarea culoarelor de zbor internaţionale de către aeronavele militare şi
civile; dotarea masivă a forţelor armate ale unor state vecine cu tehnică militară performantă
şi armament modern; folosirea pe timpul aplicaţiilor statelor majore a scenariilor tactice ce
vizează părţi din teritoriul naţional; penetrarea reţelelor de comunicaţii militare în scopul
procurării de informaţii şi date despre starea unităţilor militare dintr-o anumită zonă;
intensificarea acţiunilor de sustragere de armament, muniţie, echipament şi tehnică militară
din depozitele armatei; sustrageri repetate de materiale explozive de la exploatările miniere şi
geologice; apariţia şi proliferarea grupurilor organizate ilegal care desfăşoară acţiuni de tip
terorist.
În sistemul internaţional modern, interesele divergente şi conflictele de interese sunt la
ordinea zilei în materie de intervenţie şi neintervenţie, separatism şi anti-separatism, dispute
comerciale, teritoriale şi de suveranitate, probleme etnice etc., care pot duce, direct sau
indirect, la declanşarea unei crize militare. În condiţii normale, orice ţară sau grupări politice
încearcă prin mijloace politice, diplomatice şi economice să soluţioneze conflictele de interese
dintre ele. Criza militară apare atunci când nu se găseşte o soluţie care să mulţumească toate
părţile, când interesele divergente nu pot fi armonizate în mod eficient. Una sau ambele părţi
vor dori să folosească puterea militară pentru a pune capăt conflictului de interese. Cu toate
acestea, utilizarea forţei este limitată în acest moment şi rezolvarea încă posibilă prin mijloace
non-militare.
În ultimii ani, s-au înregistrat o serie de crize militare mai mult sau mai puţin grave,
mai ales acolo unde mediul de securitate este caracterizat de instabilitate. Criza militară şi,
mai apoi, conflictul dintre Georgia şi Rusia din vara lui 2008, cea din Libia din 2011 şi, mai
recent, criza din Ucraina sunt doar câteva exemple care demonstrează cum anumite decizii
politice creează tensiuni şi dispute, criză şi chiar conflict armat.
3. Gestionarea situaţiilor de criză
Gestionarea crizelor reprezintă unul dintre cele mai importante aspecte ale noilor
politici într-o lume tot mai globalizată şi frământată de tot felul de probleme precum: sărăcie,
terorism, suprapopulare, proastă guvernare, încălzire globală, tensiuni şi dispute politice,
economice, etnice, religioase, teritoriale etc. Gestionarea crizei reprezintă un set de acţiuni ce
pot fi luate de autorităţi şi structurile regionale/internaţionale cu competenţe în domeniu
14
Michael D. SWAINE, Understanding the Historical Record, in Michael D. SWAINE, Zhang TUOSHENG, Danielle F. S.
COHEN (eds.), Managing Sino-American Crises: Case Studies and Analysis, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, 2006, p. 1.
15
Lucian STĂNCILĂ, Gheorghe SAVU, Crizele ca manifestări ale dezechilibrului social, in „Tendinţe în evoluţia
fenomenului militar la început de secol‖, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, 2006, p. 271.
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pentru stăpânirea unei situaţii de criză şi evitarea potenţialelor efecte distrugătoare asupra
sistemului respectiv.
Gestionarea situaţiilor de criză în plan naţional cuprinde ansamblul de măsuri şi
acţiuni stabilite de autorităţile locale şi centrale în vederea garantării securităţii naţionale şi a
stării de normalitate socială, politică, militară, economică, ecologică etc. Prin urmare,
gestionarea unei crize poate fi înţeleasă ca un proces deosebit de complex, care implică
organizare, planificare şi măsuri concrete cu scop precis de a aduce sub control criza, să
oprească evoluţia acesteia şi să proiecteze o soluţie acceptabilă16.
Potrivit lui John Burnett, orice criză poate fi caracterizată de presiunea timpului,
problemele de control, nivelul ameninţării şi constrângerile privind opţiunile de răspuns.
Presiunea timpului Mare Mică
Gradul de control
Nivelul Opţiuni Redus Ridicat Redus Ridicat
ameninţării de răspuns
(4) Nivel (3) Nivel (2) Nivel (1) Nivel
Numeroase
2 1 1 0
Redus
(8) Nivel (7) Nivel (6) Nivel (5) Nivel
Puţine
3 2 2 1
(12) (11) (10) (9) Nivel
Numeroase
Nivel 3 Nivel 2 Nivel 2 1
Ridicat
(16) (15) (14) (13)
Puţine
Nivel 4 Nivel 3 Nivel 3 Nivel 2
17
Figura nr. 1: Matricea de clasificare a crizelor
Presiunea timpului se referă la faptul că atunci când o criză apare trebuie să i se acorde
imediat toată atenţia. Într-o perioadă de criză, organizaţia/statul are un grad redus de control al
factorilor externi. Mai mult, crizele creează îngrijorări privind nivelurile de ameninţare, în
special pentru formularea, evaluarea şi implementarea strategiei. Constrângerile privind
opţiunile de răspuns se referă la faptul că organizaţia/statul respectiv dispune de variante
limitate de reacţie la o criză. Utilizând aceste caracteristici, situaţiile de criză pot fi clasificate
într-o matrice. De exemplu, o criză va fi clasificată ca fiind o situaţie de Nivel 4 dacă
presiunea timpului este mare, gradul de control scăzut, nivelul ameninţării ridicat şi opţiunile
de răspuns limitate.
Gestionarea unei crize economice, sociale, politice, ecologice sau militare, pentru a fi
corectă, oportună şi eficientă, trebuie să îndeplinească în mod obligatoriu câteva condiţii
esenţiale, ca de exemplu: să fie dat în cunoştinţă de cauză, ceea ce înseamnă întreprinderea
unor investigaţii profunde pentru înţelegerea caracteristicilor şi personalităţii fenomenului; să
fie preventiv, anticipativ şi, pe cât posibil, ante-factum; să ofere soluţii; să se concretizeze în
acţiuni; să includă asumarea de riscuri şi, deci, suportarea consecinţelor nereuşitei 18. În acest
sens, gestionarea unei crize presupune două etape: prevenirea crizei prin cunoaşterea
16
Marian-Valentin Grigoroiu, Crizele şi conflictele contemporane, Editura Ministerului Administraţiei şi Internelor,
Bucureşti, 2006, p. 113.
17
John J. BURNETT, A Strategic Approach to Managing Crises, „Public Relations Review‖, Vol. 24, No. 4, Winter 1998, p.
483.
18
Mircea MUREŞAN, Gheorghe VĂDUVA (coord.), Criza, conflictul, războiul, volumul I, Editura Universităţii Naţionale
de Apărare „Carol I‖, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 309.
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fenomenului respectiv; organizarea şi desfăşurarea acţiunilor pentru supravegherea, limitarea
şi soluţionarea ei. De asemenea, este necesar să fie organizate foarte bine şi acţiunile post-
criză, pentru lichidarea urmărilor şi reluarea vieţii normale.
Acţiunile de prevenire presupun: identificarea riscurilor şi vulnerabilităţilor de orice
natură; centralizarea constatărilor, formularea priorităţilor şi a măsurilor recomandate;
implementarea măsurilor recomandate. Ciclul trebuie repetat prin alte reevaluări pentru a
identifica noi domenii cu potenţiale constrângeri şi probleme, noi surse de vulnerabilităţi.
Modul de rezolvare la începutul crizei determină atât durata, cât şi amploarea ei, iar
nesoluţionarea cât mai rapidă a unei crize duce, adesea, la un izbucnirea unui conflict.
Având în vedere complexitatea şi impactul pe care îl au diversele tipuri de crize asupra
populaţiei, proprietăţii, valorilor materiale şi culturale şi mediului, credem că se impun
eforturi mult mai consistente de colaborare şi cooperare din partea autorităţilor naţionale în
ceea ce priveşte acţiunile de prevenire, limitare şi soluţionare a situaţiilor de criză. De
asemenea, la nivel internaţional este necesară implicarea mult mai activă a statelor lumii şi
organizaţiilor specializate în efortul comun de gestionare a crizelor.
4. Concluzii
Criza nu reprezintă ceva nou pentru problematica contemporană, iar instrumentele şi
politicile de gestionare ce pot fi adoptate nu s-au modificat substanţial. Însă, situaţiile de criză
s-au înmulţit şi diversificat peste măsură după 1990 şi, în consecinţă, la fel de numeroase, de
diversificate şi de particularizate au devenit şi formele şi procedeele de prevenire, limitare şi
soluţionare.
Orice criză ce se manifestă la nivel naţional sau internaţional influenţează în mod
negativ actorii statali implicaţi, în sensul afectării puterii acestora şi, implicit, a securităţii lor.
De aceea, credem că adoptarea, implementarea şi succesul sau eşecul aplicării instrumentelor
de gestionare a crizelor depinde de capacitatea autorităţilor locale şi structurilor
regionale/internaţionale competente de a se coordona şi de a lua cele mai bune decizii.
Autorităţile şi structurile implicate în gestionarea situaţiei de criză trebuie să acţioneze în
strânsă cooperare atât între ele, cât şi cu organismele şi organizaţiile regionale şi
internaţionale, pentru a influenţa în sens pozitiv evoluţiile locale. Prin urmare, un accent
deosebit trebuie pus nu neapărat pe extinderea cooperării, cât mai ales pe consolidarea
acesteia.
Bibliografie
ANDERSON, Jeffrey J.; G. John IKENBERRY, Thomas RISSE (eds.), The End of the
West? Crisis and change in the Atlantic order, Cornell University Press, 2008
BURNETT, John J., A Strategic Approach to Managing Crises, „Public Relations
Review‖, Vol. 24, No. 4, Winter 1998
BUZAN, Barry, Popoarele, statele şi teama. O agendă pentru studii de securitate
internaţională în epoca de după Războiul Rece, Editura Cartier, Chişinău, 2000
CAMPOS, Nauro F.; Cheng HSIAO, Jeffrey B. NUGENT, Crises, What Crises?, IZA
Discussion Paper No. 2217, July 2006
DUFOUR, Jean-Louis, Crizele internaţionale. De la Beijing (1900) la Kosovo (1999),
Editura Corint, Bucureşti, 2002
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GRIGOROIU, Marian-Valentin, Crizele şi conflictele contemporane, Editura
Ministerului Administraţiei şi Internelor, Bucureşti, 2006
KUYKENDALL, Ronald A., Social Crisis and Social Demoralization: The Dynamics
of Status in American Race Relations, First Edition, Arissa Media Group, 2005
LAPIERE, Richard T., A theory of social control, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1954
MARX, Karl, Capitalul: Critica economiei politice, Editura Alexandria Publishing
House, Suceava, 2009
MUREŞAN, Mircea; Gheorghe VĂDUVA (coord.), Criza, conflictul, războiul,
volumul I, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, Bucureşti, 2007
MUREŞAN, Mircea; Gheorghe VĂDUVA, Eugen BOAMBĂ (coord.), Criza,
conflictul, războiul, volumul III, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖,
Bucureşti, 2007
STĂNCILĂ, Lucian; Gheorghe SAVU, Crizele ca manifestări ale dezechilibrului
social, in „Tendinţe în evoluţia fenomenului militar la început de secol‖, Editura Universităţii
Naţionale de Apărare „Carol I‖, 2006
SWAINE, Michael D., Understanding the Historical Record, in Michael D. SWAINE,
Zhang TUOSHENG, Danielle F. S. COHEN (eds.), Managing Sino-American Crises: Case
Studies and Analysis, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2006
ZAMFIR, Cătălin; Lazăr VLĂSCEANU (coord.), Dicţionar de sociologie, Editura
Babel, Bucureşti, 1993
Academia Română, Institutul de lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan‖, DEX – Dicţionarul
explicativ al limbii române, Ediţia a II-a, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureşti, 1998
US Department of Defense, JP 1-02. DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated
Terms, 8 November 2010 (As Amended Through 15 August 2014)
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TRANSLATION, ADAPTATION AND VALIDATION ON ROMANIAN
POPULATION OF FRAS INSTRUMENT FOR FAMILY RESILIENCE
CONCEPT
Cristina Maria Bostan, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch / ”Al. Ioan Cuza”
University of Iași
Abstract: Study aim to present the process of adapting and validating the Romanian version
of the 66 – item FRAS psychological instrument (Sixbey, 2005), which includes 6 dimensions
that are used in order to define and understand the concept of family resilience: family
communication and problem solving, utilizing social and economic resources, maintain a
positive outlook, family connectedness, family spirituality, ability to make meaning of
adversity. These dimensions were translated into Romanian and verified through the „back
and forward‖ translation technique. The adaptation process conducted tested the factorial
structure for the six dimensions solution proposed.
Exploratory Factor Analysis and Internal Consistence Analysis supported the six factor
solution and the internal consistence coefficients were greater than .70 for four of the
dimensions. Discussions concern the specificity of the Romanian version and suggest new
ways of improvements of the instrument
Keywords: family resilience, „back and forward‖ translation technique, exploratory factorial
analysis, internal consistence analysis, Romanian population
Family resilience concept in psychology and its difficulties encountered
Family resilience as a psychological concept is facing a great deal of challenges
because of its development and also because it faces technical difficulties when it comes to
measuring common realities (e.g. couples, families or organizational groups). The literature
offers a big perspective over the description of this concept. One point of view considers that
the concept was developed for combining family stress and family strengths literature
(Hawley, DeHaan, 1996) and its only difference is that it gives meaning for every people
when crossing adversities and when it comes to families, the meaning is similar for the family
members, giving them strength to resist. In other words, this perspective tries to delimitate
between the existing literature about stress, emotions and regulations strategies dynamics,
meaning that when people face instability in their life or adversities they have limited options
– they suddenly grow stronger, they use different strategies to become stable again or they
give up (Steinhardt, 2012). Furthermore, other authors consider that this concept could rather
be approached from a symbolic perspective because members of a family engage in a learning
process for sharing and expressing the same set of values and attitudes (Bowen, Martin,
Mancini, 2013) meaning that their actions are the product of certain common basis or
principles that shape them as a unique family and people from around can see clearly this
similarity in their attitude and behavior.
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In order to understand it from a psychological perspective and also to use it in
practice, authors suggest practitioners to understand first of all that family resilience is
approached either as a protective factor or as a process (Walsh, 2012; Saltzman, Lester,
Beardslee, Layne, Woodward, Nash, 2011). These perspectives are both possible but it is
important to direct it to the right kind of service. For example, social workers could easily
categorize types of resilient families through their family characteristics but psychotherapists
have to use relevant instrument to determine family resilience and to engage with family
members in the therapeutic change process. When clarifying this difference, the literature also
gives consistent help. On one hand family resilience as a factor consist of managing stress, to
efficiently manage emotions, to collaborate in establishing goal and to solve problems
(Simon, Murphy, Smith, 2005) and on the other hand, family resilience as a process means to
understand the direction of change or impact and how people adapt in time as a family, how
they come to similar points of view.
Another difficulty encountered was the general opinion that this is a transferred
concept and not one that practitioners could actually use in daily psychological assistance.
Family resilience as a psychological concept has its limits but one of the most important
aspects is that it focused on positive outcomes, growth and because it tries to bring back the
prior level of stability for family members by integrating the meaning of traumatic event
(Walsh, 2012; Marin, 2012; Lee, Lee, Kim, Park, Song, Park, 2004 ). In describing the basic
definitions and recent research, Hooper (2009) also argues that family resilience has many
active dimensions that can impact in the positive adaptation process when adversities are
faced. For example, parental roles (e.g. warmth, affection, emotional support and structure)
could impact when family crosses traumas and family members try to get back on stable
grounds, acting as an infinite resource.
Benzies and Mychasiuk (2008) describe ten protective factors from an ecological
model, meaning that there are certain characteristics that offer a better chance of recovery and
regaining stability. These factors are more directed to children functional development than
for all the family members and much of them are basically social information that could
impact growth in time.
Smaller families experience less financial strain, lower stress levels and
children from this families have a greater chance to complete high
school that those coming from larger families. Also, it seems that older
and more mature mothers are able to offer more resources to their
children. This kind of family structure characteristics foster strength
and stability over time in the face of adversities.
Intimate-partner relationship stability – this characteristic had an
impact over the environment of the children especially and their
development. Few of the characteristics consist in secure and loving
interactions. Moreover, when this is missing, meaning that there is a
lower level of security and a high level of conflict, children have fewer
friends and they experience more moments of instability
Family cohesion refers to a warm, cohesive family interaction pattern,
meaning that in order to achieve their goal, family members need to
collaborate with each other and to cross adversity together.
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Supportive parent-child interaction could impact the children
interactions in society and performance at school but also to ensure a
quicker recovery or adaptation when they encounter difficulties
Stimulating environments – the amount of resources and time spent in
learning processes predicts school performance. Another way of
looking at this is the time amount that parents invest in children when it
comes in helping them acquire diverse and efficient ways of solving
problems
Social support refers to interpersonal interactions and the
recommendations are that this could be of many kinds – instrumental,
emotional or practical and promotes connectedness by accepting help
from others.
Family of origin influences refers to behavioral patterns, attitudes and
values that ensures generational transfer of protective factors that
parents use daily through normal interactions but without any other
effort.
Stable and adequate income and adequate housing give family
members a chance to explore without any stress different and new
opportunities but also to get back on stability mode if there are any
chaotic events. If not, recovery is even harder even if every family
member has individual protective factors specific to resilience.
Walsh (2012) analyses family resilience from a systemic view and considers that
resilience involves some characteristics that are seen clearly as pieces of a system: it is
dynamic, it involves the capacity to adapt positively and to push people to growth. The most
important aspect of this theory is held by the meaning of the key processes that the author
considers to be vital for resilience and therefore family functionality:
Family belief systems – refers to making meaning of adversity, to keep a
positive outlook and transcendence and spirituality (meaning that people have
values, purposes, faith and will to transform themselves).
Organizational patterns – refers to have flexibility, a sense of connectedness
and stable social and economic resources (therefore fostering security and
opportunities when facing adversity).
Communication processes - refers to specific characteristics of the
communication between each other: clear and consistent messages, emotional
expressivity and collaborative problem solving style.
This three system are considered to practical units especially for practitioners in
psychological services, to create relevant assessment instruments and to explore grounded
hypotheses in family functionality research domain (Lane, 2011). More important, the
systems are different for families and what is functional for some members, is not relevant for
positive adaptation for other families.
Short review concerning ways of measuring family resilience
When it comes to measurement options, the scientific literature lacks relevant ways of
assessing the common reality of family members (Hawley, DeHaan, 1996) and this is a real
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problem also for the family resilience concept. VanBreda (2001) describe the most common
ways of clinically assessing family resilience:
Aggregation model - by computing the average mean of the total scores of each
members. This method is known as sensitive to errors and also ignores „the system
theory notion of the whole being more than the sum of its parts‖ (p. 59)
Pathogenic model – although rare, this approach diagnoses the entire family
through the member of the family that got the lowest score, meaning that the
practitioner can identify more easily the
Salutogenic model - also rare, this approach identifies the most resourceful
individual from the family – the one that has the highest score defines the level of
the family on resilience.
Consensus model – considering that the agreement between family members
enhances coping and resistance abilities for each members and therefore for the
entire family system.
Scientists have identified measuring family resilience as a problem also because many
of the research studies use stress, dyadic adjustment, strengths and coping assessment tools
(Benson, 1997). Recently scientist started to focus on age and development characteristics
when understanding family resilience, meaning that in the process of fostering resilience,
psychological measurement should take in account the predominant key dimensions. For
example, Gillian (1997) suggests that internal sense of worth and competence and 3) a sense
of mastery and control by understanding his capacities, abilities, limitations and its own
potential.
Fraser (1997) encourages and ecological and multisystemic perspective, describing
risk and protective factors mostly for childhood disorders. Other studies are concentrating
efforts to identify risk factors (Fraser, Richman, Galinski, 1999) because those are weak spots
where social and psychological support can interfere for people, especially when the
situations (e.g. domestic violence, family abuse) are so terrible that people do not know even
how to ask for help.
The systemic view that Walsh (1998) developed brought to surface the positive aspect
of adapting to stressful events and studies are now concentrating efforts to study family
empowerment and resilience when people have to recover or they are under treatment for
pathological problems (Subandi, 2006).
Because spirituality and personal growth are part of the most important factors in
family resilience, Kass and Kass, (2000) developed a package of spirituality and resilience
assessment for all ages and types families in order to identify: a) resilient and self-defeating
aspects of their worldview; b) whether their spirituality contributes to their resilience; c) the
potential value of spiritual and psychological growth.
Addressing the general problem of operationalizing family resilience, DeHaan,
Hawley and Deal (2002) proposed a quantitative methodological strategy to analyze family
trajectory over time – the configural frequency analysis by recording data from several points
in time either by observation or instruments. In order to identify pathways, configuration that
are not similar to all the data are identified and named „antitypes‖ - giving possible
explanation for certain abnormal cases and to understand the process of adaptation of the
members to the new reality.
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Henderson, Benard and Sharp-Light encourage strengths perspective, meaning that
parental styles and educational practices that parents use in raising their children could
enhance positive adaptation, giving meaning to adversities and also asset development.
Although stress adaptation, coping styles and family dynamics adaptation where
predominant as instruments for measuring resilience, authors (Windle, Bennett, Noyes, 2011)
report now a higher number of instruments but they also raise the problem of defining
resilience as a stable personality characteristic, a strategy of adaptation or as a process.
Sixbey (2005) operationalizes the systemic view of the family resilience model and
manages to individualize six relevant and reliable factors as follows:
Family communication and problem solving – referring to the ability of conveying
information, feelings and facts clearly and openly while recognizing problems and
carrying out solutions.
Utilizing social and economic resources – referring to those external and internal
norms allowing a family to carry out daily tasks by identifying and using resources.
Maintaining a positive outlook – which is defined as the ability to organize around a
distressing event with the belief that there is hope for the future and persevering to
make the most out of their options.
Family connectedness – the ability to organize and bond together for support while
still recognizing individual differences.
Family spirituality – using a larger belief system to provide a guiding and help to
define lives as meaningful and significant
Ability to make meaning of adversity – defined as the ability to incorporate the
adverse event into their lives while seeing their reactions as understandable in relation
to the event.
Method
Research problem
Based on psychological practice needs of using a good, reliable instrument for
assessing family resilience, the author of the FRAS (Sixbey, 2005) was contacted and asked
for permission to adapt and to verify the psychometric qualities of this scale for Romanian
population. Family and couples therapy could use this instrument in order to identify positive
resources that partners could use to strengthen their relationship or to formulate objectives
that concern weak spots and to work on them. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate
the accuracy of the scale and to compare the factorial structure of this scale with the original
one.
Research main hypotheses
1. To determine the number of psychological dimensions of the family resilience scale
and to compare it with the original version created
2. To determine and describe the common variability of the factors
3. To examine the internal consistency of the scale and its existing constructs
Participants
The participants were volunteers students and their family members (N = 118). Factor
analysis was conducted using the 118 cases from which 26 were men and 91 of feminine. In
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what concerns the age, the people ranged from 18 to 50 years old. This study used a
convenience sampling procedure because it was easy to access and they all face family
realities and they could give an authentic vision about the relationship and communication
patterns from their families.
Results and discussion
First, Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to verify the factor structure. The
analysis assumed that are six dimensions, as presented in the latest model of the instrument
proposed (FRAS psychological instrument – Sixbey, 2005). The analysis revealed six main
factor that explain more than 60% of the total variance of the entire model matrix and each
have loadings with an Eingenvalue greater than 1. The analysis also revealed another six
factors with an Eingenvalue greater than 1. The Kaiser-Meyer value is less than 0.6 (.46),
meaning that this model needs revision because the factors do not group very well in the
model.
Graph 1. Cattel`s Criterium
We proceeded to a content analysis to see if the content of these factors corresponded
to those extracted from the suggested model and for each of the factors the alpha Cronbach
coefficients were calculated. Only one of the factors had a very low internal consistency.
Table 1.
Reliability analysis – Alpha Cronbach Coefficients for each dimension
Dimension Alpha Number of items
Cronbach
Family communication and .907 27
problem solving
Utilizing social and economic .767 8
resources
Maintaining a positive outlook .591 6
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Family connectedness .028 6
Family spirituality .728 4
Ability to make meaning of .633 3
adversity
As one can see, family connectedness revealed a very low internal consistency (.028)
and even if items were deleted, this did not proved to be efficient. Considering the instrument
as a unitary matrix model, it could be possible that the translation and the meaning of the
items needs revision. Family connectedness refers to the ones ability of taking in
considerations the individual differences, meaning that family members are able to face
adversity and be together but they are making an individually effort in crossing this event.
The items in this dimensions are more likely to consider the ability of communicating instead
of recognizing every effort that family members are making. Another way of revising this
dimension is to recognize the effort of every member by taking in consideration more levels:
affective, behavioral, communication and cognitive. Although this dimension tried to reveal
the bond created in the family, the author has taken in consideration also the community as
part of the influence – „Our friends value us and who we are‖ – therefor an external
evaluation that some of the family member have access to it or not .
The rest of the questionnaire kept the factorial structure from the original version of it
and the clinical properties are similar to that one. The aim was to verify this structure but
interesting ideas and limits are now available. For example, the exploratory analysis revealed
a very well know critique for the family resilience model, that the systemic view is actually a
reconsideration of the traditional model for family dynamics and that this model needs revised
in order to be considered as unitary matrix. This means that practitioners should take in
consideration that these dimensions could be independent from each one when characterizing
a family system.
In order to best reveal family resilience as individually psychological concept
researchers and future analysis should concentrate the effort in operationalize the difference
for this concept: resistance in face of adversity, positive outlook, transformation, meaning and
also a sense of growth.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social
Fund and by the Romanian Government under the contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/133675
Correspondence with the author: [email protected]
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RECOVERY OF COST INFORMATION SYSTEM IN DECISION MAKING
Cristina Ţenovici, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Constantin Brâncoveanu” University of
Pitești
Abstract: At this point, top level management has in view costs minimizing, so profit
maximizing, so that costs adjustment seems to be a vital necessity when the activity developed
within the company does not assure the maintenance and stability of the necessary relation
between consuming factors and costs. In such circumstances, approaching differing sides of
the production cost and improving the methods of calculation has much significance in
determining the most appropriate measures necessary for its adjustment and for profit
increasing. The whole informational process of costs – formation, control and analysis of
costs – involves a careful use the methodological concepts known under the name of classical
methods and modern or complementary methods, as well as of other proceedings. Such
methods and proceedings cannot be applied separately, only conjugated and integrated in a
unitary methodological system, each of these methods and proceedings participating at
achieving one or more objectives. Only by their unitary action they can fulfill all the system
objectives.
Keywords: cost, economic efficiency, decisions substantiation, cost information system,
control and analysis of costs
Promovarea metodelor moderne de conducere trebuie să ţină seama de faptul că
acestea depind sub raportul trăsăturilor, al structurii, al gradului de cuprindere şi perfecţionare
de o serie de factori, cum ar fi: caracteristicile sistemului social şi economic, existenţa unui
sistem informaţional adecvat şi nivelul de pregătire şi specializare al personalului care le va
aplica. Astfel metodele şi tehnicile de conducere, sub aspectul trăsăturilor lor, se
caracterizează prin faptul că au un caracter participativ - colectiv şi o structură generală cu
posibilităţi de aplicare ştiinţifică la diferite nivele de conducere. Prin conţinut acestea
determină o creştere a responsabilităţii, permit cuantificarea fenomenelor sociale şi economice
şi au la bază un limbaj ştiinţific.
Un manager pentru a conduce raţional şi eficient o activitate, pe baze ştiinţifice,
trebuie să îmbine atenta observare şi cunoaşterea metodică a fenomenelor ce au loc în cadrul
entităţii, exprimarea fenomenelor economice cu ajutorul unui sistem de indicatori adecvat,
stabilirea relaţiilor funcţionale prin intermediul teoriilor şi tehnicilor matematice, utilizarea
legităţilor sau relaţiilor funcţionale pentru construirea de modele economico-matematice de
optimizare şi pentru elaborarea strategiilor de dezvoltare şi a unui sistem informaţional de
evidenţă şi de analiză economică, inclusiv a costurilor, care să permită adoptarea în orice
moment a unor decizii optime de conducere eficientă a entităţii.
Trebuie să se asigure, de asemenea, un echilibru între o bună cunoaştere a activităţii
curente pentru a interveni cu decizii operative în dirijarea ei şi prefigurarea evoluţiei viitoare
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şi elaborarea de prognoze care să contureze direcţiile de dezvoltare în perspectivă. Informaţia
declanşează intervenţia conducerii prin decizii care au rolul de a stabili obiectivele, de a
organiza, coordona şi canaliza acţiunile colective pentru atingerea scopului urmărit. Decizia
reprezintă momentul esenţial al oricărui proces de conducere deoarece în jurul ei gravitează
toate funcţiile conducerii. Prin actul decizional conducerea îşi manifestă opţiunea pentru cea
mai convenabilă modalitate de acţiune dintre multiplele posibilităţi. Decizia ca formă a
comportamentului, bazată pe informare s-a practicat întotdeauna ca mijloc de intervenţie în
dirijarea şi coordonarea activităţilor economice.
Utilizarea metodelor şi tehnicilor moderne de conducere conferă deciziei un grad mare
de exactitate şi certitudine. Astfel modelarea matematică a proceselor economice, dezvoltarea
şi aplicarea cercetării operaţionale, cibernetica şi informatica sunt cele mai semnificative
cuceriri pe care ştiinţa le pune în slujba conducerii economice1. Conducerea ştiinţifică implică
prelucrarea automată a datelor, utilizarea unui aparat matematic adecvat pregătirii deciziilor şi
aplicarea unor metode moderne de urmărire şi control a activităţii. Prin modelare se urmăreşte
ordonarea logică a unui ansamblu de operaţii sau a unui proces, prin utilizarea unei
metodologii de formalizare. Un model formal constituie de fapt o configurare simplificată, dar
sugestivă a realităţii pe care o reprezintă.
Pe baza unor modele ale cercetării operaţionale se poate realiza o analiză
cuprinzătoare a tuturor variabilelor pentru a evalua consecinţele unor soluţii diferite date
problemei, oferind o bază simplă şi reală orientării conducerii în procesul de luare a deciziilor.
Astfel cerecetarea operaţională devine un instrument preţios în previzionarea consecinţelor
diferitelor variante, oferind conducerii posibilitatea să aleagă pe cea mai eficientă. Decizia, ca
parte a procesului decizonal, nu reprezintă un scop în sine, ci ea trebuie aplicată în mod corect
prin acţiuni şi fapte hotărâte, finalitatea ei depinzând nemijlocit de capacitatea executanţilor.
Alături de decizie, informaţia economică constituie al doilea element al conceptului
cibernetic folosit în mecanismul de conducere şi reglare al activităţii economice. Atât
conducerea strategică, cât şi cea operativă se bazează în procesul decizonal pe informaţie. De
aici apare şi necesitatea organizării unei activităţi de informare a conducerii, capabilă să
sesizeze cu operativitate ceea ce este esenţial şi caracteristic în activitatea curentă a entităţii.
Construirea unui sistem informaţional modern are în vedere soluţionarea unor probleme astfel
încât procesul informaţional să fie sudat obligatoriu cu cel decizional.
În procesul de adoptare al deciziei se pleacă întotdeauna de la un rezultat existent şi se
vizează un rezultat dorit. Necesitatea luării unei decizii apare când la nivelul subsistemului
condus apare o problemă care aşteaptă fără întârziere soluţionarea. Decizia implică alături de
factorul uman şi mediul unităţii, căci trebuie luate în seamă orice schimbări sociale şi politice,
ecomomice, tehnologice etc. atât la nivel naţional, cât şi intenaţional mai ales acum în
contextul unei puternice tendinţe ale globalizării. Acest fapt implică sporirea complexităţii
actului decizonal, sporindu-se astfel numărul variabilelor şi condiţiilor limită în care se vor
adopta deciziile.
Având în vedere necesitatea unei conduceri eficiente a unei entităţi, nu doar din punct
de vedere economic, dar şi din punct de vedere ecologic şi social, conducerea trebuie să
asigure o fundamentare ştiinţifică a deciziilor. Astfel o serie de aspecte trebuie concepute şi
1
Cristina Tenovici, Denisa Elena Parpandel (2010) – ―Sistemul informational al costurilor si rolul sau in managementul
unitatilor silvice‖, http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/21255/ MPRA Paper No. 21255
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
rezolvate într-o nouă optică, mai ales cele legate de structura şi raţionalizarea fluxului
informaţional, reducerea volumului de informaţii, operativitatea informaţiei, metodologia
unitară de culegere şi prelucrare a informaţiei şi unitatea procesului informaţional decizional.
Structura şi raţionalizarea fluxului informaţional are în vedere faptul că un sistem
informaţional modern este grefat pe structura funcţională a entităţii, structurându-se în funcţie
de specificul şi structura sa organizatorică, ţinând cont de natura activităţii, de relaţiile
tehnice, economice şi sociale caracteristice.
Grefarea traseului de circulaţie a informaţiilor pe structura organizatorică a entităţii,
asigură o transmitere corectă şi operativă a informaţiei la toate nivelele interesate. Prin
structurare se realizează legături logice între toate componentele sistemului, se înlătură
fluxurile paralele, iraţionale şi defectuoase. Raţionalizarea fluxului informaţional are drept
obiectiv cunoaşterea în orice moment a condiţiilor în care se desfăşoară activitatea printr-o
vehiculare rapidă şi în cât mai scurt timp a informaţiei atât pe orizontală, cât şi pe verticală.
Prin raţionalizarea fluxurilor informaţionale se asigură obţinerea informaţiei de către
subsistemul conducător la moment optim în vederea elaborării deciziei.
Organizarea fluxului informaţional are o importanţă deosebită căci de acesta depinde
posibilitatea de valorificare a informaţiei cu ajutorul metodelor de analiză economică,
studiilor previzionale şi prognozelor, permiţând alicarea metodelor de optimizare a proceselor
de producţie şi programarea lor. Fluxul informaţional organizat şi structurat de asemenea
manieră, asigură pe de o parte legătura între toate compartimentele, atât pe verticală, cât şi pe
orizontală, iar pe de altă parte furnizează informaţiile care duc la declanşarea actului
decizional pe diferitele nivele în scopul asigurării conducerii şi reglării tuturor activităţilor din
cadrul sistemului.
Conţinutul informaţional este axat şi limitat la sistemul de indicatori prin care se
exprimă rezultatele economico-financiare obţinute, sistem de indicatori care trebuie
perfecţinat permanent dacă se are în vedere rezolvarea cât mai judicioasă a acestei probleme.
În acest sens se urmăreşte sporirea calităţii informaţiei odată cu reducerea volumului ei.
Organizarea raţională a procesului informaţional ca flux continuu şi rapid constituie
calea principală de sporire a operativităţii informaţiei, aceasta realizându-se cu ajutorul
mijloacelor de automatizare a procesului informaţional.
În prezent informaţiile sunt stocate într-un singur loc de unde sunt apoi dirijate pe
diferite canale spre utilizatori. Orice operaţie sau fenomen care are aceiaşi sursă de
provenienţă se consemnează într-un document primar ce va fi supus prelucrărilor ulterioare
pentru a servi nevoilor tuturor compartimentelor. Datele preluate pe măsură ce ajung la sursă
nu mai parcurg un drum fracţionat, ci sunt canalizate într-un singur flux, de jos în sus,
asigurându-se astfel unitatea de conţinut, precum şi o metodologie unitară de culegere,
prelucrare şi vehiculare a informaţiei.
Cu ajutorul sistemelor informaţionale s-a ajuns la raţionalizarea întregului ciclu
informaţie-decizie-execuţie şi în acelaşi timp a dus la scurtarea duratei de timp a acestui ciclu,
timpul de prelucrare a informaţiei ocupând astfel un loc esenţial ce condiţionează durata de
elaborare a deciziei şi transpunerea ei în acţiune. Un sistem informaţional modern, impune
organizarea şi funcţionarea entităţii ca un sistem unitar, întreaga activitate fiind intercorelată
şi funcţiile acesteia sunt integrate şi armonizate judicios.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Un sistem informaţional trebuie să furnizeze conducerii informaţii referitoare la starea
sistemului, structura acestuia şi câmpul de manifestare a posibilelor decizii care trebuie luate
la un moment dat. În literatura de specialitate, în baza unor studii realizate, se prezintă faptul
că peste 80% din informaţia care circulă în cadrul unui sistem informaţional al unei entităţi
este de natură economică, iar în cadrul acesteia, informaţia contabilă reprezintă circa 50%2.
În prezent managementul unei entităţi trebuie să valorifice la maximum informaţia
economică, deoarece aceasta este cea care furnizează elementele necesare cu privire la modul
de utilizare şi gestionare a resurselor materiale şi umane, permite examinarea critică a
efectelor negative şi luarea unor măsuri operative de corecţie, precum şi utilizarea efectelor
pozitive în vedera optimizării activităţii, mai ales că în prezent succesul activităţii desfăşurate
orbitează în jurul a cel puţin patru elemente principale: autonomie, responsabilitate,
incertitudine sau risc şi schimbare tehnologică rapidă.
Nevoile muncii de conducere determină obiectivele, funcţiile şi metodele sistemului
informaţional, în cadrul acestuia sistemul informaţional contabil ocupând un loc central,
acesta vizând cele două aspecte complementare ce se regăsesc la nivelul organizării sale:
contabilitate financiară şi contabilitate de gestiune. Aceste două subsisteme ale sistemului
informaţional contabil, unul aferent contabilităţii financiare şi altul aferent contabilităţii de
gestiune sunt interdependente, primul având cu precădere un rol pasiv de informare, iar cel de
al doilea are rolul de a furniza instrumentele de planificare, de determinare sau realizare,
control şi decizie pentru activităţile derulate în ansamblu sau în detaliu până la nivelul
sectoarelor de activitate şi obiectelor de calculaţie.
Contabilitatea de gestiune furnizează informaţiile necesare elaborării de rapoarte şi
analize interne utilizate de managementul unităţii în luarea deciziilor. Cerinţele de prezentare
şi analiză a informaţiilor oferite de contabilitatea de gestiune nu sunt limitative. La
organizarea contabilităţii de gestiune se va urmări ca informaţiile obţinute să satisfacă atât
necesităţile de informare existente, cât şi pe cele în continuă schimbare. Procedeele şi
tehnicile utilizate în contabilitatea de gestiune se stabilesc în funcţie de caracteristicile
calitative ale informaţiilor cerute de utilizatori, precum şi de particularităţile activităţii
desfăşurate.
Dacă în plan teoretic, în ţara noastră, se remarcă preocupări notabile pentru abordarea
problematicii de gestiune, în practică din păcate întreprinderile româneşti nu manifestă încă
suficient interes pentru organizarea acesteia în raport cu rolul şi potenţialul său informativ şi
cu schimbarea de atitudine faţă de responsabilităţile stabilite la nivelul fiecărei entităţi
economice şi a structurilor acesteia. Costurilor va trebui să li se acorde atenţia cuvenită,
pentru ca managerii să nu se lipsească de un instrument important de control al activităţii
economice şi productive.
Schimbările de mediu economic se accentuează, de aceea întreprinderile se vad
nevoite să-şi creeze un sistem informaţional al costurilor menit să le asigure protecţia şi
posibilitatea de reacţie la şocurile generate de concurenţă. Viitorii manageri nu se vor mai
putea lipsi de cunoştinţele şi datele furnizate de contabilitatea de gestiune şi vor trebui să-şi
însuşească terminologia utilizată, dar şi tehnicile sale, precum şi modul în care pot fi folosite
informaţiile furnizate de acesta, dar şi eventualele limite ale acestor informaţii.
2
Briciu S., Căpuşneanu S., Rof M.L., Topor D. (2010) – „Contabilitatea şi controlul de gestiune, instrumente pentru
evaluarea performanţei entităţii‖, Editura Aeternitas, Alba Iulia, pag.11
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Este necesar ca întreprinderile să-şi construiască şi să utilizeze un sistem de
cunoaştere a costurilor produselor, lucrărilor şi serviciilor astfel încât să poată stabili preţurile
de vânzare în concordanţă cu cerinţele pieţei şi realizării marjelor previzionate. Calculul şi
urmărirea evoluţiei costurilor funcţiilor asumate de întreprindere nu constituie un scop în sine,
organizarea acestora fiind motivată de cel puţin două considerente3:
primul considerent vizează schimbările de orientare a managerilor, intervenite o dată cu
deschiderea spre economia de piaţă, care pretind o informaţie contabilă despre costuri cât
mai completă şi pertinentă, capabilă să facă posibilă o intervenţie pentru ajustarea
preţurilor.
al doilea considerent porneşte de la necesitatea menţinerii entităţii pe piaţă în condiţiile
accelerării perfecţionării tehnologice şi intensificării concurenţei presupune
competitivitate care, printre altele, depinde de posibilitatea managerului de a cunoaşte
costurile şi, în consecinţă, de a acţiona, prin decizii, asupra lor.
Complexitatea şi diversitatea obiectivelor contabilităţii de gestiune şi în mod special
cele de determinare a costului, determină folosirea unui ansamblu de metode şi procedee
diferite în scopul realizării obiectivelor urmărite. Utilizarea acestor metode şi procedee în
practică nu se realizează separat, ci acestea sunt conjugate sau integrate într-un sistem
metodologic unitar, fapt ce dovedeşte complexitatea sistemului ce poate fi considerat un
sistem integrat. Sistemul integrat în domeniul costurilor presupune includerea, înglobarea,
conjugarea sau contopirea într-un tot unitar a tuturor informaţiilor privind costurile, metodele,
procedeele, mijloacele materiale şi tehnice folosite în prelucrarea acestor informaţii, în cadrul
planificării, evidenţei, calculaţiei, controlului şi analizei costurilor.
Sistemul informaţional integrat al costurilor cuprinde următoarele componente4:
1. Ansamblul informaţiilor economice privind costurile - informaţii de plan
(consumuri normate de materiale şi manoperă, respectiv bugetul cheltuielilor de regie) în
funcţie de care se stabilesc costurile pentru perioadele viitoare de gestiune; informaţii efective
în legătură cu costurile perioadei de gestiune încheiate. Aceste informaţii vizează atât latura
cantitativă, cât şi latura calitativă, constituindu-se ulterior în informaţii de analiză şi control a
costurilor.
2. Procesul de prelucrare a datelor sau informaţiilor în legătură cu costurile - vizează
ansamblul operaţiilor de culegere, transmitere, prelucrare propriu-zisă, valorificarea şi
arhivarea informaţiilor, precum şi utilizarea integrată a mijloacelor tehnice (manuale sau
automatizate) de prelucrare a datelor sau informaţiilor economice privind costurile utilizând
un sistem metodologic bine conturat.
3. Sursele de date sau informaţii economice în legătură cu costurile - sunt diferite după
cum acestea vizează informaţiile de plan sau informaţiile efective. Primele au ca sursă
bugetele de costuri care stau la baza planificării economico-financiare, pe când cea de a doua
categorie se bazează pe evidenţele contabile, statistice şi evidenţa operativă.
Sistemul informaţional integrat al costurilor poate fi descompus în trei subsisteme
(vezi figura nr.1.):
subsistemul de organizare a costurilor;
3
Aslău Titus (2001) - ―Controlul de gestiune dincolo de aparenţe‖, Ed. Economică, Bucureşti, pag.95
4
Ţenovici Cristina (2007) – ‖Proiectarea sistemului informatic de calculaţie şi analiză a costurilor în silvicultură‖, Editura
Universitaria, Craiova, pag. 20
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
subsistemul de formare sau calculaţie a costurilor de producţie;
subsistemul de control şi analiză a costurilor de producţie.
Figura nr.1. ―Sistemul informaţional al costurilor de producţie‖
sursa: Ţenovici C. – ‖Proiectarea sistemului informatic de calculaţie şi analiză a
costurilor în silvicultură‖, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2007, pag.21
Aceste trei subsisteme se află într-o legătură indisolubilă şi cu acţiune reciprocă.
Astfel subsistemul formării sau calculaţiei costurilor este incomplet şi lipsit de finalitate fără
controlul şi analiza costurilor. La rândul lor controlul şi analiza costurilor sunt de neconceput
fără antecalculaţie şi postcalculaţie, ca laturi ale subsistemului formării şi calculaţiei
costurilor. Cele două subsisteme (al formării sau calculaţiei costurilor şi cel al analizei şi
controlului), nu au o existenţă de sine stătătoare, ci ele capătă conţinut real numai prin
împletirea organică cu subsistemul metodologic al organizării sistemului informaţional al
costurilor pe sectoare sau centre de cheltuieli şi pe purtători de cheltuieli şi de costuri.
Întregul proces informaţional al costurilor - formare, control şi analiză a costurilor -
presupune folosirea judicioasă a conceptelor metodologice cunoscute sub denumirea de
―metode clasice‖ şi ―metode moderne sau complementare‖, precum şi folosirea unor
procedee, cum ar fi: procedeul suplimentării, procedeul diviziunii simple, procedeul
coeficienţilor de echivalenţă etc. Aceste metode şi procedee în practică nu pot fi aplicate
separat, ci doar conjugate sau integrate într-un sistem metodologic unitar, ceea ce
demonstrează complexitatea sistemului metodologic, fiecare din aceste metode şi procedee
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
participând la realizarea unuia sau a câtorva obiective, şi numai acţionând toate împreună
asigură îndeplinirea completă a tuturor obiectivelor sistemului5.
Concluzii:
Perfecţionarea sistemului informaţional al costurilor folosind prelucrarea automată a
datelor trebuie să fie precedată de reorganizarea sistemului informaţional al costurilor
existent. Dacă se neglijează acest aspect se periclitează succesul şi eficienţa acţiunii de
perfecţionare a sistemului, căci noul sistem va avea la bază un sistem şubred, din care nu s-au
înlăturat imperfecţiunile rămăse de la prelucrarea manuală a datelor. Este recomandabilă
reorganizarea integrată cu ajutorul unor modele dinainte stabilite, care sudează într-o
concepţie unitară toate metodele, procedeele, formele de culegere, prelucrare, transmitere,
valorificare şi stocare a informaţiilor privind costurile.
References:
[1.] Aslău Titus (2001) - ―Controlul de gestiune dincolo de aparenţe‖, Ed. Economică,
Bucureşti
[2.] Baciu T.A. (2001) - ―Costurile - organizare, planificare, contabilitate, calculaţie,
control şi analiză‖, Editura Dacia, Cluj- Napoca
[3.] Briciu S., Căpuşneanu S., Rof M.L., Topor D. (2010) – „Contabilitatea şi controlul
de gestiune, instrumente pentru evaluarea performanţei entităţii‖, Editura Aeternitas, Alba
Iulia
[4.] Călin O., Cârstea Gh. (2002) – „Contabilitatea de gestiune şi calculaţia costurilor‖,
Editura Genicod, Bucureşti
[5.] Călin O., Nedelcu M.V., Man M. (2008) - ―Contabilitate managerială‖, Editura
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti
[6.] Tabără N., Briciu S. (2012)– „Actualităţi şi perspective în contabilitate şi control
de gestiune‖, Editura Tipo Moldova, Iaşi
[7.] Ţenovici Cristina (2007) – ‖Proiectarea sistemului informatic de calculaţie şi
analiză a costurilor în silvicultură‖, Editura Universitaria, Craiova
[8.] Ţenovici C., Albici M., Parpandel D.E. (2009) – ―Traditional methods versus
modern methods of determining unitary cost in forestry‖, http://mpra.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/18684/ MPRA Paper No. 18684
[9.] Ţenovici C., Parpandel D.E. (2010)– ―Sistemul informational al costurilor si rolul
sau in managementul unitatilor silvice‖, http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/21255/ MPRA Paper
No. 21255
5
Tenovici , Cristina, Albici , Mihaela and Parpandel, Denisa Elena (2009) – ―Traditional methods versus modern methods of
determining unitary cost in forestry‖, http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/18684/ MPRA Paper No. 18684
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TRANSATLANTIC COOPERATION US-EU. FAILURE OR SUCCESS
Mădălina Laura Cuciurianu, PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/S/133675 Project,
Romanian Academy, Iași Branch
Abstract: International trade, business and investment, as well as the coordination of the
political economy are topics of interest to policy makers of the US-EU relationship. Because
the international society began to confront to the increasingly complex threats, the US and
the EU have had to strengthen their relationships, to develop new action plans, this time
shared, and to consider the development of strategic new agreements. After an overview of
the most important events in the history of US-EU relations, we see that the political and
economic changes on the international scene are the key element in shaping these relations.
Consequently, the USA and the EU are in constant competition and cooperation which varies
depending on the problem faced and deployment area. In this work I will try to answer some
questions, namely, whether the US-EU relationship is a competition or a cooperative one?;
who had benefited from the expansion of the US-EU relationship?; what issues and events led
to the modeling / remodeling of the US-EU relationship in this century? And last question
concerns the future of transatlantic cooperation, whether it will be a failure or success on the
stage of international relations. In this context, I will bring into question the negotiation of
the US-EU transatlantic partnership, believed to be the largest economic agreement and one
of the reasons that show the possibility of success of transatlantic cooperation.1
Keywords: economic agreement, transatlantic cooperation, US, EU, international relations.
Introduction
The nature of the US-EU relation was, in the first phase, one of a traditional
diplomatic type, based on exchanges of ambassadors and negotiations of treaties. In the period
between the end of World War II and the end of Cold War, the US-Europe cooperation has
been manifested in the political and military areas. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989
and the attempt of Eastern European countries to be transformed in market democracies,
security has focused more on military invasion from Western Europe and NATO began a long
and difficult process of redefining its mission. Because the US relation with European
countries has helped shaping the US-EU relationship, our concern is the nature of the US-EU
relationship, not the US-European countries relationship.
In order to discuss about the relation between the United States and the European
Union, we should go back in the history to see when has started this kind of connection. The
relationship US-EU is especially an economic one, based on common values and principles,
such as promoting human rights, democracy and common security. International trade,
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development
(SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government under the contract number
POSDRU/159/1.5/133675
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business and investment, as well as the coordination of the political economy are topics of
interest to policy makers of the US-EU relationship. This will change after the 1992, the
period named ―the post Maastricht‖ and the focus will be the on the political aspects of this
relationship. Even if the political aspects are important, the economic analysis is the one
which distinguishes the best the relationship between the US-EU.
The end of Cold War represented the beginning of the European Union expansion and
after the elaboration of the Single European Act (SEA) in 1986 and the signing the Maastricht
Treaty, the development of institutional role in Europe becomes important. The US-EU
relationship has become closer and multidimensional as the European Union is widening and
strengthening its own institutional point of view, and Member States were giving as many
institutional responsibilities. Thus, while the US-EU relationship is increasingly shaping
policy, the recent initiatives of the European Union to create a single currency, to strengthen a
common foreign and security policy, to develop a common defense policy, are making a
stronger link between the two political entities. So, the United States will continue to handle
some aspects of foreign policy regarding agreements with the European Union. Regarding the
US-EU relationship of cooperation or competition, we have some question on the nature and
on the future of this kind of relation.
The most important questions to which we are trying to find some answers in this
paper are whether the US-EU relationship is a competition or a cooperative one?; who had
benefited from the expansion of the US-EU relationship?; what issues and events led to the
modeling / remodeling of the US-EU relationship in this century? And last question concerns
the future of transatlantic cooperation, whether it will be a failure or success on the stage of
international relations.
Transatlantic cooperation between US and the EU
The formal cooperation between the United States and the European Union started in
the 1990, with the Transatlantic Declaration and with the Transatlantic Agenda, which was
adopted in 1995. This kind of cooperation was based on activities such as summits and formal
meetings at multi levels, especially in the areas like economy, education, science and culture.
The first step in the transatlantic cooperation was made through the establishment of the
diplomatic relation, which was the core of the US-EU relations.
Cooperation in different areas is an important element of the transatlantic relations
between US and the EU. The security and also the prosperity of the United States and Europe
it depends on the development of science and technology, this idea being outlined in the US
National Intelligence Council‘s report Global Trends 20302 which is not seek to predict the
future, but is trying to provide a framework for the future and its implications. The greater
focus of this report is on the role of US in the international system and the big question raised
is whether the US will be able to have new strategic partners in order to reinvent its position
in the international system.
The economic and the political connection between the United States and the
European Union could affect and also could transform the economic, political, and military
2
Cathleen Fisher, ―The Invisible Pillar of Transatlantic Cooperation: Activating Untapped Science & Technology Assets,‖
Science & Diplomacy, Vol. 2, No. 1, March 2013.
http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2013/invisible-pillar-transatlantic-cooperation, accessed on October 6, 2014.
368
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
activities from all around the world3. The alliance of US with the EU is strategic and it was
supported by the American leaders in the past. An example can be the one from June 1993,
when speaking in Frankfurt, the President Kennedy said that the United States looked forward
―to a Europe united and strong, speaking with a common voice, acting with a common will, a
world power capable of meeting world problems as a full and equal partner‖. Nowadays, the
United States still wants a Europe united and this is the reason why the European Union is an
important actor for the United States in the international system 4. The world has changed
since Kennedy`s time, but the idea of the ―United States of Europe‖ resisted through lots of
changes and conflicts. The transatlantic relations are still a priority in the US foreign policy,
but there are some concerns about other economic powers which are growing in the
international system, such as China. It remains clear the fact that Europe, especially the
European Union, is the most appropriate partner to maintain the role of a great power on the
world and an alliance would be the perfect cover for the US interests.
The transatlantic relation US-EU is based on an alliance with common values, the
same purposes and mutual interests in the global world. The collaboration and cooperation
across the Atlantic has a long history and its effects reflects the institutional connections and
resemblance. The US-EU partnership is needed by both of them because they need economic
and political stability in maintaining the role of a global actor. The focus of the US foreign
policy and also of the EU‘s foreign policy is to achieve the goal of signing a transatlantic
partnership based on economic measures.
The US-EU cooperation - failure or success?
The EU is the most important partner in economic trade of the US and it can be
considered the perfect region for Americans foreign investment5. The purpose of the
European Union is an economic union and also a political one. The most important step
toward an economic union is the single European currency. For this, it was created, by the
European leaders, the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)6. The consequences of the
Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) are affecting the US and also the transatlantic
relations. There are different perspectives on the effects of the EMU on the US-EU relations7:
the first one, it belongs to the skeptics who sustain that the problem of Euro zone will increase
economic conflicts and transatlantic political friction. The second one, the perspective of the
monetary union supporters, sustains that the effects of EMU will have a positive impact in
facilitating the cooperation across the Atlantic.
There are some potential negative consequences of EMU for the United States and
transatlantic relation on which we should focus our attention. A large number of economists
agree with the fact that the role of Euro is very important in the European world and it can
become a future global currency8. In a world dominated by an economic transatlantic
3
Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds, the National Intelligence Council, December 2012.
4
Sir Collin Budd, ―US-EU Relations after Lisbon: Reviving Transatlantic Cooperation‖, in The London School of
Economics and Political Science, SR003 Obama Nation? US Foreign Policy One Year On, Special Report, January 2010,
p. 34.
5
See Prepared Statement of Ambassador Jeffrey M. Lang, Federal News Service, July 23, 1997. Electronic Version.
6
Jacques Delors, Report on Economic and Monetary Union in the European Community, Committee for the â Study of
Economic and Monetary Union, April, 17, 1989
7
Robert D. Blackwill, ―The Future of Transatlantic Relations‖, Council on Foreign Relations, February 1, 1999, p. 11
8
―Why non-Europeans should care about EMU‖, The Economist, March 29, 1997, p. 86.
369
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
partnership US-EU, with a bipolar currency, C. Fred Bergsten comments that ―the dollar-
centered system will be replaced‖9. From this idea we can conclude that the US needs the
European market and the potential of the global trade because Euro has the power to become
the rival of the dollar currency and the international trade will be affected by this rivalry10.
The US economy is strong, its markets are powerful, but the stability won‘t last
forever and there is the need of an economic partner to balance the global trade 11. Depending
on how many countries follow the EMU, the foreign currency for trade between those
countries will be Euro. That means that the Europe‘s reserves will be much higher and almost
equivalent with those of the US12.
After the end of World War II, the US was not so vulnerable on economic fluctuations
and less dependent on trade that any country of Europe. Here, we can bring into discussion
the explanation given by Henning ―When clashing with European governments over
macroeconomic policies or the balance of payments, American officials often took advantage
of this asymmetry. In several instances, the threat of a precipitous exchange-rate movement
pressed European governments to deflate or dampen their economies in accordance with
American preferences‖13. According to Henning, the purpose of the monetary union is to
reduce the cost of transatlantic monetary conflict for Europe and to decrease the US pressure
on European policymakers14. The conclusion of Henning is ―The United States would
confront a larger, more cohesive, and more self-confident and powerful partner in the
monetary union than it has faced in the past‖.15
For the US-EU relation, EMU is very important because it will promote greater
cooperation and also coordination between the European Union and the United States in
economic, foreign policy and security area. The US was a promoter of the European unity and
stability and the EMU is a big step toward this. Besides the political advantages of a stable
European integration, the EMU promotes the economic growth and dynamic trade and the
final result will be an increased transatlantic trade. The Transatlantic Trade and Investment
Partnership between the United States and the European Union can be considered a success of
the US-EU cooperation in economic matters.
It is known that a more united, a more integrated and a stable Europe will represent an
efficient global partner for the United States. This is the reason why the American leaders
support the EU in its process of strengthening its own stability and its focus on foreign policy
and security. In order to promote the need of a transatlantic partnership, John Roper argues
―Greater European coherence can only make a working partnership [with the United States]
easier to achieve‖.
The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership is the trade agreement negotiated
in present by the European Union with the United States and represents the most important
economic treaty, criticized by commentators and policymakers from both sides of the
9
C. F. Bergsten, ―The Dollar and the Euro‖, Foreign Affairs, vol. 76, no. 4, July/August 1997, p. 83.
10
C. F. Bergsten, ―The Euro Versus the Dollar: Will There be a Struggle for Dominance?‖. Paper prepared for a roundtable
at the annual meeting of the American Economic Association, Atlanta, GA, 4 January 2002
11
Michael Elliott, ―Hey, Can You Spare a `Euro'?‖, Newsweek, February 17, 1997, p. 48.
12
Henry Engler, ―Euro Set to Rival Dollar on Global Stage‖, Reuters Financial Service, April 23, 1997. Electronic Version.
13
C.R. Henning, ―Europe's Monetary Union and the United States‖, Foreign Policy, No. 102, p. 94.
14
C.R. Henning, ―US-EU Relations After the Inception of the Monetary Union: Cooperation or Rivalry?‖, in Henning C.R.
and Padoan, P. C. (eds.), Transatlantic Perspectives on the Euro, Pittsburg: European Union Studies Association, 2000.
15
Henning, ―Europe's Monetary Union and the United States‖, p. 95.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Atlantic. This trade agreement is seen like a solution for the economic crisis of the European
Union and it has measures that have been oversold. For the United States, this treaty is the
perfect occasion to maintain the role of a global actor in the international system.
The transatlantic partnership will have economic benefits for both powers implicated,
but it will have also some risks.16 The purpose of this economic trade is to eliminate the
barriers and to promote the free trade between the United States and the European Union. The
project of this partnership is very ambitious and the Study realized by the Centre for
Economic Policy Research (CEPR) for the European Commission in March 2013 concluded
that ―by 2027, an ambitious TTIP would produce gains of approximately $164 billion for the
EU and $131 billion for the U.S., while a less ambitious agreement that eliminates most tariffs
but leaves many non-tariff barriers in place would create EU gains of $94 billion and US
gains of $69 billion‖17.
There are different perspectives on the potential of the transatlantic trade and an
optimistic one is the view of David Cameron, The British Prime Minister, writing in the Wall
Street Journal ahead of his visit to the United States in May 2013, who argues that ―This deal
could add as much as £10 billion to the British economy and £63 billion ($97 billion) to U.S.
gross domestic product (GDP). But the rest of the world would benefit too, with gains that
could generate €100 billion ($132 billion) world-wide‖18. A realistic perspective on the
transatlantic partnership shows that the estimated gains are too idealistic and the elimination
of trade barriers could lead no to a liberalization of the international trade, but to a complex
world trade with more regulations. There is only an estimation of the possible gains, not a
certainty of the economic growth for both the United States and the European Union.
Conclusions
After a long period of limited exchanges and relations, the cooperation between US
and the EU has taken a new direction based on common interests. Even if there are some
institutional, cultural and political differences between these two powers, in the economic
field the purpose of both of them is the same: economic trade and a free trade materialized, in
the era of globalization, in the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership.
In order to get answers to some of our questions (whether the US-EU relationship is a
competition or a cooperative one?; who had benefited from the expansion of the US-EU
relationship?; what issues and events led to the modeling / remodeling of the US-EU
relationship in this century? And last question concerns the future of transatlantic cooperation,
whether it will be a failure or success on the stage of international relations) we tried to see if
the US-EU relationship is a competitive or a cooperative one and we find out that the type of
relation depends on the area of interest and on the position of both of the economic blocs, the
US and the EU. While the United States and the EU Member States have certain similarities,
16
Ted. R. Bromund, Nile Gardiner, Luke Coffey, ―The Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP): The
Geopolitical Reality‖, Heritage Foundation Backgrounder No. 2953, September 17, 2014, p. 2.
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2014/09/the-transatlantic-trade-and-investment-partnership-ttip-the-geopolitical-
reality, accessed October 6, 2014.
17
Centre for Economic Policy Research, Reducing Transatlantic Barriers to Trade and Investment, Final Project Report,
March 2013, p. 47.
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150737.pdf, accessed October 8, 2014.
18
David Cameron, ―A British–American Tax and Trade Agenda‖, The Wall Street Journal, May 12, 2013,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324216004578478652537662348.html, accessed October 9, 2014.
371
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
the economic and political relationship between them contains elements of divergence. To the
question ―who wins from the expansion of the US-EU relation?‖ the answer may not be so
simple (US or EU) because we can include other options such as interest groups,
institutions/international organizations or common economic interests groups. The
remodeling of the US-EU relationship in this century depends on the factors involved in the
competition or the cooperation type of relation. The historical background and the common
interest can be one of the answers to the question regarding the issues and events which has
led to the modeling/remodeling of the US-EU relationship in this century. To make
predictions about the future of the transatlantic relations we need to analyze the common
interests of both economic powers and we need to see if the negotiations of the transatlantic
partnership will have a successful end or it will be an expected failure that will reflect the
capability/incapability of US and the EU to cooperate in the economic field.
There were made studies based on the gains from the transatlantic partnership and one
of the studies is the one made by the Global Economic Dynamics project of the Bertelsmann
Foundation in 2013. This study concluded that ―an ambitious TTIP that eliminated tariffs and
reduced many regulatory barriers to trade would create almost 1.1 million jobs in the U.S.,
with most of the gains resulting from the reduction of non-tariff barriers and with the U.S.
gaining more than the EU. Most of the rest of the world would suffer trade diversion and a
resulting loss of jobs‖19. This conclusions are in order to show us, the European citizens and
to the American citizens that a collaboration between the United States and the European
Union is recommended, especially in these times of European crisis and instability in the
international system.
To conclude, the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership could represent a
model of success of the cooperation between the United States and the European Union. Even
if there are a lot of risks, the benefits for both economic blocs are important for the stability of
their international trade and it is an opportunity that must be used.
Bibliography
1. Bergsten, C. F., ―The Euro Versus the Dollar: Will There be a Struggle for
Dominance?‖. Paper prepared for a roundtable at the annual meeting of the American
Economic Association, Atlanta, GA, 4 January 2002.
2. Bergsten, C. F., ―The Dollar and the Euro‖, Foreign Affairs, vol. 76, no. 4,
July/August 1997, p. 83.
3. Blackwill, Robert D., ―The Future of Transatlantic Relations‖, Council on Foreign
Relations, February 1, 1999, p. 11.
4. Budd, Sir Collin, ―US-EU Relations after Lisbon: Reviving Transatlantic
Cooperation‖, in The London School of Economics and Political Science, SR003
Obama Nation? US Foreign Policy One Year On, Special Report, January 2010, p. 34.
5. Bromund, Ted. R., Gardiner, Nile, Coffey, Luke, ―The Transatlantic Trade and
Investment Partnership (TTIP): The Geopolitical Reality‖, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2953, September 17, 2014, p. 2.
19
Gabriel Felbermayr, Benedikt Heid, and Sybille Lewald, ―Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP): Who
Benefits from a Free Trade Deal? Part 1: Macroeconomic Effects,‖ Global Economic Dynamics, 2013,
http://www.bfna.org/sites/default/files/TTIP-GED%20study%2017June%202013.pdf, accessed October 7, 2014
372
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
http://www.heritage.org/research/reports/2014/09/the-transatlantic-trade-and-
investment-partnership-ttip-the-geopolitical-reality, accessed October 6, 2014.
6. Centre for Economic Policy Research, Reducing Transatlantic Barriers to Trade and
Investment, Final Project Report, March 2013, p. 47.
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2013/march/tradoc_150737.pdf, accessed
October 8, 2014.
7. Cameron, David, ―A British–American Tax and Trade Agenda‖, The Wall Street
Journal, May 12, 2013,
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324216004578478652537662348.ht
ml, accessed October 9, 2014.
8. Delors, Jacques, Report on Economic and Monetary Union in the European
Community, Committee for the â Study of Economic and Monetary Union, April, 17,
1989
9. Elliott, Michael, ―Hey, Can You Spare a `Euro'?‖, Newsweek, February 17, 1997, p.
48.
10. Engler, Henry, ―Euro Set to Rival Dollar on Global Stage‖, Reuters Financial Service,
April 23, 1997. Electronic Version.
11. Felbermayr, Gabriel, Heid, Benedikt, and Lewald, Sybille, ―Transatlantic Trade and
Investment Partnership (TTIP): Who Benefits from a Free Trade Deal? Part 1:
Macroeconomic Effects,‖ Global Economic Dynamics, 2013,
http://www.bfna.org/sites/default/files/TTIP-GED%20study%2017June%202013.pdf
accessed October 7, 2014
12. Fisher, Cathleen, ―The Invisible Pillar of Transatlantic Cooperation: Activating
Untapped Science & Technology Assets,‖ Science & Diplomacy, Vol. 2, No. 1, March
2013.
http://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2013/invisible-pillar-transatlantic-
cooperation, accessed on October 6, 2014.
13. Global Trends 2030: Alternative Worlds, the National Intelligence Council, December
2012.
14. Henning, C.R., ―Europe's Monetary Union and the United States‖, Foreign Policy, No.
102, p. 94.
15. Henning, C.R., ―US-EU Relations After the Inception of the Monetary Union:
Cooperation or Rivalry?‖, in Henning C.R. and Padoan, P. C. (eds.), Transatlantic
Perspectives on the Euro, Pittsburg: European Union Studies Association, 2000.
16. Prepared Statement of Ambassador Jeffrey M. Lang, Federal News Service, July 23,
1997. Electronic Version.
17. ―Why non-Europeans should care about EMU‖, The Economist, March 29, 1997, p. 86
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme
Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and the
Romanian Government under the contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133675
373
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
SOME ASPECTS REGARDING NEW REGULATION IN TAX EXEMPTION
FOR REINVESTED EARNINGS IN ROMANIA
Daniela Popa, Assist. Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu
Abstract: OUG 19/2014 introduced new regulations for tax exemption of reinvested earnings.
Beginning July 1st, 2014, the new fiscal measure is due to increase the worth for equipment‘s
investment and is expected (in the long run) to improve technological equipment for
production, transport and agriculture, or any form of manufacture. Although such measures
are not innovative, to obtain tax exemption for reinvested earnings is now more appealing
than previous attempts. Romanian legislators are convinced that such measures will have a
significant effects on industrial manufacturers, while allowing an upgrade of fabrication
facilities in any field of production.
This paper concentrates on some enhancements, amendments and barriers of the new fiscal
regulations for these old regulations. As always, only the economic reality will show if
Romanian companies will use and benefit from these newly introduced fiscal facilities.
Keywords: reinvested earnings, tax facilities, corporate income, fiscal measures, accounting
profit
JEL Classification: H3
1. INTRODUCTION
Romanian legislators have an important goal: to change tax legislation in order to have
a positive impact on the business environment, and as such, these measures had continued in
2014. A major tax change is the renewal of old idea for taxation of reinvested earnings and
profits. This measure was adopted after promotion of holding companies structure. No
arguing that Romanian equipment for production (in any fields of production) is far behind
the European average and the cost of modernization is huge. So this measure is intended to
increase the investments and equipment upgrades, based on the money allocated for taxation.
This measure is not new, but has been redesigned. The new regulation (OUG 19/2014
or GEO 19/2014) corrects some clumsiness provisions introduced in 2009, which did not have
the anticipated effect, were unattractive for investors, companies and entrepreneurs, because
in the end it did not offer any fiscal advantages.
Still, this fiscal facility will have a limited extend, starting 1st July 2014 and for
equipment bought / purchased / manufactured only until December 31st, 2014.
2. SOME NEW CONDITIONS FOR THE FISCAL CHANGES
GEO 19/2014 repealed article 19st of the Tax Code, which had been introduced in
2009 by Law no. 32/2009 and concerned tax exemption of reinvested earnings and introduced
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a new article 194, similar to the repealed provision, while removing its major drawbacks that
resulted in the entrepreneur‘s refusal to use the facility introduced in 2009.
According to this rule, earnings invested in technology – machinery and equipment –
as provided for in subgroup 2.1 of the Catalogue on the classification and utility life of fixed
assets (the Catalogue) subsequently used for business activities, are exempt from taxation.
The tax exemption for investments may not exceed the corporate income tax due for the
period.
Here are some examples for assets being purchased using the fiscal facility: equipment
for extraction of coal and other metallic and nonmetallic ore; construction and agricultural
equipment; transport and communication equipment; health and human care equipment;
equipment for textile, paper, food, chemical and petroleum industries; electrical and wind
energy production; other types of equipment working independently.
To qualify for the exemption, the equipment must be new. No exemption will be
granted for the entrepreneurs who reinvest their earnings for the purchase of equipment not
considered new under the implementing rules that will accompany these provisions. For
example, we consider that the purchase of a state of the art, but second hand equipment will
not involve the application of the exemption. That approach remains to be confirmed by
implementing rules.
Investments in technology to be carried out over several consecutive years will qualify
for the exemption in proportion to the equipment put into service each year.
These provisions define the invested earnings as the profit and loss account balance,
i.e. the gross accounting profit from the beginning of the year, during which the equipment
was commissioned. For the period from 1st of July to 31 December 2014, it must be taken into
account only the gross accounting profit registered since 1st of July and invested in equipment
put into service after that date.
Example 1. An asset purchased in June 2014 and put into operation in July 2014. Due
to the fact that the fiscal facility is applied only for equipment achieved after 1st of July 2014,
the company could not apply the tax exemption.
Taxpayers are required to pay corporate income tax on a quarterly basis and who
invest in the previous quarters will subtract the previously invested earnings for which the
facility was applied from the gross profit cumulated from the beginning of the year.
According to the provision, the amount of earnings that benefited from the tax
exemption, less the part related to the legal reserve, will be distributed at the end of the fiscal
year, primarily for the establishment of reserves up to the gross accounting profit recorded.
The reserves are to be taxed at the time of using them in any form and also in case of
reorganization operations conducted according to the law, if the recipient company does not
take them over.
Also, according to the provision, where is a year-end accounting loss, the corporate
income tax related to the invested earnings is not recalculated and the taxpayer does not
allocate the invested earnings to reserves.
Entrepreneurs benefiting from the facility are required to keep the respective
technology assets for a period at least equal to half of their useful life as determined according
to the application of accounting regulations, but not more than five years. In case of failure to
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observe that condition, the tax is recomputed for those amounts and accessory tax liabilities
will be charged from the date of facility application.
The following are not covered by the provisions: equipment transferred during
reorganization process, equipment disposed of during winding-up or bankruptcy procedures
and those that are destroyed, lost or stolen.
Unlike the previous provision, taxpayers will be able to depreciate the equipment
purchased through reinvesting earnings, but they will not be able to choose an accelerated
depreciation for the equipment. During that minimum equipment holding period, taxpayers
will be able to depreciate the equipment and therefore benefit from the tax deductibility of
depreciation, leading to a double deduction during the investment period.
Upon the distribution of the reinvested earnings as dividends, the respective amounts
will be subject to corporate income tax, but unlike under the previous regulations, without
payment of interest and late payments penalties. Micro-enterprises becoming companies and
paying corporate income tax during the year will take into account, upon application of the
facility, the cumulated gross accounting profit from the beginning of the year, which were
invested in equipment put into service beginning with the quarter in which they became
corporate tax payers.
2.1. The potential effect of the fiscal changes
The adoption of the measure was strongly supported by Romanian business
environment, especially the Business Association of Romania (AOAR) which recommended
directly Romanian government to support the measure during the negotiations with the IMF.
Romanian entrepreneurs hope that this facility will increase the upgrade of production
equipment, outdated and old (comparing to the European average). It was a hope for boosting
foreign investment in Romania. As reflected in the beginning of the GEO 19/2014, legislators
hoped that the measure will have an extended effect over competitiveness and innovation,
attracting investment, increasing employment and improving working conditions. Budgetary
impact will rise to 137.5 ml. RON (41.7 ml. USD). We consider this figure rather optimistic
then realistic.
2.2. What is reinvested earning
The reinvested earning represents the balance of the earnings and loss account,
meaning the gross accounting profit, from cumulative from the beginning of the fiscal year, in
the year of application (operation) of this equipment. The exemption for reinvested earnings
had a limit to the amount of profit tax due to that year. The gross accounting profit cumulative
from the beginning of the fiscal year is the accounting profit and the profit tax expenditures
recorded in the quarter / year of operation for the equipment.
Example 2. An asset purchased in December 2014 and put into operation in February
2015, in value of 70.000 EUR. In which quarter will use the company the exemption? The
regulation specifies clearly that the exemption is given only in the quarter in which the asset is
put into operation.
3. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE NEW AND OLD FISCAL
REGULATIONS
As outlined above, the old regulations concerning reinvested earnings, although not
very different from the current provisions, have some features that made them very
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unappealing to the businesses. In 2009, the old regulation represented only a delay for profit
taxation during the life expectancy of the investment.
The regulations concerned the same category of goods where a company could
reinvest its earnings and included the same requirements to keep the assets at least for the
period equal to half of their useful life, according to the Catalogue.
A major drawback of the previous regulation was related to the depreciation of the
assets. It had been decided that, because there was tax deduction for the full value of the
equipment, its value for tax purposes should be zero. Thus, the fixed asset depreciation
expense was not-deductible when calculating the corporate income tax, and taxpayers
recorded only an accounting depreciation (with no depreciation for tax purposes).
Another highly unpopular issue concerned the calculation of the obligation to pay
interest and late-payment penalties upon the distribution of the reinvested earnings as
dividends, which actually turned the fiscal facility into an additional tax burden. Basically,
that facility was mere tax deferral with additional interest and late-payment penalties. In such
conditions, it was preferable for the entrepreneurs to invest in the purchase of equipment
without taking into account the former so called facility and this beside imposing restrictions
on keeping the assets, also generated a higher tax for the taxpayer.
It is easy to understand why this so called exemption was not very popular among tax
payers, being considered more of a burden than a facility. Like the new facility, it had limited
duration, being applicable from 1st October 2009 to 31st December 2010. The new regulation,
while not very innovative, often repeating the same wording of the previous regulations, has
corrected the major weaknesses that turned the old one into a disincentive and legislators are
very optimistic about its future positive effects.
Example 3. (Valid for October 2009 – December 2010) At the end of the quarter, a
company presents the following accounting information:
- Accounting profit is 40.000 Euro, purchased equipment is in value of 28.000 Euro
(useful duration 10 years);
- Accounting profit is 30.000 Euro, purchased equipment is in value of 41.000 Euro
(useful duration 10 years);
The fiscal value of the assets in those examples is:
- Accounting profit of 40.000 Euro covers the investment, tax exemption is 28.000 x
16% = 4.480 Euro; Fiscal value is 28.000 - 28.000 = 0 Euro. For every year of the
following 10 year the company will register amortization expenditure of 2.800 Euro,
amount of which could not be deduced from the profit taxation. So, in the purchase
year, the company gained 4.480 Euro (deduced from taxation) and in the following 10
years will lose for each year 448 Euro (2.800 x 16%). As we already seen before, this
fiscal measure was only valid for tax delay and not an avoidance of the payment.
- Accounting profit of 30.000 Euro is not covering the investment, tax exemption is
30.000 x 16% = 4.800 Euro; Fiscal value is 41.000 - 30.000 = 11.000 Euro. For every
year of the following 10 year the company will register amortization expenditure of
4.100 Euro (41.000/10), amount of which could be deduced only for 1.100 Euro
(11.000/10) from the profit taxation. So, in each year, will be a non deductible
expenditure of 3.000 Euro. In the purchase year, the company gained 4.800 Euro
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(deduced from taxation) and in the following 10 years will lose for each year 480 Euro
(3.000 x 16%).
For July 2014 – December 2014, to apply the facility will be useful to consider gross
accounting profit registered starting July 2014 and invested in equipment purchased /
produced and put into production after that date. The exemption is computed quarterly or
annually. The amount of profit exempt from taxation (minus legal reserve) will be allocated at
the end of fiscal year, until it reaches the amount of accounting profit registered. The formed
reserve will be taxed if it will be distributed under any conditions or in the case or company‘s
reorganization, if the new company will not assume this reserve.
Example 4. Accounting profit covers the investment. In November 2014, the
company purchased one equipment in value of 100.000 Euro. Gross accounting profit
obtained in January – December 2014 is 650.000 Euro, from which 220.000 Euro
represent the profit of July – December 2014. The value of the joint stock is low, only
200 Euro and there are no reserves constituted. At the end of quarter 4, the company
registered 500.000 Euro as taxed profit and the tax is 45.000 Euro. To compute the
amount of exemption for reinvested profit we follow these steps:
1. Computing the tax owed for the entire year: 500.000 x 16% = 80.000 Euro
2. Computing the tax owed for reinvested profit (the profit covers the investment):
100.000 x 16% = 16.000 Euro (tax exempted)
3. Computing profit tax owed after application of the facility: 80.000 – 16.000 = 64.000
Euro. Profit tax for quarter 4 = 64.000 – 45.000 = 19.000 Euro
4. Allocation for reserves of the amount exempt, without legal reserve: a) Computing
legal reserve: 5% x 650.000 = 32.500 Euro; 20% x 200 = 40 Euro. The company will
allocate for legal reserve only 40 Euro; b) Computing exempt profit, allocated to
reserves: We will take into account the rate of gross accounting profit (exempt from
taxation of total profit) = 100.000 / 650.000 = 15.38%. Legal reserve is 40, but the
share allocate for legal reserve is = 40 x 15.38% = 6 Euro). As so, the exempt profit
allocated to other reserves is 99.994 Euro.
This measure is very useful for companies with profit, while the investment exceed the
level of accounting profit, the company could not use the whole amount, only the lesser sum.
Example 5. Accounting profit does not cover the investment. In November 2014, the
company purchased the equipment in value of 90.000 Euro. Gross accounting profit
obtained in January – December 2014 is 650.000 Euro, from which 60.000 Euro
represent the profit of July – December 2014. The value of the joint stock is low, only
200 Euro and there are no reserves constituted. At the end of quarter 4, the company
registered 400.000 Euro as taxed profit and the tax is 33.000 Euro. To compute the
amount of exemption for reinvested profit we follow these steps:
1. Computing the tax owed for the entire year: 400.000 x 16% = 64.000 Euro
2. Computing the tax owed for reinvested profit (the profit covers the investment):
60.000 x 16% = 9.600 Euro (tax exempted)
3. Computing profit tax owed after application of the facility: 64.000 – 9.600 = 44.400
Euro. Profit tax for quarter 4 = 54.400 – 33.000 = 24.400 Euro
4. Allocation for reserves of the amount exempt, without legal reserve: Computing
exempt profit, allocated to reserves: 60.000 Euro
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4. SOME NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF THE NEW REGULATIONS
Despite the optimistic estimates of the government the conditions imposed for the
application of the facility are considered to be too restrictive to generate massive investments
in production equipment upgrade.
First, the requirement to keep the acquired assets for a period not shorter that the life
span of the asset as provided in Catalogue, is considered to be too restrictive. The estimated
useful life of the equipment listed in the Catalogue is no longer valid in many cases, as they
not reflect the rapid technological progress which has reduced considerably the economic life
of the assets.
Furthermore, the Catalogue established in 2004 and updated in 2008 does not provide
a whole range of modern equipment, especially in the field of renewable energy, additionally
restricting the actual applicability and effectiveness of the facility. Entrepreneurs who want to
benefit from the facility will risk being required to keep assets that will be outdated and
ineffective in a few years or pay interest and late-payment penalties if they choose to get rid
of the outdated equipment.
Surely this requirement will not hinder business operating in areas where
technological progress is slower (such as agriculture) from benefiting from the facility. Other
companies active in areas depending on state-of-the-art high tech will not be attracted to the
facility. We must not forget that companies producing IT and telecommunications goods have
emerged in Romania in recent years, and they should be better supported against a very tough
foreign competition, and the measure is not very favorable to them.
We think that the obligation to keep the purchased equipment for so long goes against
the spirit of the provision, which should promote the technological modernization of the
Romanian manufacturers and ultimately defeats the purpose of supporting their performance‘s
increase. Since the condition forces manufacturers to keep the equipment until after they
became obsolete, it creates a vicious circle in which manufactures have periods with modern
equipment followed by periods in which they have to use underperforming and obsolete
technological assets.
Another problem could be related to the limitation of depreciation, as tax-payers may
not choose the accelerated depreciation method for the equipment purchased in that manner.
Although the obstacle related to depreciation was corrected, the correction was not carried
through. Given the positive aspects and the several barriers imposed by the provision, it
remains uncertain if Romanian entrepreneurs would choose to take advantage of the facility.
In any case, the measure is certainly positive and a step forward to increase Romania‘s fiscal
attractiveness for foreign investors.
Another great disadvantage is the circumstance when the quarterly accounting profit
not covers the value of the investment, and thus the company could not ―use‖ the difference
for diminishing future quarterly profits.
Example 6. Accounting profit does not cover the investment, while profit is made in
next quarters. In January 2015, the company purchased the equipment in value of
20.000 Euro. Gross accounting profit obtained in first quarter is 14.000 Euro, and the
fiscal profit is 40.000 Euro. The value of the joint stock is low, only 200 Euro and
there are legal reserves constituted. At the end of quarter 2, the company registered
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70.000 Euro as gross accounting profit. To compute the amount of exemption for
reinvested profit we follow these steps:
1. Computing the tax owed for the first quarter: 40.000 x 16% = 6.400 Euro
2. Computing the tax owed for reinvested profit (the profit covers the investment): while
gross accounting profit is 14.000 Euro and not covers the investment (20.000 Euro),
tax exempted is 14.000 x 16% = 2.240 Euro.
3. Computing profit tax owed after application of the facility: 6.400 – 2.240 = 4.160
Euro.
4. Allocation for reserves of the amount exempt, without legal reserve: Computing
exempt profit, allocated to reserves: 14.000 Euro
When, at the end of the year, the company registers accounting loss, recalculation for
reinvested profit tax will not be made, and the company will not distribute to the reserves the
amount of reinvested profit. In this particular case, the company could gain while the amount
was exempt from taxation, still it had not the obligation to create reserves, while it register
accounting loss.
Example 7. At the end of the fiscal year, the company registered accounting loss. In
February 2015, the company purchased the equipment in value of 80.000 Euro. Gross
accounting profit obtained in first quarter is 120.000 Euro, and the fiscal profit is
170.000 Euro. The value of the joint stock is low, only 200 Euro and there are legal
reserves constituted. At the end of quarter 4, the company registered 40.000 Euro as
accounting loss. To compute the amount of exemption for reinvested profit we follow
these steps:
1. Computing the tax owed for the first quarter: 170.000 x 16% = 27.200 Euro
2. Computing the tax owed for reinvested profit (the profit covers the investment): while
gross accounting profit for first quarter is 120.000 Euro and covers the investment
(80.000 Euro), tax exempted is 80.000 x 16% = 12.800 Euro.
3. Computing profit tax owed after application of the facility: 27.200 – 12.800 = 14.400
Euro.
4. At 31 December 2015, due to the fact that the company registered loss there will be no
obligation for allocation for reserves and the profit tax will not be recalculated. But,
the fiscal value of the equipment will be 80.000 Euro, depreciation will be linear or
digressive, and not accelerated.
The exemption for the reinvested profit is granted in limit of profit tax owed, for the
year of putting in use of the investment. As such, in our opinion it represents a fiscal credit.
Even the gross accounting profit is big enough for covering the investment, if fiscal result is
not as large, then the company could not use the entire facility.
Example 8. Fiscal profit is smaller than accounting profit. In October 2015, the
company purchased the equipment in value of 30.000 Euro. Gross accounting profit
obtained in 2015 is 40.000 Euro, and the fiscal profit is 18.000 Euro. The value of the
joint stock is low, only 200 Euro and there are legal reserves constituted. At the end of
quarter 3, the amount of profit tax was 600 Euro. To compute the amount of
exemption for reinvested profit we follow these steps:
1. Computing the tax owed for 2015: 18.000 x 16% = 2.880 Euro
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2. Computing the tax owed for reinvested profit (the profit covers the investment): while
gross accounting profit for first quarter is 40.000 Euro and covers the investment
(30.000 Euro), but fiscal result was smaller and so the tax exempted is only 2.880
Euro.
The company will declare zero annual profit tax, and if during the year tax declared
and paid was, for instance 600 Euro, there will be a reimbursement for this amount. As such,
from the investment of 30.000 Euro, the company will deduce only 18.000 Euro, representing
the fiscal result for that year.
5. CONCLUSIONS
As a general conclusion, new equipment is defined as those used for the first time. The
companies could not use accelerated depreciation. For equipment acquired in leasing and put
into use between July 2014 and December 2016, tax exemption is applied by lessee.
The provision is applied for reinvested profit for technological / technical equipment
produced or purchased after 1st of July 2014 and put into function until 31st of December
2016.
The requirement to keep the acquired assets for a period not shorter that the life span
of the asset as provided in Catalogue, is considered to be too restrictive. The estimated useful
life of the equipment listed in the Catalogue is no longer valid in many cases, as they not
reflect the rapid technological progress which has reduced considerably the economic life of
the assets. Furthermore, the Catalogue established in 2004 and updated in 2008 does not
provide a whole range of modern equipment, especially in the field of renewable energy,
additionally restricting the actual applicability and effectiveness of the facility. Entrepreneurs
who want to benefit from the facility will risk being required to keep assets that will be
outdated and ineffective in a few years or pay interest and late-payment penalties if they
choose to get rid of the outdated equipment. Surely this requirement will not hinder business
operating in areas where technological progress is slower (such as agriculture) from
benefiting from the facility. Other companies active in areas depending on state-of-the-art
high tech will not be attracted to the facility. We must not forget that companies producing IT
and telecommunications goods have emerged in Romania in recent years, and they should be
better supported against a very tough foreign competition, and the measure is not very
favorable to them.
We think that the obligation to keep the purchased equipment for so long goes against
the spirit of the provision, which should promote the technological modernization of the
Romanian manufacturers and ultimately defeats the purpose of supporting their performance‘s
increase. Since the condition forces manufacturers to keep the equipment until after they
became obsolete, it creates a vicious circle in which manufactures have periods with modern
equipment followed by periods in which they have to use underperforming and obsolete
technological assets.
Another problem could be related to the limitation of depreciation, as tax-payers may
not choose the accelerated depreciation method for the equipment purchased in that manner.
Although the obstacle related to depreciation was corrected, the correction was not carried
through. Given the positive aspects and the several barriers imposed by the provision, it
remains uncertain if Romanian entrepreneurs would choose to take advantage of the facility.
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In any case, the measure is certainly positive and a step forward to increase Romania‘s fiscal
attractiveness for foreign investors.
Another great disadvantage is the circumstance when the quarterly accounting profit
not covers the value of the investment, and thus the company could not ―use‖ the difference
for diminishing future quarterly profits.
6. REFERENCES
OUG 19/2014, M. Of. Nr. 308/25.04.2014 regarding tax exemption for reinvested
earnings;
HG nr 421/2014,M. Of. Nr. 384/23.05.2014 regarding some examples of tax
exemption for reinvested earnings.
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ASPECTS THAT CAN INFLUENCE PERFORMANCE GROWTH IN
EUROPEAN PROJECTS
Diana Elena Ranf, Assistant, PhD, Elida Tomiţa Todăriţă, Assistant, PhD,
Romanian-German University of Sibiu
Abstract: The article started from objectives such as identifying changes that could lead to
increased performance towards accessing European funds. As one of the results of this
research revealed that the institutions did not receive optimal information about European
projects and how to access them, another targeted objective of the article was to identify the
main ways in which institutions would like to be informed of future European funding. These
objectives were achieved by conducting an exploratory research based on a questionnaire
applied to public institutions in Region 7 Centre, most of which have not accessed European
funds. The results can help increase performance in an area lacking in terms of project
management practice in the public institutions. Given that access to European funds is free,
motivating the subjects to take advantage of this opportunity has become vital.
Keywords: European projects; management; performance; public institutions, research.
1. INTRODUCTION
This study emerged as a result of identifying a large number of institutions that have
not currently accessed European funds. Thus, in addition to identifying the problems and
difficulties faced by institutions that have accessed European funds is also vital to identify
those motivating aspects that can contribute to increased access to funds.
Prerequisites for building this investigation are:
The existence of a large number of institutions that have not accessed European
funds to this date;
Their decision not to access funds is to some extent justified by a number of
reasons, obstacles they have encountered in this direction;
These institutions have certain strengths for accessing European funds that have
not been used for various reasons;
There are certain issues that would motivate these institutions towards accessing
European funds.
2. OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of research is to identify ways of increasing performance in
accesing European projects. The next stage of the research was to develop objectives and
assumptions. The assumptions are possible answers to the problem investigated. Their
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formulation is based on author‘s theoretical knowledge and experience. The table no. 1
contain the research objective and assumptions.
Table no. 1 The investigation‘s objectives and assumptions
OBJECTIVES ASSUMPTIONS
Identify issues that may contribute Simplifying procedures for accessing
to increased institutions interest towards and implementing projects, along with better
accessing European funds. information on funding opportunities could
increase institutions interest towards accessing
European funding.
Identify the main ways in which Institutions would prefer multiple
institutions would like to be informed of sources of information on future funding such
future EU funding. as local information campaigns, newsletters,
events.
3. METHODOLOGY
The population of interest for the study, namely the population from which the sample
was selected, is composed of a number of 73 public institutions (municipalities, county
councils, foundations, government, prefectures) or NGOs located in Region 7 Centre
(counties of Alba, Brașov, Covasna, Harghita, Mureș and Sibiu), most of which have not
accessed European funds.
We received a number 90 questionnaires, of which 68 questionnaires were processed
in order to remain a majority of institutions that have accessed European funds.
3 - 6 years 6 - 9 years over 250 up to 9
9% 4% employees employees
9 - 12 13% 8%
years
9%
50 - 249
employees
over 12 17%
years 10 - 49
78% employees
62%
Figure no. 1 Structural differences between institutions depending on the
organizations‘ age and number of employees
Institutions investigated are mostly older than 12 years (78%) and between 10-49
employees. These are followed by large and very large institutions that hold between 50-249
employees and over 250 employees. Institutions that have between 10-49 employees are
parish town halls, representing most organizations that fall in the target set, namely
institutions that have not accessed European funds.
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4. IDENTIFYING THE ASPECTS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO
INSTITUTIONS’ INCREASED INTEREST TOWARDS ACCESSING EUROPEAN
FUNDS
4.1 Spectrum analysis
This objective is of paramount importance for the research because respondents'
answers indicate what could be improved in the process of accessing and implementing EU
funds to stimulate institutions to engage more in this direction, so that in the next
programming period 2014 – 2020, performance in European projects increases.
Figure no. 2 Aspects that may contribute to institutions‘ increased interest towards
accessing European funds (1)
A quite high percentage of respondents (65%) state that a diversification of investment
areas would greatly stimulate them towards accessing European funds. Respondents said
earlier that they have strengths towards accessing European funds such as: investment
priorities that are found in areas of intervention (mean score obtained - 3.43) and another
strong point is that institutions are eligible in certain areas of intervention (mean score
obtained - 3.82); the scores obtained from respondents' answers that would highlight areas
where institutions could invest using the opportunities offered by European funds are quite
varied. However, respondents say a diversification of investment areas would be greatly
beneficial for increasing access to European funds.
Almost half of respondents (48%) believe that a number of changes in the regulation
of Financing Guidelines would do much to increase the access of European funds and 39% of
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institutions say that this action would have an average influence on their decision to access
funds in the future. The research aimed to identify problems encountered by respondents in
accessing European funds revealed problems like uncertainties in the requirements of the
guidelines, guidelines that are not sufficiently explicit, discrepancies between guidelines and
legislation or inconsistency between the guidelines and application forms. Thus, many of the
causes of failed projects or problems encountered are due to the Financing Guidelines.
Figure no. 3 Aspects that may contribute to institutions‘ increased interest towards
accessing European funds (2)
Most respondents (74%) feel they are not sufficiently informed about the possibilities
of funding and how to access European funds and state that better information would
contribute heavily to increasing access to funds. Moreover, the lack of information is
considered as a cause of medium importance for the lack of access of funds so far.
Although not in a very large extent, however, privatization of institutions responsible
for managing European funds would help in increasing access of European funds in Romania.
Low degree of absorption of European funds is also a failure of institutions dealing with their
management, therefore, this requires a change in their structure or their privatization, as it was
proposed at a time.
Both procedures for accessing funds and the implementation of projects have a high
difficulty for potential beneficiaries of European funds. These high percentages of
respondents who believe that simplifying these procedures would result in increased access to
funds, confirms the results of research that has identified the difficulties encountered by
beneficiaries of European funds in Region 7 Centre. Among the main issues raised by
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respondents include the inexplicit Financing Guidelines, inconsistent with the application
forms, a large volume of documents to be reported.
Figure no. 4 Aspects that may contribute to institutions‘ increased interest towards
accessing European funds (3)
Comparing aspects that could increase social actors‘ interest to access European funds,
we notice that better information on funding opportunities, followed by simplifying
procedures for accessing funds and carrying out projects should be priorities for the next
funding period 2014 - 2020. Improving the quality of Financing Guidelines, their correlation
with the law is also important to ensure the success of the European projects.
Figure no. 5 Comparison of aspects that might motivate social actors from Region 7
Centre towards accessing European funds
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
4.2 Statistical analysis
Changes that could help motivate respondents towards accessing European funds vary
depending on their experience on project management. Therefore, people with no experience
or with little experience in the field consider the simplification of access procedures and better
information on funding opportunities as the main aspects that may contribute to institutions‘
increased interest towards accessing European funds. Instead, people with experience between
6 and 10 years or over 10 years of project management view as important a number of
changes such as the simplification of implementation procedures, areas of investment
diversification and changes of Funding Guidelines for increasing access to European funds.
3,7
Simplifying implementation procedures 4,8
4,7
4,5
4,9
Simplifying procedures for access 4
3,9
4,6
Privatization of institutions that manage 1,8
4
4,1
No experience
funds 2,3
Over 10 years
4,8
Better information on funds 3,6
3,5 6 - 10 years
4,6
3,1 1 - 5 years
Changes in Financing Guidelines 4,4
3,8
3,3
3,2
Diversification of investment areas 4,6
3,8
3,6
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure no. 6 Aspects that may motivate institutions towards accessing European funds
depending on the respondents‘ experience in project management
Considering the fact that institutions that have tried to access funds among respondents
belong to the government, it is observed that the views of figure no. 7, whereby respondents
with experience in projects deemed important to simplify procedures for accessing and
implementing European funds and diversify investment areas. Public institutions and NGOs
consider that they might be motivated towards accessing funding projects through changes
such as: simplifying access procedures, better information on funding opportunities and some
simplifications of the Financing Guidelines.
4,5
Simplifying implementation procedures 4,8
4
4,8
Simplifying procedures for access 4,4
4
Privatization of institutions that manage 3,8
2,5 Public institutions
funds 2,8
4,3 PA
Better information on funds 3,7
4,3
NGOs
4,3
Changes in Financing Guidelines 3,5
3,3
3,2
Diversification of investment areas 4,5
3,8
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure no. 7 Aspects that may motivate institutions towards accessing European funds
depending on the type of institution
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5. IDENTIFYING THE MAIN WAYS IN WHICH INSTITUTIONS WOULD
LIKE TO BE INFORMED OF FUTURE EUROPEAN FUNDING
5.1 Spectrum analysis
This objective responds to the need of respondents who consider the need for better
information on funding opportunities from European funds, on areas they may invest using
grant funds and at the same time remain faithful to the main investment priorities of the
institution. For example, there are villages whose schools require renovations, but they are
investing in sport grounds that no one uses.
The main ways of information on future European funding include: various campaigns
of information, national conferences, training in the field, on-line, media information,
organizing events (seminars, conferences, trade fairs, caravans) and developing a newsletter.
Figure no. 8 Importance given to information about funding through local
information campaigns and national conferences
Respondents' answers indicate their preference for local information campaigns, with a
percentage of 74% who appreciate this information on the funds much and very much.
National conferences are valued by respondents in a lower percentage (57%).
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Figure no. 9 Importance given to information about funding through training in the
field and organization of different events (seminars, conferences, etc.)
Respondents have a positive attitude about training in European funds, thus a 91%
appreciates this information method greatly and to a great extent. In the investigation
conducted previously, although the institutions that have accessed funds were very receptive
to the training of the employees, only 32% of the courses organized during 2007-2012 were in
the field of European projects and, as for the courses planned in the future, just 29% had the
theme project management. Participation in events such as seminars, conferences, trade fairs,
caravans are also popular (much and very much) in a high percentage (78%) of the
respondents.
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Figure no. 10 Importance given to information on funds via the internet and mass-
media
As it can be noticed from Fig. 10, the internet is one of the means preferred by
respondents to receive information on European funds, being the fastest, easiest, most
convenient way to communicate. Moreover, in this first funding period, information on
European funds, their evolution and of European projects could be accessed by multiple
online addresses, such as: finantare.ro, fonduri-structurale.ro, fonduri-ue.ro, etc. Although
appreciated in a lesser extent, the media should not be neglected as a means of information of
potential beneficiaries of European funds.
Figure no. 11 Importance given to information on funding through a newsletter
The creation of a newsletter to keep the institutions posted on funding opportunities,
and not only, but also on the launch dates of calls for proposals on various funding lines and
the possible changes that may occur in the Funding Guidelines or legislation and that would
create the effect of projects is highly appreciated by a percentage of 79% of respondents. Such
a newsletter would be a way to get the latest news on European funds.
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Preparing a newsletter 4,17
Events (seminars, conferences, etc.) 4,3
Through mass-media 3,86
Through the internet 4,47
Through training in the field 4,34
National conferences 3,73
Locally held information campaigns 4,13
3,2 3,4 3,6 3,8 4 4,2 4,4 4,6
Figure no. 12 Comparison between the main ways of information on European funds
Comparing the possible means of information on European funds, except national
conferences that require extra effort and the media which began to lose credibility, all other
information methods analyzed received grades between 4 and 5 (which means high and very
high importance given to the methods analyzed). The Internet which has become the most
valued means of accessing any type of information is standing out with the highest grade
awarded.
5.2 Statistical analysis
Institutions stated that better information on the possibilities of information would
help increase access to European funds. Large institutions that have over 250 employees say
that the main ways that they get informed about funds are the internet, training, attending
national conferences. Institutions that hold between 50 and 249 employees believe that the
best information means are training in the field, participating in various events and
employees‘ training in the field. Smaller institutions that have fewer than 50 employees prefer
local information campaigns, newsletters, events.
4,3
Preparing a newsletter 3,7
4,1
5
4,3
Events (seminars, conferences, etc.) 4,5
4,2
4,5
4
Through mass-media 3,2
3,9
4,2
over 250 employees
4,8
Through the internet 3,8 50 - 249 employees
4,5
4
10 - 49 employees
4,9
Through training in the field 4,8
4,3 up tp 9 employees
3
4,8
National conferences 4,5
3,9
4,5
4
Locally held information campaigns 3,5
4,5
5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure no. 13 Analysis of information means on funds depending on the size of the
institution
Respondents who have more than 10 years experience in project management declare
that the ideal means of information on funds are the Internet and participating in various
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events, national conferences. In contrast, people with no experience in projects and who do
not have sufficient knowledge to interpret the information available online, prefer as means of
information attending classes in the area, local information campaigns or the media.
4,7
Preparing a newsletter 3,9
4,5
4,1
4,2
Events (seminars, conferences, etc.) 4,6
4,3
4,1
4,4
Through mass-media 3,1
3,5
4,2
No experience
3,5
Through the internet 4,9 Over 10 years
4,6
4,1
4,7 6 - 10 years
Through training in the field 3,6
4,1 1 - 5 years
4,4
3,9
National conferences 4,8
4,6
4,3
4,5
Locally held information campaigns 4
4,3
4,4
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure no. 14 Analysis of information means on funds depending on the respondents‘
experience in project management
Respondents with modest experience in this area consider useful to develop a
newsletter on the information opportunities, the Internet and organizing various events and
conferences.
6. CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, it can be seen that respondents with little experience in projects deemed
the simplification of access and better information on funding opportunities could increase
institutions‘ interest towards accessing European funds. And more experienced respondents in
project management believe that simplifying the procedures for implementation, areas of
investment diversification would help increase access and absorption of European funds. Due
to poor programming of investment areas, there are priority axes which have exhausted funds
to this date and axes with a very low degree of access to funds due to lack of eligible
beneficiaries.
Although the results at the end of the first funding period 2007 - 2013 are well below
expectations, however, respondents have not lost confidence in the ability of European funds
to mitigate the effects of the crisis that hit Romania in recent years, but are not very confident
in their ability to reduce the differences between urban and rural areas.
The investigation conducted in this article has allowed the preparation of
recommendations for institutions managing European funds in Romania:
Increasing availability in consultancy and project development support institutions
both in completing the application form, as well as technical and financial
reporting;
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Development of Funding Guidelines to provide detailed and explicit information
to potential applicants for facilitating completing the application form;
Simplifying procedures of public procurement;
Simplifying procedures for accessing and implementing the projects by
substantially reducing the documentation required by the institutions managing
European funds.
Recommendations for potential beneficiaries of European funds:
Identifying project ideas through an analysis of institutional needs that could be
financed through European funds and creating a portfolio of projects;
Making efforts to transform institutions‘ weaknesses towards accessing funds into
strengths that can capitalize growth opportunities that funds offer;
The project manager must have in addition knowledge about the processes
involved in the company, the ability to work more efficient by using modern
techniques and tools of project management;
Initiation of relationships with both national and international project development
institutions for the exchange of best practices, collaboration and knowledge
transfer.
7. REFERENCES
1. Bârgăoan, A. (2009) European Funds – Strategies to Promote and Use, Tritonic
Publisher House, Bucureşti;
2. Kerzner, H. (2005) Proiect Management– Planning, Scheduling and Control, Italian
Edition by Ulrico Hoelipi Publisher House, Milano;
3. Lewis, P. J. (2010) Project Planning, Scheduling and Control, McGraw Hill Publisher
House, SUA;
4. Morris, P., Pinto, J. K. (2007) The Wiley Guide to Project Program and Portofolio
Management, Wiley & Sons Publisher House, New Jersey;
5. Portny, E. Stanley, (2010) Project management for dummies, Wiley Publishing, SUA;
6. Ranf, D., Dumitrașcu, D. (2012) Study on the Problems in the Stages of Filling Out
the Application Form and Technical-Financial Reporting Encountered by the Public
Institutions in the Centre Region in Accessing European Funds, annals of the
University of Oradea. Economics, No.1/156/2012, pp. 1059-1065, ISSN 1582-5450,
2012;
7. Ranf, D., Dumitrașcu, D. (2010) Case Study on the State of Projects Accessed by
Public Institutions in Centre Region, Studies in Business and Economics, No.
64.6/2012 pp. 96-106, ISSN11842-4120, 2010;
8. Ranf, D.E., (2012) Todăriță, E.T., Dumitrașcu, D.D., Research On Risks Encountered
By Institutions In European Development Project, Balkan Region Conference on
Engineering and Business Education. Volume 1, Issue 1, Pages 517–520, ISSN
(Online) 1843-6730.
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DIFFERENT METHODS OF MOTIVATING THE EMPLOYEES IN THE
TOURISM INDUSTRY OF TODAY’S MARKET ECONOMY
Doina Guriță, PhD, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The content of this article is a short presentation of the ways through which B. F.
Skinner‘s operant conditioning theory could be implemented in order to motivate the
employees in the hotel industry. We believe that taking into account the fact that any viable
motivational system matches the application of a series of complex methods resulting from a
multitude of theories, such a system that would have the theory of the consolidation of
behaviour as the starting point could be developed for the hotel industry since the behaviour
of the employees, in this particular industry, is essential for achieving qualitative services.
Keywords: hotel industry, tourism, motivation, employees, behaviour
1. Conceptual framework
The hotel industry is a branch of the hospitality industry, both of them being included
in the basic concept of tourism. One important definition is the definition delivered by The
World Tourism Organization (WTO) and could be considered the most comprehensive one:
we must include in the concept of tourism all the activities a person can perform during a
voyage with different purposes: holiday, business etc., in places outside their usual
environment for not more than one consecutive year. Tourism has also been defined as an
industry based on a series of services which can comprise tangible and intangible elements.
The tangible elements include transportation, the hospitality service (accommodation and
food supplies), and a series of related services (banking, insurance and security services);
furthermore, the intangible elements comprise the comfort and the relaxation, the adventure,
the culture and the new experiences. WTO also defines the hospitality business as being made
up of all the organizations, associations and institution that offer the accommodation and the
alimentation as their main services both for the tourists and for the residents of the area. In the
hospitality industry, the hotel activity occupies a special place, directly increasing the volume
of activities in tourism, thus becoming a key element in the socio-economic growth of a
region [1]. The hotel industry is a branch of the hospitality industry, both of them being
included in the basic concept of tourism. The definition delivered by The World Tourism
Organization (WTO) could be considered the most comprehensive one: we must include in
the concept of tourism all the activities a person can perform during a voyage with different
purposes: holiday, business etc., in places outside their usual environment for not more than
one consecutive year. Tourism has also been defined as an industry based on a series of
services which can comprise tangible and intangible elements. The tangible elements include
transportation, the hospitality service (accommodation and food supplies), and a series of
related services (banking, insurance and security services); furthermore, the intangible
elements comprise the comfort and the relaxation, the adventure, the culture and the new
experiences. WTO also defines the hospitality business as being made up of all the
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organizations, associations and institution that offer the accommodation and the alimentation
as their main services both for the tourists and for the residents of the area. In the hospitality
industry, the hotel activity occupies a special place, directly increasing the volume of
activities in tourism, thus becoming a key element in the socio-economic growth of a region
[2].
1.1 The concept of Motivation
In the management of an association, no matter the field of activity, the stimulus plays
an extremely important, and, maybe, a central part [3]. Thus, the concept of motivation in
management includes the conditions and individual forces that are responsible for
implementing a series of actions, levels of performance or of persistence of the employees at
work [4]. According to other authors, the motivation for work is the result of an influence that
certain elements exert upon the employees and that determines a positive or a negative
response for carrying out work [5]. Furthermore, there have been determined other uses of the
concept of motivation: economically: the elements that trigger the behaviour of a business
operator; psychologically: the action of forces, conscious or unconscious, which determine the
individual‘s behaviour. Regardless of the way of approaching this concept, it was concluded
that it is composed of several elements: reasons, needs, expectations, therefore a well-tuned
motivational system would actually uncover the system of needs and expectations of each
employee. Over the years there have been many theories that attempted to explain the
phenomenon of motivation, theories that have been classified either according to the time of
their publication, into classical and contemporary theories, or according to the type of
approach: instrumental, content-related, process-related [6].
A system of motivating the employees that is specific to the hotel industry could
combine these theories, without claiming to determine the proportion of each one. However,
B. F. Skinner‘s operant conditioning theory could constitute the foundation of such a system,
due to its status of behaviour theory, the behaviour being a particularly important aspect in the
hotel industry as it is the behaviour that which determines the quality of the services offered
[7].
2. Motivating the Employees. Possible Implications for the Company
For many hotels in Romania, restricting the number of staff is a prerequisite for
increasing the average wage and, hence, the incentives for workers. But this staff reduction is
influenced by the organization of labour, by the rational planning of the working time, but
especially by the quality of services. If "labour" is replaced with the services offered by
machinery, the system becomes more rigid, colder, and, thus, quality of the services may
significantly decrease. So, a viable solution could be a higher motivation of the employees. It
is being argued, lately, the fact that the system of motivation should be personalized since
people have different personalities, different expectations; that which motivates an individual,
may not interest another person. There have been several proposals for several systems of
motivation based on complex motivational theories, made in accordance with the policy of the
company involved .
2.1 Types of motivation
The motivation is to stimulate employees in obtaining performance by financial or
nonfinancial rewards, consistent and motivating. Staff can not work at full capacity without
being stimulated in some way by the management of the company. The most popular types of
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rewards include money, benefits, free of charge, awards and employee participation in
company profits. Positive motivation consists in linking direct and proportional to the results
obtained with personal satisfaction. But satisfaction is perceived differently from person to
person, from default group to another. For these reasons, the manager must build a real
structure to provide positive motivation of each employee or group type of satisfaction that is
sensitive, that it prompts [8]. Positive motivation, with many rewards they generate,
contribute, of course, at the establishment of a high moral and individual development of
employees, and the shaping of work and organizational climate conducive to high
performance organization. Negative motivation is generated by aversive motivational factors.
Although, motivation is a primitive type, based on threat or punishment, it must still included,
with some amendments, in the manager's motivational instruments hotel unit. There are
several types of motivation: positive (raise, bonus, share of the profits, thanks, praise,
ceremony, providing security, promotions), negative (salary reductions, fines, demotion,
threats verbal reprimand), cognitive (has to side, the intellectual dimension of the employee),
emotional (the employee has to feel good at work and in the company, to be appreciated and
liked by colleagues, bosses, subordinates, to show to him sympathy and consideration),
intrinsic (determining the employee was involved, to make the effort and achieve results in
the company because of these processes it get satisfaction related to his personality), extrinsic
(determining the employee was involved, to make the effort and to succeed in business
because they will generate some responses from formal and informal organization, economic
and moral-spiritual that will take satisfaction), economic (wages, bonuses, gratuities, penalties
to pay, financial attribution in case of errors) ,moral and spiritual (granted by managers
confidence in employees, expressions of thanks and praise, the launch of admonition,
reprimand, the granting of honour). To motivate the employees can establish certain features
of work. Traditional work schedule (five days a week, eight hours a day) began to be replaced
often to alternative programs, which try to satisfy the needs of very diverse work forces and
promote job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism and turnover staff.
2.2 The theory of the operant conditioning
A system of motivation that is specific to the hotel industry could try to combine these
theories, without claiming to determine the proportion of each one. However, B.F. Skinner‘s
theory of the operant conditioning could be the basis of such a system since behaviour is
particularly important in the hotel business, for it is the behaviour that determines the quality
of the services being offered. The psychologist B.F. Skinner has established a link between
rewards and performance. The basic idea of this theory is that people will perform better if
they are "well-paid" except that this pay is not just a financial one, but also a non-financial
reward. According to this approach, performance is controlled and directed towards
accomplishing the objectives of the organization. During the operant conditioning, the
voluntary behaviour of the employees as a response to a stimulus produces some
consequences. Furthermore, these consequences affect the future response of the employee to
a similar stimulus. During the process, some conditions need to be fulfilled: the stimuli must
be clearly identified by the employees; the consequences of the employees‘ behaviour must be
directly related to their behaviour. Good performance should be reflected clearly in positive
rewards while the negative consequences or the poor performances should be reflected in less
desirable consequences or, sometimes, in "negative rewards"; effects of consequences on
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future behaviour should be monitored / tracked, respectively, to see if the employee‗s
performance meets the desired behaviour and to be rewarded accordingly; Special interest
was given to the concept of consolidation of behaviour. A consolidation is a natural action
following the display of certain behaviour. This can be positive or negative with the mention
that the positive one gives a reward - either financial or non-financial - that will determine the
individual to work that well in the future too, while negative behavior is applied to remove the
unwanted or undesirable assignment. This negative reinforcement may take the form of both
consequences that lead to the accomplishment of unwanted tasks that might result in
sanctions, or simply in extinction (not taking into account the undesirable behaviour, hoping
that they will disappear). This theory was supported by Cherrington too, who believes that
persons rewarded conditionally, according to their performances, fulfil their duties better than
those rewarded unconditionally. Michael Armstrong argues that "it is wrong to assume that
for all the people will be valid one and the same approach to motivation. That is why the
belief in the virtues of remuneration as a means of ensuring a motivational incentive is based
on simplistic assumptions" [9]. Another limit of this theory is that we cannot say that the
satisfaction for the accomplished tasks is properly insured, since this satisfaction is related to
the size of the reward, and this has not been taken into consideration yet [10].
2.3 The positive reward
As Skinner, other psychologists have argued too that the punishment does not
represent an element of consolidation because it has the tendency to weaken the reactions
rather than to strengthen them (one should distinguish between punishment and negative
reinforcement). It must always be taken into account the fact that an individual might consider
a reward as being positive (receiving other responsibilities too) while another individual
might consider the same reward as being a negative one (the responsibility is a burden). At the
same time, it is very important that this reward be closely connected to behaviour and has a
continuous aspect so that, for the same behaviour the same reward be offered, today, and
tomorrow too. Otherwise, confusion might appear and the employee may not directly
correlate the behaviour and the reward, therefore, he will not know how to behave with the
next occasion.
2.4 The management of employee behaviour
According to this theory, called consolidation or reinforcement theory, the behaviour
which is rewarded is more likely to recur, while the one which was punished is less likely to
recur. The strengthening of the employee behaviour should constantly consider the type of
conduct and its severity, both in terms of direct financial loss (poor management) that might
cause, and of indirect financial loss(the influence upon the other employees‘ behaviour-the
wave effect, the quality of services , etc.). If applied, such a theory would have major
implications in organizing the human resources department [11]. The general manager will
have to establish, together with this department, its own system of motivation; this system
might take into account the following: the demarcation and the definition of the desired
behaviour; the identification of the stimuli that are specific for each employee, as a result of
the analysis of the employees‘ needs and expectations; establishing a system of application of
these stimuli; communicating this system of motivation to the employees - the desired
behaviour and the stimuli that are being offered as a reward for the adoption of desired
behaviours; the proper application of the system, the continuous monitoring of the impact of
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the system in order to review it. Moreover, the application of such a system cannot be done
indefinitely, offering the same rewards, since the expectations of the employees are changing
and will not be satisfied with the same response, and secondly, according to the positive
conditioning applied to children up to six years old, the repeated use of the consolidation can
become annoying [12]. As a matter of fact, when the desired behaviour is so often repeated
that it becomes a habit, the reward could become occasional since it no longer represents a
source of powerful motivation. When managing this system of motivation based on the
consolidation of behaviour, it is rather difficult to hold a database of the daily exhibited
behaviour of the employees. Quite often, there are rules of conduct that are established,
general rules of behaviour that could be displayed throughout the company, but they cannot e
comprehensive.
The problem of observing these behaviours is quite important, for this type of
evaluation cannot be done once a year or every 6 months, there is no possibility of constantly
observing the employees and no cameras can be installed employees and no cameras can be
installed. One way of checking the behaviour of the employees could be through involving the
customers by asking them to fill in some specific evaluations; these could be highly subjective
though and could not be necessarily relevant in determining the rewards [13]. Furthermore,
this system of reasoning may have a negative impact when ii is interpreted as an excessive
control, becoming stressful for the employees; and this will be noticed in the lower quality of
the services they offer.
2.5 Improving staff
Today the demands of modern tourism, a good quality cannot be done by unqualified
personnel, by methods and rules obsolete or at the pleasure of the provider. Romanian tourism
in conditions which must be aligned European legislation and the quality of tourist services
packages must increase is normal to consider the human factor is decisive in ensuring service
quality in tourism. People tend to be more motivated if they are interested by work and if they
feel respect, if you agree the people who work, have a certain status and potential for future
promotion programs, courses, training courses whose content and structure should ensure
knowledge useful to managers, and professionals working in a particular area, so that they are
able to transform its organization that it can respond to pressure from environmental factors
on it. The types of training may include: training based on the transmission of knowledge
from the teacher by training managers and specialists and based on case studies, simulations,
practical tests. Most of the employers started to offer free training employees, bonuses for
achieving or exceeding targets and trips, group games in different locations work to develop
team spirit [14]. A good manager has to consider the essential things for its employees to be
as motivated: to work with employees to enter their motivational factors in the reward system;
to meet regularly with each employee; to explain how employee results contribute to
organizational results; to involve employees in making decisions.
2.6 Involving employees
Another important method that can be used to lead to increased performance is to
increase the level of involvement of employees. Although many programs designed to involve
employees more deeply into their organizations, these programs have one common feature:
the participation. They increase the level of employee participation in organizational decision
making [15]. This will create a number of advantages including better understanding of the
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decisions taken in the organization, higher quality decisions, etc. As more and more
enterprises, especially in advanced countries, work in groups or expanded projects. The
flexibility comes from the deliberate weakening of the power of decision of the head. Instead,
employees learn to act on his own responsibility in teams where all are equal in rights [16].
The advantages of this way of working are: improving interpersonal relationships; improving
the functional relations with superiors; improve communication ability; improving knowledge
of self, by the own image in the light group.
Conclusions
Within the hotel industry, with its specific features, with the never-ending issue of the
fluctuation of personnel a system of motivation needs to be developed , a system that be
tailored, on the one hand, to the employees‘ needs and expectations and , on the other hand, to
the organizational policy of the company . A system based on B.F. Skinner‘s theory of the
operant conditioning could represent a solution if the company takes into consideration many
other aspects of the organization, the system of rewards and the long-term implications that
derive from applying the consolidation of behaviour . However, the activities of the human
resource management (the planning and the recruitment, the training and the development, the
evaluation of performances, the compensations and the benefits, etc) should start from the
premise that these revolve around the centre of gravity represented by the act of motivating
the employees.
REFERENCES
[1] The World Tourism Organization, www. unwto.org/index.php.
[2] The World Tourism Organization, www. unwto.org/index.php.
[3] Cole, G. A. (2000). Management staff, Bucureşti: Codecs Publishing House.
[4] Pell, A. R. (2007). Human resources management, Bucureşti: Curtea Veche Publishing
House.
[5] Marchand M.; Ancelin C. (1984). Telematique, promenade dans les usages, Paris: La
Documentation Francaise.
[6] Manolescu, A., Lefter, V., Deaconu, A. (2007). Managementul resurselor umane,
Bucureşti : Economica Publishing House.
[7] Manolescu, A., Lefter, V., Deaconu, A. (2007). Managementul resurselor umane,
Bucureşti: Economica Publishing House.
[8] Juan S. (1995). Les formes elementaires de la vie quotidiene, Paris: Preses Universitaires
de France.
[9] Armstrong, M. (2003). Managementul resurselor umane, Bucureşti: Codecs Publishing
House.
[10] McLuhan, E.; Zingrone F. (2006). Texte esenţiale [Essential writings], Bucureşti:
Nemira Publishing House.
[11] Armstrong, M. (2003). Managementul resurselor umane, Bucureşti: Codecs
Publishing House.
[12] Lupu, N. (2005). Hotelul: economie şi management, 5th edition, Bucureşti: All Beck
Publishing House.
[13] Holbrook M.B. (1986). The Varieties of Consumption Experience: Comparing Two
Typologies of Emotion in Consumer Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 13,
December, pp. 394-404.
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[14] Bass, B. M. (1987). Biography and the Assessment of Transformational Leadership at
the World-Class Level. Journal of Management, vol. 13, no 1, p. 7-19.
[15] Hirschman, E.C.; Holbrook M.B. (1982). Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts,
Methods and Propositions. Journal of Marketing, 46, pp. 92-101.
[16] The World Tourism Organization, www. unwto.org/index.php.
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THE SIBIU COUNTY: AGRICULTURAL PROFILE AND OPPORTUNITIES
FOR DURABLE RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Abstract: In the context of the rapid growth in world population and of the significant
decrease in food resources that our planet possesses, one can notice, at present, a rekindling
of the interest in agriculture. As far as Sibiu County is concerned, it is well-known that it has
a considerable agricultural potential, with a relevant contribution at the level of the Centre
region, as well as at the national level.
The paper below aims at bringing its contribution to outline the county‘s complex
agricultural profile. We are interested not only in observing the current economic realities,
but also the structural changes experienced in the agricultural sector, our goal being that of
highlighting the determining factors underlying the changes experienced. Last but not least,
the research paper below seeks to identify the likely opportunities that Sibiu County has in
what concerns sustainable rural development and, at the same time, to make a series of
recommendations related to a more efficient exploitation of the agricultural potential existing
at the level of this county.
Keywords: agriculture, sustainable rural development
1. Introducere. Agricultura românească: considerații generale.
Sectorul agricol prezintă în România o importanță semnificativă, contribuția sa în
planul economiei naționale și rolul său social fundamental motivând o mai mare atenție
necesară a fi acordată agriculturii românești. Potențialul agricol al țării noastre este
incontestabil, suprafaţa agricolă însumând 61 % din totalul fondului funciar, iar populaţia
rurală cifrându-se la 45 % din totalul populaţiei (Anuarul Statistic al României, 2012).
În ciuda acestor atuuri evidente, ruralul românesc se confruntă cu numeroase
dificultăți, agricultura suferind de pe urma unei reduse productivități, a supradimensionării
forței de muncă, a unei excesive pulverizări a proprietății funciare, a reduselor investiții
tehnice realizate. Toate aceste elemente fac practic imposibilă valorificarea eficientă a
resurselor de care dispune agricultura românească, grevând asupra dinamicii dezvoltării
economiei rurale în țara noastră.
2. Județul Sibiu. Reprezentare la nivelul regiunii de dezvoltare Centru/la nivel
național (suprafața agricolă utilizată; număr de exploatații agricole; dimensiunea
exploatațiilor agricole).
Una dintre cele mai ample imagini ale agriculturii românești actuale se reflectă în
datele Recensământului General Agricol 2010. Conform acestei surse, la momentul 2010
România deținea o suprafață agricolă utilizată de 13306 mii ha, aceasta reprezentând 91.19 %
din totalul suprafeței agricole înregistrate în țara noastră (14590 mii ha). Repartizarea pe
regiunile de dezvoltare plasează pe primul loc regiunea Sud-Muntenia: (2334 mii ha: 17.54
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%), urmată, la mică distanță, de regiunea Sud-Est: (2195 mii ha: 16.49 %), apoi de regiunea
Nord-Est: (1940 mii ha: 14.57 %), regiunea Nord-Vest: (1808 mii ha: 13.58 %), regiunea
Vest: (1732 mii ha: 13.01 %), regiunea Centru: (1627 mii ha: 12.22 %), respectiv regiunile
Sud-Vest Oltenia: (1608 mii ha: 12.08 %) și Ilfov-București: (62 mii ha: 0.46 %).
Referitor la exploatațiile agricole cu suprafață agricolă utilizată, cele 3724332 de
exploatații care se încadrează în această categorie reprezintă o proporție covârșitoare (96.50
%) din totalul de 3859043 al exploatațiilor agricole din România. Raportat la acest indicator,
regiunile cu cea mai buna reprezentare sunt: regiunea Nord-Est (775 mii explotații/ 20.81 %)
și regiunea Sud Muntenia (761 mii explotații/20.43 %). Urmează, cu ponderi relativ apropiate:
regiunea Sud-Vest Oltenia (555 mii exploatații/14.90 %) și regiunea Nord-Vest (521 mii
explotații: 13.99 %), apoi regiunile Sud-Est (444 mii explotații/11.92 %), Centru (375 mii
exploatații/10.06 %) și Vest (264 mii exploatații/7.08%), numărul cel mai scăzut de
exploatații agricole cu suprafață agricolă utilizată fiind înregistrat în cazul regiunii București-
Ilfov (29 mii exploatații/0.77 %).
Studiul acestor cifre relevă o repartizare echilibrată, pe regiuni, atât a suprafeţei
agricole utilizate, cât și a numărului de exploatații cu suprafață agricolă utilizată. Astfel, în
primul caz, procentele oscilează între 17.54 % și 12.08 %, în cel de-al doilea caz, ponderile
fiind cifrate între 20.81 % și 7.08 % (excepție regiunea Ilfov-București). Potrivit criteriilor
mai sus menționate, regiunea Centru se circumscrie acestei evidențe statistice, cei 12.22 % din
totalul suprafeței agricole utilizate în România și 10.06 % din numărul total al explotațiilor
agricole cu suprafață agricolă utilizată, plasând regiunea Centru pe locul 6 la nivelul
regiunilor de dezvoltare.
Tabelul 1. Suprafața agricolă utilizată și numărul exploatațiilor agricole cu suprafață
agricolă utilizată, pe macroregiuni și regiuni de dezvoltare (2010)
Indicatori Macroregiunea 1 Macroregiunea 2 Macroregiunea 3 Macroregiunea 4
Nord- Centru Nord- Sud- București- Sud Sud-Vest Vest
Vest Est Est Ilfov Muntenia Oltenia
Suprafață 1808 1627 1940 2195 62 2334 1608 1732
agricolă
utilizată
(mii ha)
Exploatații 521 375 775 444 29 761 555 264
agricole
(mii)
Sursa: Comunicat de presă INS nr. 149 din 2 iulie 2012. Recensământul General
Agricol 2010 – date definitive –
În ceea ce privește județul Sibiu, acesta dispune ca și suprafață agricolă utilizată de
243923 ha, mai precis de 14.99 % din totalul suprafeței agricole utilizate la nivelul regiunii
Centru și de doar 1.83 % din totalul suprafeței agricole utilizate în țara noastră. Legat de
numărul exploatațiilor, județul Sibiu înregistrează 49211 exploatații care utilizează suprafață
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agricolă, adică un procent de doar 1.32 % din totalul exploatațiilor încadrate la nivel național
în această categorie. În cadrul regiunii de dezvoltare Centru, județul nostru are o reprezentare
de 13.12 % din numărul total al explotațiilor de acest gen, devansat fiind de județele: Mureș
(102467 exploatații/27.32 %); Alba (75999 exploatații/20.26 %) și Harghita (68607
exploatații/18.29 %).
Potrivit criteriului mărimii fizice a exploatațiilor agricole, datele statistice indică faptul
că, în județul Sibiu, predominante sunt fermele mici, cu dimensiuni de sub 5 ha. Explotațiile
din această categorie, în număr de 43766, reprezintă 88.93 % din numărul total al
exploatațiilor care utilizează suprafață agricolă în județul Sibiu. Sunt urmate de fermele cu
întinderi agricole situate între 5-50 ha (4849 explotații agricole, respectiv 9.85 %), fermele de
mari dimensiuni (peste 50 ha) având o reprezentare modestă: doar 596 astfel de exploatații,
adică un procent de 1,21 % din totalul explotațiilor agricole ale județului.
Dacă din punct de vedere numeric, în județul Sibiu covârșitoare sunt fermele de mici
dimensiuni, din punct de vedere a suprafeței agricole utilizate asistăm la o modificare a
ponderilor. Astfel, suntem în măsură a constata că cea mai mare suprafață agricolă utilizată
este deținută de către fermele mari, cu dimensiuni de peste 50 ha. Acestea au în cuprinderea
lor cca. 142030.89 ha din totalul suprafeței agricole utilizate la nivelul județului nostru (58.22
%), urmate fiind de fermele cu suprafețe între 5-50 ha (52354.19 ha, respectiv 21.46 %) și de
fermele mici, cu suprafețe agricole utilizate aflate sub 5 ha. (însumând 49538.03 ha, adică
20.30 % din totalul suprafeței agricole utilizate în județul Sibiu).
Tabelul 2. Numărul explotațiilor agricole, pe clase de mărime a suprafeței agricole
utilizate, la nivelul județului Sibiu (calcule proprii)
Crt. Clase de mărime a suprafeței agricole utilizate (ha)
1. sub 5 ha între 5-50 ha peste 50 ha
Sub 0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10- 20-30 30-50 50-100 Peste 100
20
7501 7353 3814 7584 8124 9390 3308 1000 263 278 274 322
2. 43766 4849 596
3. Total: 49211
Sursa: Recensământul General Agricol 2010
Tabelul 3. Suprafața agricolă utilizată (ha), pe clase de mărime a suprafeței agricole
utilizate, la nivelul județului Sibiu (calcule proprii)
Crt. Clase de mărime a suprafeței agricole utilizate (ha)
1. sub 5 ha între 5-50 ha peste 50 ha
sub 0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1 1-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-50 50-100 peste 100
332.79 1316.0 1462.7 5235.9 11476. 29714. 21952. 13305. 633.0 10762. 19063.7 122967.1
3 3 7 36 15 57 62 8 92 0 9
2. 49538.03 52354.19 142030.89
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3. Total: 243923.11
Sursa: Recensământul General Agricol 2010
De altfel, județul Sibiu nu face notă discordantă cu restul regiunii de dezvoltare
Centru. În acest sens, sesizăm la nivel de regiune preponderența fermelor de mici dimensiuni,
cele 328283 de explotații agricole având cuprinderea de până la 5 ha reprezentând 87.54 %
din totalul explotațiilor cu suprafață agricolă utilizată din cadrul regiunii. La polul opus,
regăsim fermele mari, de peste 50 ha, acestea fiind cifrate la doar 2954 exploatații, adică
deținând modestul procent de 0.78 % din total (fermele cu dimensiuni situate între 5-50 ha, în
număr de 43742, au o reprezentare la nivel de regiune Centru de 11.66 %).
Dacă raportat la numărul lor, întâietatea, la nivel de regiune, aparține fermelor mici,
raportat la suprafața agricolă utilizată, constatăm, la fel ca în cazul situației existente în județ,
că fermele mari sunt cele care înglobează cea mai mare parte a suprafețelor agricole utilizate
din regiunea Centru (769667.01 ha/47.29 %), urmate fiind de fermele mijlocii (436768.68
ha/26.84 %) și de fermele mici (420854.13 ha/ 25.86 %).
Un alt aspect important vizează dimensiunea medie a unei explotații agricole. De
altfel, este binecunoscut faptul că suprafața restrânsă a fermelor românești este o realitate
curentă și totodată un factor cu puternică influență negativă asupra dezvoltării economiei
rurale. În medie, în România, suprafața utilizată care revine unei exploatații agricole este de
3.57 ha. Regiunea Centru se plasează deasupra acestei limite, cu o medie de 4.33
ha/explotație, județul Sibiu, de asemenea, beneficiind de o medie a suprafeței/explotație peste
media națională, mai precis de 4.95 ha.
3. Situația sectorului producției vegetale/sectorului zootehnic la nivelul județului
Sibiu.
Potrivit modului de folosință, cea mai mare parte a suprafeței agricole utilizate în
România (cifrată la 13306 mii ha) este reprezentată de terenurile arabile (8306 mii ha/ 62.42
%), urmate de pășuni și fânețe (4506 mii ha/33.86 %), culturi permanente (312 mii ha/2.34 %)
și grădini familiale (182 mii ha/1.36 %). Din totalul terenului arabil, cele mai mari suprafețe
sunt cultivate cu cereale (grâu, secară, orz, ovăz, porumb, sorg, orez): 59.71 %, restul
suprafeței arabile fiind ocupat de culturile de plante industriale (in, cânepă, tutun, floarea-
soarelui, rapiță, soia): 17.62 %, plante rădăcinoase (cartofi, sfeclă): 1.75 %, legume: 0.71 %,
respectiv plante leguminoase: 0.36 %.
Atât la nivelul regiunii de dezvoltare Centru, cât și raportat la județul Sibiu,
surprindem totuși sensibile modificări în tabloul pricipalelor plante cultivate. Astfel, dacă cea
mai mare parte a întinderilor arabile revine, la fel ca la nivel național cerealelor, locul secund
ca pondere este ocupat în aceste cazuri de rădăcinoase (în detrimentul plantelor industriale).
Tabelul 4. Principalele culturi practicate pe terenul arabil, la nivel național/regiunea
Centru/județul Sibiu (ha) (calcule proprii)
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Total Regiunea Centru Județul Sibiu
Cereale pentru boabe 4959601.79 270659.01 32849.02
Plante leguminoase 30721.04 571.31 85.5
Plante industriale 1464333.52 10333.74 1081.21
Rădăcinoase 145873.92 49139.18 3602.16
Legume, pepeni, 59050.62 2797.65 308.91
căpșuni
Sursa: Recensământul General Agricol 2010
De-a lungul timpului, creșterea animalelor s-a impus ca una dintre activitățile cu
tradiție desfășurate de populația rurală din România, în ciuda scăderii constante a efectivelor
de animale înregistrate, țara noastră prezentând încă, sub acest aspect, un potențial
considerabil. Raportându-ne la principalele specii de animale crescute la nivel național,
sesizăm că, în România predomină ca și categorii: bovinele, ovinele, caprinele, porcinele, etc.
Conform statisticilor consultate, județul Sibiu deținea în 2010 cca. 11.46 % din totalul
efectivelor de bovine prezente în regiunea Centru (1.83 % din totalul efectivelor la nivel
național), o situație mai favorabilă fiind semnalată în cazul caprinelor: (16.74 % din totalul
efectivelor de caprine din regiunea de dezvoltare Centru, respectiv 1.47 % la nivel național) și
porcinelor: (19.25 % din totalul efectivelor de acest gen din regiune, respectiv 1.87 % din
totalul național).
De departe, de cea mai largă reprezentare în județul Sibiu se bucură creșterea ovinelor,
județul nostru având o pondere de 28.46 % din totalul efectivelor de ovine din cadrul regiunii
Centru (6.17 % la nivel național). Explicația acestui fapt se regăsește în importanța
semnificativă pe care oieritul/păstoritul a deținut-o încă din timpuri străvechi în județul Sibiu,
cu precădere satele din Mărginimea Sibiului, zonă emplematică a județului nostru,
consacrându-se ca și centre puternice ale economiei pastorale.
Tabelul 5. Efectivele de animale, pe specii, la nivel național/regiunea Centru/județul
Sibiu (capete)
Total Regiunea Centru Județul Sibiu
Bovine 2001000 319872 36658
Ovine 8417000 1824824 519459
Caprine 1241000 109483 18331
Porcine 5428000 528284 101742
Păsări 80845000 8158908 905190
Cabaline 611000 69168 9961
Familii de albine 1275000 192793 29482
Sursa: Recensământul General Agricol 2010/ Anuarul Statistic al României 2012
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4. Perspective ale agriculturii ecologice/ dezvoltării rurale durabile în județul
Sibiu.
În contextul unei creșteri constante a cererii pentru produsele certificate ecologic și a
lărgirii pieței pentru acest tip de bunuri, România a înregistrat, în ultimul timp, un ritm mai
susținut al dezvoltării în planul agriculturii ecologice. Cu toate acestea, potențialul autohton
este departe de a fi eficient valorificat, situație valabilă atât la nivel național, cât și pe regiuni
de dezvoltare. Referindu-ne strict la cazul regiunii Centru, suntem în măsură a constata că, din
totalul de 374979 ferme cu suprafață agricolă utilizată înregistrate, doar 71 dintre acestea
(0,01 %) sunt deținătoare de suprafață agricolă certificată ecologic, alte 37 (0.009 %)
dispunând de suprafețe agricole aflate în conversie. Din acest punct de vedere, județul Sibiu
este situat pe primul loc la nivelul regiunii Centru, cu cele 30 de explotații cu suprafață
agricolă utilizată certificată ecologic (42.25 % din numărul total al explotațiilor de acest gen
din regiunea Centru), respectiv 14 exploatații cu suprafață agricolă utilizată aflată în conversie
(37.83 % din totalul exploatațiilor din această categorie, din regiunea Centru).
Situația devine cu mult mai problematică, prin raportarea la cifrele oferite de către
Eurostat. Conform acestei surse, în anul 2010, România prezenta un număr de 2986
exploatații agricole certificate ecologic sau aflate în conversie, discrepanța față de UE-27 fiind
enormă (țara noastră: numai 1.54 % din totalul de 193709 de astfel de exploatații existente la
nivelul UE-27).
Ca și suprafață agricolă consacrată agriculturii ecologice sau aflată în conversie, datele
Eurostat relevă per ansamblul României un total de 182706 ha având această destinație. Din
nou, decalajul față de UE-27 este semnificativ, țara noastră deținând doar 1.98 % din cele
9181507 ha destinate acestui scop în UE-27. Regiunea Centru, prin cele 6363.44 ha certificate
ecologic sau aflate în conversie are o reprezentare extrem de restrânsă în plan național (3.48
%), județului Sibiu, cu cele 3933.28 ha, revenindu-i o pondere de 61.81 % la nivel de regiune
de dezvoltare Centru, respectiv de 2.15 % la nivel național. (calcule proprii, în baza
Recensământului General Agricol 2010 și a raportului Agriculture in the European Union.
Statistical and economic information, 2012).
Legat de fermele agricole cu animale crescute ecologic, în regiunea Centru sunt
consemnate 240 de asemenea exploatații, dintre acestea 54 (deci 22.5 %) regăsindu-se în
județul Sibiu. Cea mai mare parte a acestor ferme: 26, adică 48.14 % din totalul
categoriei/județ este specializată în creșterea ovinelor și caprinelor, fapt perfect explicabil
dacă se are în vedere aportul considerabil al Mărginimii Sibiului în economia rurală a
județului Sibiu.
5. Concluzii.
Potrivit criteriului SAU, județul Sibiu ocupă cca. 15 % din totalul suprafeței agricole
utilizate la nivelul regiunii Centru, reprezentarea sa în plan național fiind, sub acest aspect,
una redusă: doar 1.83 % din total. Legat de numărul explotațiilor, în județul nostru este
consemnată existența a 49211 de exploatații agricole (13.12 % din totalul exploatațiilor cu
SAU din regiunea Centru/1.32 % din numărul total pe țară).
Extrem de interesante sunt și datele privitoare la mărimea fizică a exploatațiilor
agricole, în cadrul județului nostru, covârșitoare fiind ponderea fermelor mici, cu dimensiuni
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≤ 5 ha (88.93 % din totalul explotațiilor agricole înregistrate). La polul opus, regăsim fermele
mari, de peste 50 ha, acestea reprezentând doar 1.21 % din ansamblul exploatațiilor agricole
din județ.
Din acest punct de vedere, județul Sibiu se înscrie perfect în tendința înregistrată la
nivel național, pulverizarea excesivă a suprafeței agricole, dimensiunea limitată a fermelor și
preponderența exploatațiilor de mici dimensiuni constituind doar câțiva din factorii practicării
unei agriculturi neperformante.
Cât privește caracterul producției vegetale, atât la nivelul regiunii de dezvoltare
Centru, cât și în județul Sibiu, cea mai mare parte a terenurilor arabile sunt cultivate cu
cereale, locul secund fiind deținut de rădăcinoase, respectiv plante industriale. Legat de
producția sectorului zootehnic, indiscutabil, județul Sibiu rămâne perceput ca unul dintre
centrele de tradiție ale economiei pastorale, creșterea ovinelor bucurându-se încă de o largă
reprezentare.
Datele statistice analizate atestă faptul că județul Sibiu dispune de reale resurse
agricole, potențialul existent fiind însă insuficient valorificat. În acest sens, este necesară
introducerea unor măsuri care să revitalizeze economia rurală, printre posibilele pârghii de
redresare, situându-se: elaborarea unor modele de dezvoltare care să ia în calcul specificitățile
județului/zonei; sporirea gradului de finanțare; susținerea spiritului antreprenorial (care a
caracterizat dintotdeauna, în special zona Mărginimii Sibiului), un mai mare accent pus pe
dezvoltarea agriculturii ecologice/dezvoltarea rurală durabilă.
6. Acknowledgment.
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133255, Project
ID 133255 (2014), co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational
Program Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
7. Bibliografie.
Gavrilescu, Dinu (coord.), Agricultura şi spaṭiul rural românesc din perspectiva
dezvoltării durabile, Academia Română, Bucureşti, 2006.
Luca, Lucian, Cionga, Cristina, Giurcă, Daniela, Consolidarea exploataṭiilor agricole,
Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2012.
Toma, C., Turtoi, C., Creşterea competitivităṭii fermei familiale – un deziderat al
dezvoltării spaṭiului rural, în Dezvoltarea complexă a spaṭiului rural, Editura ASE, Bucureşti,
2006.
Agricultural statistics. Main results 2007-08, Eurostat 2009.
Agriculture in the European Union. Statistical and economic information: report 2012.
Analiza socio-economică în perspectiva dezvoltării rurale 2014-2020, Autoritatea de
Management pentru PNDR, 2013.
Anuarul Statistic al României, 2012.
Cadrul Naţional Strategic pentru Dezvoltarea Durabilă a Spaţiului Rural Românesc
2014-2020-2030, CNS, 2013.
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Plan de dezvoltare GAL Mărginimea Sibiului.
Recensământul General Agricol 2010.
Rural Development in the UE. Statistical and Economic Information Report 2012.
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RURAL ENVIRONMENT - SUPPORT, DEVELOPMENT AND PROGRESS
Maria Roxana Dorobanțu, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies,
Bucharest
Abstract: Tourism in rural areas is now a reality, the aim is to satisfy the needs and desires of
tourists, but also is the holder of an instrument of rural development. Tourism has been
widely promoted as an effective source of revenue and job creation, particularly in rural
areas where traditional agricultural industries have been in decline.
For this reason, the the state interest and the local communities is to draw up development
strategies and exploitation of tourism, rural tourism case involving all economic agents
involved in this activity.
Further, in an elegant form and easy to go is done a review of the support, development and
promotion of tourism resources in the rural terittory, countinuig with the presentation of the
main strategies of tourism development and recovery strategies that reach the issue of rural
tourism development or recovery.
Keywords: rural tourism, development, promotion, resources, progress.
1. Introduction
The causes of the development and promotion of tourism and, in particular rural
tourism are covered by a comprehensive benefits. These benefits are different in role, but also
participate in various measures to determine the tourism phenomenon. The evolution of
tourism varies depending not only on the specific content of these advantages, but also in
relation to where and when the action is taking place.
Tourism and the main form of alternative development, rural tourism, is a powerful
economic growth, bringing a number of advantages both for local communities and for local
people of the area:
the efficient capitalization of resources both natural and anthropogenic, cultural
heritage, local traditions to improve living standards,
stimulates economic development in the improvement of social structures.
Each country has its territory varied natural conditions, valuable cultural goods that
give the essence of its tourism potential.
The impact of rural tourism on the natural environment must be considered in the
context of a trilateral relationship: economy - society - environment.There ought to be
permanent links between rural tourism and regional governance policies that would support
the conservation of resources. Actually rural tourism development should be carefully
planned in the context of a broader strategy for sustainable development of resources. A
strategy that recognizes the need for balance between the three following objectives:
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Figure no. 1 – Objectives for a sustainable
development strategy
(Source: realized by author)
From this view, rural tourism policy should be seen as a development opportunity, but
also as a challenge to support local communities without undermining the very basis on which
the future these perspectives. Due to rural areas relatively small but well-defined villages with
tourism potential can serve as a unique model to put in place strategies for sustainability. This
is especially true for small villages identified on a widely accepted definition of a size less
2
than 10,000 km and more than 500 inhabitants. Romanian tourist villages are different
compared to urban tourist areas in natural resources it offers, community and culture,
lifestyle, economic development, human settlements and rural tourism potential. Distance or
small stretches of rural settlements than other areas justify directly or indirectly, their
distinctiveness.
This distinction is reflected in the wealth and poverty, biodiversity and natural
resources in the sphere of economic activities and economic favorable moments in social and
cultural patterns and traditions, heritage associated buildings, monuments and local
architecture in use land, but also in the infrastructure and rural environment. Small settlements
and the appearance of solitude combined with the character distinct identity merge into a
single framework to characterize the Romanian countryside, its positioning, which in most of
the industrialized Western world is associated with feelings of escape from modern urban
environment, urban stress and daily problems with the balance between man and nature and
paradise to escape city life, rest, travel or even a permanent lifestyle.
Therefore, the appearance of isolation and small size of rural settlements are thus
interpreted as benefits to society in a changing global economy in an increasingly globalized.
2. One of the benefits of rural tourism represents the rational, scientific resources
and creating revenue for local authorities and institutions that can come from the private
sector concessions, donations and local taxes.
Natural beauty of the Romanian countryside many unique and essential elements of
local identity. Rural areas are attractive for carrying out rural tourism and as such, provides a
stronger economy: generating jobs, income for local communities and provide development
opportunities. The quality of the rural landscape seen in tourism is a boon and a determinant
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of the prospects of tourism development in rural areas. Nevertheless rural tourism causes
changes both in local societies and cultural environment.
Tourists who are visiting the areas with rural potential help in economic growth at
three levels: local, regional and national. So, the tourists in their itinerary to these rural areas
resort to hosting services, rural guesthouses and services specific to this environment, shops,
restaurants. Although these businesses are usually made for larger groups receive national and
international tourists, travelers to rural areas is a market that is becoming increasingly
growing and attractive.
3. Creating jobs especially for youth, women and ethnic minority local groups is
another advantage of rural community.
New jobs are often mentioned as the most important gains in the tourism, tourism of
particular importance in the supply of jobs for young people, who are twice as many in the
tourism sector than in other sectors of the economy.
The development that has known rural tourism in recent years, specialists services or
economics attaches great importance to the role that women play in the economic recovery
this rural resources.
Concerns over this issue had had researchers: Juo Ling, R.S. et al (2013), Kulekci,
E.A. et al (2013), Ozdemir, G. et al (2012), Moller, C. (2012), Rad, S.T. (2011), Kiper, T. et
al (2011), Koutsou, S. et al (2009).
Under the light of the above, we list some suggestions that shows the role of women in
rural development, agriculture and rural tourism:
- in the context of sustainable development principles, resources should be planned such
serve more than one purpose. For this purpose, agrotourism is emerging as an
alternative to combine primary and tertiary sector, providing opportunities for multiple
use of resourcesAgrotourismwhich may help reduce migration should be seen as an
important tool both in creating jobs for young people in search of jobs elsewhere and
in providing opportunities for social interaction for rural women;
- the problems faced by rural women are perceived only in terms of economic.
Alternative development scenarios should be created to enhance the status and social
relations of rural women. In this regard, agro tourism and leisure should be used as an
option. Within the context this alternative, the local population, especially women,
should be informed about the economic and social benefits of tourism and its forms of
entertainment;
- rural development projects developed by local and central administration, special
policies and strategies for improving the quality of life - women ought to be followed
and implemented;
- projects on agrotourism required to be considered in the context of rural development
and rural women are essential part of their participation and their planning;
- in order to achieve sustainability of a project, the local community should be informed
about the project and also the involvement of local residents to achieve it should be
allowed. In this context, social and economic components that ensure interaction
between locals and tourists should be included in the project;
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- private sector involvement in regional projects. For this reason, encouraging the
private sector to take part in agri-tourism activities, by providing financial support call
form of land allocation, tax cuts, etc.
In economically underdeveloped areas, rural tourism can reduce youth migration in
search of jobs in other cities or countries. Growing number of requests for rural tourism
holidays can cause hiring new guides, guards, artisans and managers of rural and agro
guesthouses etc.
In most cases, residents of rural communities are the best candidates for jobs in rural
tourism, as they well know local environment is ideal for tourist information sources not only.
4. Also, rural tourism can contribute to attracting investment and financial resources
to local communities, involving residents, without generating imbalances by uncontrolled
growth. Rural areas are investing in tourism to diversify their economies needed growth,
employment and sustainable development. Those places feature real opportunities as
attractive places in which you can live, either as a reservoir of natural resources and the
landscapes of great valueAt the same time, it can provide financial support for the
preservation of cultural heritage, crafts, traditions and customs, ethnic and folk traditions
because they prevail as tourist attractions.
Increased number of tourists in local communities, the tourist traffic will generally
result in the development and upgrading of local infrastructure (sewer, water, energy, schools,
hospitals, etc..) - which will benefit both tourists and residents.
5. Establishment and support of micro-enterprises in local communities are
determined by the development of rural tourism. Trade of products tends to be diversified and
should not be confined to the tourists who come from urban areas. With the continuous
development of these businesses, rural products are becoming more sophisticated and
specific, such as the popular tourist products specifically designed for older people and
women and children. Those products will become popular tourist with different themes for the
different groups of visitors [9].
The objectives of these small units is about creating and maintaining jobs in rural
areas, adding value in non-agricultural activities, the creation and diversification of the rural
population, provided by micro-enterprises [10].
By supporting units directly engaged in tourism activities (structures hosting and
catering) and those indirectly involved (gas stations, construction companies, shops) develop
a sense of entrepreneurship in the area. For an entrepreneur in rural tourism is important to
analyze and anticipate possible risks in order to control and manage the entire industrial
process.
May be considered as investment in non-agricultural activities involving light industry
products, such as leather items, shoes, wool, fur, knitwear, household products, the industrial
processing into wood products. The investments for develop handicraft, handicrafts and other
traditional non-farm activities with local aimed at the processing of iron and wool, pottery,
embroidering or making traditional musical instruments. Can be financed and promotional
activities by setting up small shops of their own products obtained from these activities.
With regard to the creation and diversification of the rural population, including
eligible investments are tailoring services, hairdressing, shoemaking, but also those that
provide Internet connection and dissemination, mechanization, transportation (other than the
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purchase of means of transport). Small businesses that operate in rural areas should cooperate
with each other in order to capitalize on resources, tourist attractions within a [8].
Rural tourism development includes a key component of promotion and exploitation
of natural (natural tourism resources, reserves, etc..) And cultural (traditions, customs, crafts,
folklore, etc.) Local communities, as they are rural tourism attractions. In order to preserve
cultural patrimony can take some steps such as:
- cultural events inspired by rural folk, folk dances, theater performances, festivals,
folk music - these shows represent not only a way of leisure for local people but also for
tourists who are interested to observe traditional village culture,
- lectures and discussions may be held by residents of local communities about
cultural heritage represented by traditions, customs, crafts, etnofolclor,
- setting up stores to showcase local cultural heritage through the sale of
handicrafts.
6. Also, rural tourism is a way to educate the local people in terms of history,
customs and traditions, because it responds to the growing interest of tourists to cultural and
natural heritage of local communities, representing an opportunity for them to discover, to
inform and transmit to future generations.
Rural tourism also provides access to information, facilities, promoting awareness on
natural resources education among residents. biodiversity conservation. Likewise, biodiversity
conservation and natural resources provide numerous benefits to local communities, while
being a major tourist attraction, being the main incentives for conservation.
Another advantage of rural tourism is to promote the feeling of pride and appreciation
of the local environment in which they live, their cultural values they hold. It is common for
people to not fully appreciate the living conditionsFrequently tourists are those people who
bring valuable surplus resources of local communities. Rural customs and traditions, the
specific culture, folk customs, architecture buildings feature areas, traditional food
preparations, the rural heritage are all resources that locals are worthy. Thus, it becomes
acquires a sense of pride, appreciation of natural and cultural areas that attract tourists. If
tourism is managed with experience and an adequate participation from the community, can
lead to a greater appreciation of their value to the community, the same values which visitors
try to learn and that they admires.
Cultural exchanges are the primary benefits of promoting rural tourism. Visits to
relatives and friends in traditional communities are often the main attractions of a trip to the
countryside. Staying in a area with tourist attractions, this often involves organizing
excursions on a longer or shorter time. Natural attractions adds a level of interest for tourists,
where they can access through the eyes and words of the people who live in those rural
places.
Opportunity to absorb and learn a traditional culture is increasingly valued more by
tourists and community participation adds value to a rural tourism program. Meanwhile,
traditional communities can feel more confident as a result of the interest shown by visitors
with respect.
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7. Discusions and conclusions
Understanding the social impacts of tourism on local communities is extremely
important for government at all levels so that they can take to reduce the likelihood of a
reaction against tourists and tourism development.
Considering that the local population has many tourist destinations are a fundamental
part of rural tourism product, attitude and behavior of the inhabitants have a considerable
impact on the success, or otherwise, the destination.
The success of a journey through the countryside depends on the power and control
they have on the situation of local communities.
Tourists should also be ready to have a cultural exchange bilateral nature, although it
is important to remember that some communities are not interested in cultural exchanges with
foreigners. Usually these exchanges raises awareness visitors expand their worldview and
help them understand more clearly the context where it takes place rural tourism.
8. References
[1] Juo Ling, R.S. et al, ‖Women`s role in sustaining villages and rural tourism in
China‖, Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 43, Elsevier Ltd., printed in Great Britain, (ISI
Journal), 2013, pp. 624-650,
[2] Kulekci, E.A. et al, ‖The role of women in rural tourism, the sample of Gaziler
Village (Bardiz), Erzurum, Turkey‖, Journal of Food Agriculture&Environment, Vol, 10,
Issue 2, WFL Publication, Finland, ISSN 1459-0255, (ISI Journal), 2013, pp. 1314-1319,
[3] Kiper, T. et al, ‖Applicability of agricultural tourism and the role of women. A
case study of Sarkoy – Murefte‖, Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology, Vol. 12,
Issue 3, Scibulcom LTD., Bulgaria, ISSN 1311-5065, (ISI Journal), 2011, pp. 1146-1159,
[4] Koutsou, S. et al, ‖Women`s Entreprenuership and rural tourism in Greece:
private Enterprises and Cooperatives‖, South European Society and Politics, Vol. 14, Issue 2,
Routledge Journals Publishing House, Great Britain, (ISI Journals), 2009, DOI
10.1080/1360840903037968, pp. 191-209,
[5] Ozdemir, G. et al, ‖Women Organisations in Turkey Rural Tourism‖, Journal of
Environmental Protection and Ecology, Vol. 13, Issue 2, Scibulcom LTD., Bulgari, (ISI
Journal), 2012, pp. 643-650
[6] Moller, C., ‖Gendered entreprenuership in rural Latvia: exploring feminities, work,
and livelihood within rural Tourism‖, Journal of Baltic Studies, Vol. 43, Issue 1, Assoc
Advancement Baltic Studies Inc., USA, (ISI Journal), 2012, DOI
10.1080/01629778.2011.634103, pp. 75-94,
[7] Rad, S.T., ‖An application of a women-oriented ago-tourism rural development
model in improving local economy‖, African Journal of Business Management, Vol. 5, Issue
22, Academic Journals Publishing House, Nigeria, ISSN 1993-8233, (ISI Journal), 2011, pp.
9714-9723,
[8] Roberts, L., Hall, D., ‖Consuming the countryside: Marketing for rural tourism‖,
Journal of Vacation Management, 10 (3), 2004, pp. 253-263
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[9] Wang, L., et al, ‖Rural Tourism Development in China: Principles, Models and the
Feature‖, Journal of Mountain Science, Vol. 10 (1), ISSN 1672-6316, E-ISSN 1993-0321, SP
Scince Press,
DOI 10.1007/S11629-013-2501-3, pp. 116-129,
[10]http://ziarullumina.ro/pagina-agricultorului/95-milioane-de-euro-pentru-imm-
urile-din-mediul-rural, accesat la data de 20.11.2013
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THE COMPLEXITY OF DECISION AS CONCERN THE INVESTMENTS
Robert Gabriel Dragomir, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University
Abstract: In order to adopt any investment project, one has as the starting point the decision
for investment. For reaching the premise of an investment action, the deciders fulfil a stage of
documenting and analysis. The decision complexity consists in the great number of variables
that have to be correctly dimensioned, taking into account the following aspects: law,
commercial, fiscal, human resources, technology, means of financing. Only with a correct
and concrete diagnosis of every above mentioned aspect, one can obtain a projection of
future benefits and thus the decision of making or not the investment.
Keywords: diagnosis, investment project, analysis, decision adopting, decider
Literature review
The present economic and social context faces a huge development process; some of
its predominant components are: technologic process, managerial competence and
investments.
The concept of investment is a complex one, as it has to be approached from multiple
perspectives. It is interesting to notice both the history of its defining and the vision of
different researchers. Thus, Keynes [1] limited the investments as being the result of the
collective behaviour of individual managers; in his vision savings equal investments.
Gheorghe Zaman and Grigore Vâlceanu [2] forecast investments as a continuous
adaption to the uncertainty, modifying almost instantly the stock of capital, in concordance to
the objective of maximizing the profit as a result of equalizing the marginal productivity with
the real cost every time sequence.
Niță Dobrotă [3] defined the concept of investments taking into account the
complementary rapport between the process of accumulation and investment.
Victor Dragotă [4] spoke about the process of investment after the diagnostic analysis
of five aspects: law, commercial, human resources, technologic (operational) and financial; all
these let us get SWOT matrix.
Factors influencing the decision process
Once the investment, we also face the structural changes of the initial heritage. The
decision of investment requires the managers‘ effort and great capacity of analysis. There are
many situations when the managers do not understand the functioning of the complex
products. Precisely, the risks, costs and the forecast revenue are not evident or easy to be
understood [5]. The effort and more than that the effect of an investment are based on
elements that can be calculated and, some of them, foreseen. The simulations and initial
determinations environment varies from certain to uncertain, from a high to a low probability;
we cannot speak about a universal model that can be always applied successfully.
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The complexity, as a factor associated to the action of investment, offers a certain
level of relativity, because it depends on several elements, as one can see in the figure no. 1:
Figure no. 1 Structure of investments complexity
The modelling of the economic process forecasts the tendencies (propensities) or
singularities (accidents) rather than numerical values.
The formal model of the economic process is seen as an instrument for calibrating the
means [6].
Within the knowledge society, the role of the informatics systems, the informatics
solutions, the virtual laboratories is to handle the managers more and more performing tools.
Thus, the decisional process is more rigorous and simplified. These acts base on more or less
complex decisional criteria; they also take into account the following aspects:
- Historical reality of a company, using accurate data registered before;
- Company structure and way of organisation, including the human resources
quality and competences;
- Complexity of objectives fulfilment;
- Efficiency and effectiveness;
- Costs.
The decisions sustainability bases on researches on specific value categories, such as:
value, criteria, objectives, conditioning, focusing; these are under rapports of
complementarities and mutual influencing.
The decisional act belongs to the investors; they have to assure the capital from two
sources: own or borrow them. Either one situation or the other, the capital consuming has to
be oriented towards higher paid investment fields.
The open financial environment obliges the investors to pertinent analyses and exact
dimensioning of the risks assumed.
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Any investment project needs analyses of the forecast performances, in the function of
the applied environment: certain, risky and uncertain, vague.
Within a partially certain environment, the criteria for evaluation investment projects
speaks about [6]: net present value, profitability internal rate, modified profitability internal
rate, recovery period, profitability index. When making decisions under certain conditions,
every action offers known results. We can name a certain environment in the case when a
specific action produces invariably a certain result. Decisions base on regular phenomena, so
we can precisely forecast the consequences. If they action in safe conditions, they fulfil only a
routine function. The elements implied are mostly controlled variables, with known
characteristics and evolutions. The most frequent used methods are: global utility, Electre and
Onicescu with its two variants.
The decisions in risky conditions are characterized by more natural states; one can
meet here their probability and the presence of some less controlled and insufficiently known
variables. The deciders are not in safe when take decisions; they have to assume risks or act in
uncertain conditions. Risks imply situations when the result is not known, but it does not
represent a novelty. The action takes place in a random context, with more possible results,
but knowing their probability coefficient. Depending on the risk, we can calculate the
discount rate, referring to different factors, such as: opportunity cost and weighted average
cost of capital [7]. The possible risks met during an investment process are: liquidity risk,
leverage risk, market risk, credit risk etc. As specific methods, we name: the method of global
utility, the method of maths hope and simulation.
In the field of investment, we confront with big and complex systems where reality is
only vague known, so we can make predictions with the help of fuzzy functions.
A special case is that of investments using confronting decisions. Here the decider can
control only some variables, the others are conditioned by competitions, diplomatic
negotiations, commercial discussions, military conflicts and so on. The ways of reducing
uncertainty are presented by the theory of games and its multiple variants. When connected to
informatics, this approach allows use game models – in a company or at negotiations –
offering scientific support to the decisions.
For the decisions in integrative universe, that is memberships in international,
multilateral companies, with similar structure and regulations, they are based on iterative
techniques, techniques of succession and aggregation.
Taking into account the different environment of the investment and also the
complexity of factors influencing expenses and economics, social, ecologic and technologic
results, it is necessary to establish the investment scenario. The economic efficiency of the
investments represents a key factor in both company and general economic development. It
also contributes to the complexity increasing [8].
The major aspects taken into consideration are [9]:
- Law aspects: the legislative frame has to offer stability, create a favourable fiscal
regime, establish correctly the excise duty rate, rapidly eliminate and solve
conflicts, stimulate investors to resolve the strategic activities, make financial
agreements (for example, between 2008 and 2014, the Ministry of Public Finance
made 66 Agreement for financing, with a total value of 2.79 milliard lei,
approximate 636 million euro) [10].
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- Commercial aspects: clients‘ quality and history, competition environment,
providers‘ payment, auctions, solving appeals.
- Human resources aspects: the level of professional training, organisational culture,
level of payment, training programmes, performance based career systems.
- Technologic or operational aspects: assets quality, ways of financing the new
technologies, rapport price – quality, diminishing stocks of inferior raw materials,
high quality of new products, increasing turnover.
- Financial diagnostic: solvency indicators, liquidity indicators, profit, means of
generating cash-flow, leverage effects, capital expenditure, financing cost,
economic profitability.
If we correctly dimension every parameter of the analyzed aspect, we can realize a
global SWOT matrix, capable to show the investment image.
Conclusions
In conclusion, indifferent the nature of the investment and mostly because we assist at
a rapid process of globalizing, every investor mainly follows these objectives:
- to value any chances or accept a bearable risk in order to update the technical base
under the circumstances of reorganizing the whole production;
- to reduce the production costs by automation of the technological processes;
- to apply the most modern and performing techniques during the production
process, based exclusively on the scientific and technologic research results;
- to maximize the degree of capitalization the resources owed by investors;
- to increase the quality level of the entire activity and extend the amount of selling;
Thus, identifying correctly the objective for investment let us know the complexity of
the parameters and then adopt the proper decisions connected to necessities, resources, a
series of instructions, future strategies of the company.
The main criteria for options during the investment process are
- recovery of the investment value and taking a post clearance profit;
- necessity to assure the technical and economic competitiveness of the company;
- technological requirements for assuring the safety of function;
- company sustainability;
- preventing pollution;
- existence of some financial resources waiting for a proper investment.
This work was supported by the project “Excellence academic routes in doctoral and
postdoctoral research - READ” co-funded from the European Social Fund through the
Development of Human Resources Operational Programme 2007-2013, contract no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
Bibliography
1. John Maynard Keynes, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money,1936
2. Gheorghe Zaman, Grigore Vâlceanu, Investițiile în economia României, Probleme
economice, nr.25/1998
3. Niță Dobrotă, coord. și colectivul, Dicționar de economie, Editura Economică,
București, 1999
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4. Victor Dragotă, coord. și colectivul, Abordări practice în finanțele firmei, Editura
Irecson, București, 2005
5. http://www.esma.europa.eu/system/files/investor_warning_-_complex_products_-
_ro.pdf, on 07.10.2014
6. Emil Dinga, Studii de economie. Contribuții de analiză logică, epistemologică și
metodologică, Editura Economică, București, 2009, pag.38
7. Victor Dragotă, Anamaria Ciobanu, Laura Obreja, Mihaela Dragotă, Management
financiar, Editura Economică, București, 2003
8. Gheorghe Zaman, Marinela Geamănu, Eficiență economia, Editura Fundației România
de mâine, București, 2006
9. Victor Dragotă, coord. și colectivul, Abordări practice în finanțele firmei, Editura
Irecson, București, 2005, pag 255
10. http://www.ccifer.ro/ro/actualitati/agenda/vue-detail/d/atelier-scheme-de-ajutor-de-
stat-pentru-finantarea-investitiilor/ on 08.10.2014
11. Russu Corneliu, Albu Mădălina, Diagnosticul și strategia firmei, Editura Tribuna
Economică, București, 2005
12. Peter Drucker, Despre decizie și eficacitate, Editura Meteor Press, București, 2007
421
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THE CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS REGARDING THE
ORGANIZATION’S COMMUNICATION
Elena Doval, ”Spiru Haret” University of Brașov
Abstract: The understanding of the change process, the models and concepts utilization in
strategies design, techniques learning to adapt to the volatile environment and the new
capabilities acquiring to use the new technologies of communication represent some of the
contemporary managers‘ objectives. The electronic revolution has influenced the speed and
the direction of the changes and has transformed the global space into a cyber space. The
Internet replaced the concept of the market with an electronic space that is leading to the
consumer‘s power increase. In these conditions in which the traditional geographical
dimensions disappear the organizations and their management need to understand the threats
and the opportunities that the change process is challenging and to develop adequate
strategies of adaptation. Nevertheless, the change is presuming a complex management
process that has the ITC and innovation as the main drivers. This paper has the scope to
emphasize the role of the ITC and innovation in the organization‘s change process and to
offer a conceptual model of the change process. The applied methodology is based on the
bibliographical investigation, the collection of some concepts in the field, the information
synthesizing, personal deduction and conceptualization. Finally, a model of the organization
changing process based on its communication system to the new requirements is presented.
Keywords: IT, innovation, change management, communication, conceptual model
INTRODUCTION
The understanding of the change process, the models and concepts utilization in strategies
design, techniques learning to adapt to the volatile environment and the new capabilities
acquiring to use the new technologies of communication represent some of the contemporary
managers‘ objectives. The electronic revolution has influenced the speed and the direction of
the changes and has transformed the global space into a cyber space. The digitalization has
replaced the concept of the market with a cyber space that is leading to the consumer‘s power
increase. In these conditions in which the traditional geographical dimensions disappear the
organizations and their management need to understand the threats and the opportunities that
this change is challenging and to develop adequate strategies of adaptation. Nevertheless, the
change is presuming a complex management process that has the information technology and
communication (ITC) and innovation as the main drivers.
THE AIM OF THE STUDY AND METHODOLOGY
This paper has the scope to emphasize the role of the ITC and innovation in the organization‘s
change process as the main drivers and to offer a conceptual model of the change process
based on organizational communication. The applied methodology is based on the
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bibliographical investigation, the collection of some concepts in the field, the information
synthesizing, personal deduction and conceptualization.
CHALLANGES FOR CHANGE MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL
COMMUNICATION
Managing change into organizations
Change management is an approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and organizations to a
desired future state (Kotter, 2011). Starting with Lewin (1951) who enriched the literature
with the ‗analyze of forces field‘ model, many authors presented different points of view,
models and strategies regarding organizational change and the change management (Kottler &
Schlesinger, 1979; Ansoff, 1988; Petigrew & Whipp, 1991; Hammer & Champy, 1993;
Volberda, 1998; Doval, 2008; Weiner, 2009, Golden-Biddle, 2013).
The new driving forces for change in organizations are considered to be: ‗commoditization,
the digital revolution, social mediaization throughout society, globalization, the turbulent
world and acceleration (or running faster to stay in the same place)‘ (Morris, 2013). Even if
these six forces are not the single ones to influence the change process, they are not to be
neglected, because, as the author is claiming, they have significant contribution to the process
of change, such as:
The commoditization brings low costs of goods and distribution and low prices due to
the outsourcing in the cheap labor market countries;
The digital revolution influenced about all industries by cutting the computers prices
and facilitating the access to the digital market with important other consequences,
such as: more jobs, increased IT high skills, improved businesses related to products
offered and lower prices;
The social platforms (LinkedIn, Facebook, MySpace, Twitter) influence businesses
and markets;
The globalization facilitates the opportunities of all companies to address to the world
market;
The turbulent world provides opportunities for innovation in all activities;
The acceleration is a force that combines the other five forces to move on with much
more speed.
The failure of some organizational change processes may be solved by using change
managers or by additional knowledge acquired by the managers. ‗The process studies of
change in organization and management take time seriously, illuminate the role of tensions
and contradictions in driving patterns of change, and show how interactions across levels
contribute to change. They may also reveal the dynamic activity underlying the maintenance
and reproduction of stability (Langley et al., 2013).
Organizational communication
Briefly, the organizational communication relates to the sending and receiving messages
among people through different channels, but it means more, i.e. ‗a combination of people,
messages, meaning, practices and purpose‘ (Shockley-Zalabak, 1995). Considering the
channels used in the multiplication of the receivers and the speed of messages transfer there is
a significant difference between what communications has meant in the past (to inform) and
what is today (to be involved) and more ‗to shape a strategy that is meaningful and, as a
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result, effective, leaders should incorporate each of the four drivers (leading, involving,
listening and informing), as appropriate to the situation‘ (Facey – Mercer, 2014).
The transformation of the communication is certainly due to the information technologies
evolution that enables the communication by means of continuing innovated tools. That‘s
why information and communication technologies (ICT) are mostly used together. ‗ICT is
any technology that enables communication and the electronic capturing, processing and
transmission of information‘ (Apulu & Latham, 2011). ‗These technologies include products
and services such as desktop computers, laptops, handheld devices, wired or wireless intranet,
business productivity software such as text editor and spread sheet, enterprise software, data
storage and security, network security and so on‘ (Ashrafi & Murtaza, 2008). Thus, the
technological innovation in communication amplified the channels of information spreading
and created the opportunities to develop a global cyber space, including e-market,
socialization and much more relations. The innovation and the new technologies facilitated
the communication because the ‗data-based reporting systems, e-mail, voice mail, intranets,
bulletin boards, Websites, and video conferencing are cost effectively breaking down large
distances and providing information to huge numbers of people in relatively inexpensive but
fast ways. The information and communication technology (ITC) provides opportunities for
businesses to offer products and services in the global markets (Apulu & Latham, 2011, p.56).
Some people are not very happy of the digitalization, considering that this medium of
communication is killing the personality and the group belonging‘s feeling. ‗Unfortunately,
these mediums of communication are rather sterile and impersonal, and not as powerful or
meaningful to people as more personal modes of communication‘ (Judge Jr., 2012).
Nevertheless, the communication is necessary in change management in any forms or
mediums. ‗The communication process and organizational change are inextricably linked
processes‘, communication being considered to be ‗an important predictor of the
organizational change‘ (Jensen, 2003, p.61).
The change objectives and the change itself has to be clearly communicated (Klein, 1997).
The manner of how the communication is used between the leaders and the other people
influences the organizations‘ success. ‗Communication includes timing, communication
methods, and message content. What managers must understand is that without effective
communication it is impossible to implement any change and make it a success‘ (Mutihac &
Pollach, 2010).
Many change processes in organizations failed because of the weak communication even they
have well skilled managers. Some of the mistakes often done by the skilled managers are
highlighted by Dent (2013), among are the followings: communications are delivered in a
caring manner but often lack key information, hesitant about communicating differing
opinions, not forceful in knocking down barriers, not good at providing honest feedback, does
not show confidence when delivering messages, hesitant to avoid conflict, and not succinct.
A study on the development of effective organizational communication strategies to improve
organizational change outcomes shows that (a) face-to-face communication was preferable for
important information and e-mail was appropriate for less important information, (b)
continuing communication was important for long-term change endeavors and frequent
communication was effective for communicating about short-term change processes, and (c)
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effective communication of organizational mission and values allowed employee-
organizational ethical congruency to develop (Nordin, 2014, p.1).
The communication system is helping the managers ‗in five areas that are especially relevant
for performance and member relationships in contemporary organizations: (1) socialization
and membership negotiation by organizational members; (2) employment expectations and
processes of relationship development in the workplace; (3) use of advanced information and
communication technologies; (4) reactions to the current job market and implications of their
full-time employment; and (5) orientation toward achievement and their aspirations for
engaging in leadership‘ (Myers & Sadaghiani, 2010). Providing a culture of openness and
interpersonal relationships the communication system will create an environment of trust and
the ability to rid the organization of its dysfunctional ways, thus providing a true ability to
communicate amongst others at every level of the organization (Halpern, 2012). In the change
management the ‗innovative solutions often emerge unexpectedly through informal and
unplanned interactions between individuals who see problems from different perspectives‘
(Cross et al., 2010). Because the ‗changes are produced on the basis of a number of
interconnected causes and effects whose relationships are complicated to conceive of from an
analytical framework based on linearity‘ (Amagoh, 2008, p.10) the change management
process needs an effective communication system.
THE CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS BASED ON COMMUNICATION
MODEL
The organizational communication system became the heart of the change process in the ITC
and innovation era. The system has to be planned, organized, managed and controlled in a
manner that the psychological distances between the managers and the other people
(employees, suppliers, clients or intermediaries and partners) are to be removed, by avoiding
the mistakes in communication. The communication implies:
The messages: the content (motivation, strategy, tasks, resources, responsibilities);
The style of communication: information, interactive;
The channels of messages delivery and receiving: oral (personal or in meetings face-
to-face); written, using documents (memos, reports, information leaflets or others) or
using the cyber space.
A communication system has to comprise at least the following issues (figure 1): the plan, the
infrastructure the strategy and the beneficiaries. The plan emphasizes the entire activity of the
system implementation: objectives, activities, the funding sources and responsibilities.
Plan
Management Messages Beneficiaries
& Leaders Infrastructure
Strategy
Organizational communication system
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Figure 1 The organizational communication system
The infrastructure includes the investments in digitalization technologies, meeting rooms,
devises. The strategy covers the modes of messages drafting, delivery, feedback receiving and
analyzing according to the objectives. The messages are spread to the beneficiaries that are
sending feedback. The list of beneficiaries is set according to the change process aim.
In the same time, the communication system is used as the main tool in the change strategies
to ensure the change process success. Therefore, a change management process based on
communication (CMPC model) is conceptualized into a model (figure 2).
Forces towards change: global/internal
Market Competition Standardization Social Need for
demand requirements cooperation
Management/Change Management
ITC:
-devices
-techniques
Need for Changed
-channels changes in organization:
organizations
Strategies for change
-investments
Drivers of change
-small, large, Dynamic, flexible,
complex open for
Innovation -bounded, continuing
-technologies unbounded changes
-products -programmed,
-systems unconventional
-procedures - slow, accelerated
-creativity
Communication system Communication:
Messages
Organizational Financing Lack of Inadequate
culture shortage knowledge management
Forces against change: internal
Figure 2 The change management process based on communication (CMPC model)
In the context of ITC accelerated evolution, briefly presented in this paper, the organizations
and their managers have to adapt to the new global context, considering the ITC and
innovation as the main drivers for change. The managers need to take into account all the
benefits of the ITC as a driver of change (the devices, the techniques and the channels that
have to be used, as well as the investments in physical and intellectual assets and the
knowledge) and the of the innovation, defined by new technologies, new products, new
procedures and systems, based on knowledge and creativity.
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As in any change process intervene forces towards change and forces against change, the
main of them are considered in the drafted model.
The main forces towards change, which may be global or internal, relate to: market demand,
competition, standardization, social requirements and the need for cooperation.
The market demand. The multiplication of the mass production and the variety of the
products of the market is offering, the tendency for more personalized products and
the price/quality more efficient report determined the increase of the consumers and
beneficiaries‘ power that leads to change.
The competition. The fight with their competitors for the market shares became the
main organizations‘ strategy for survival or development and the most significant
force towards change. In this respect the cyber market is going to cover more and
more demands for products and services with lower costs and prices.
The standardization. The standards imposed in production, storage and sale,
international recommendations, European directives and the national legislation are
making together one of the most powerful force for change.
The social requirements. Promises for jobs stability, training programs, rewards,
family support and other facilities for may be significant forces towards change.
The need for cooperation. Innovation by research, production and sales in cooperation
and partnership are increasing phenomena, facilitating the cost share and lower prices
of products.
The forces against change, which are usually internal, could be: the organizational culture,
financing shortage, lack of knowledge and the inadequate management.
The organizational culture. In different organizational culture the people behavior may
be a force against change.
The financing shortage. The lack or shortage of financing the change may postpone it
or may be a serious barrier.
The lack of knowledge. The knowledge of the people involved in the change process
may facilitate or put barriers to the process of change.
The inadequate management. The management may be competent and well skilled but
inadequate in terms of efficient communication.
From this process a changed organization is coming out, which is dynamic, flexible and open
for further changes in the organization.
CONCLUSIONS
The role of the ITC and innovation in the organizational change process is elevating today and
in the future, determining new approaches of the organization as a system and the change
process. The model of the change management process based on communication (CMPC
model) may be a useful tool for managing the organization transformation and adaptation to
the new global context. The model has as its heart the communication system, which, if well
designed, may contribute to the change process‘s success. The model has to be adapted to the
particularities of any organization because the ‗organizational change in practice is a
manifestation of particularity‘ (Janson, 2013).
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The limits of the model are related to the conceptualization of the ideas presented in this paper
and it may not have taken into account some variables and details, but further research may
contribute to its development.
REFERENCES
o Amagoh, F. (2008) Perspectives on Organizational Change: Systems and Complexity
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o Kotter, J. (2011) Change Management vs. Change Leadership - What's the
Difference?, Forbes online. July, accessed Sept. 20, 2014.
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CONCERNS OF MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIC FARMING
Florica Morar, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu Mureș
Abstract: Agriculture in Europe is in a state which requires the need for a balance between its
nutritional, economic and environmental requirements. It is considered that one of the options
for the future is ecological or organic farming, defined by some authors as a form of applied
ecology which follows a series of objectives and principles that focus on sustainability, human
health, biological conservation and quality of life. Achievement of the objectives and
principles is influenced by biological, economic and nutritional factors, but also on consumer
preferences. Therefore, the development and management of organic farming should be a
major concern worldwide and in all European Union countries. The content of environmental
management is suitable for the current situation when it records (as a result of various human
activities, especially the abuse of insecticides), an increase in the number of pests specific to
certain cultures, but also polyphagous pest, and at the same it was found the attack of some
species (pathogens, pests, weeds), which until now were not creating problems for ecosystems
in general, or the agricultural ecosystems in particular. Organic farming involves indeed a
return to traditional farming values, but not its methods; so it was necessary to apply a
suitable environmental management, that the EU determine production standards for organic
farming and countries which do not include in their legislation compatible standards with the
EU standards, may not export to the EU organic farming products only based on import
authorizations, which is granted only after a thorough analysis of the case in question. In
Europe, one important center of research regarding the use of environmental management
systems is at the Gent University, Belgium, under the auspices of the International
Organization for Biological Control (IOBC). Currently, there are known a number of models
for environmental management, many of them relying on alternative methods of control. This
paper aims to analyze what is the situation of organic agriculture worldwide and national,
which are the principles of ecological management based on alternative methods of control
and which measures are being taken to implement appropriate management on farms who
practice organic farming.
Keywords: organic farming, principles the environmental management, organic farms,
agricultural ecosystems, traditional agriculture.
1.Agricultura ecologică-definiție, curente, obiective
Agricultura ecologică sau agricultura nepoluantă și nepoluată reprezintă exploatația
agricolă (vegetală sau animală), în care se aplică tehnologii prietenoase mediului, nefiind
acceptate pesticidele, îngrășămintele, fertilizanții, stimulatori și regulatori de creștere,
antibiotice, hormoni, sisteme intensive de creștere a animalelor), precum și tehnologii de
sinteză și în care inputurile sunt minime[23]. Avantajele exploatațiilor agricole în care se
practică agricultura ecologică sunt numeroase, complexe, analize comparative dintre
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tehnologiile convenționale/tradiționale și cele organice demonstrând că agricultura ecologică
nu afectează sănătatea umană și a mediului, spre deosebire de agricultura intensivă.
Termenul de ,,Agricultură ecologică‖, termen protejat şi atribuit de Uniunea
Europeană țării noastre, dar și altor țări membre ale Uniunii pentru a defini acest sistem de
agricultură este similar cu termenii: ,,agricultură biologică‖, ,,agricultură organică‖.
Din punct de vedere legislativ, în ţara noastră, dezvoltarea agriculturii organice a fost
susţinută din anul 2000, iar implementarea tehnologiilor ecologice s-a realizat mai ales, prin
transfer de cunoștințe din străinătate. Trebuie menționat că, în prezent, nu există informaţii
disponibile privind eficienţa modulelor de exploataţie ecologice aşa cum există pentru
agricultura convenţională.
Rolul sistemului de agricultură ecologică și în același timp am putea spune, scopul
acesteia este de a produce hrană mai curată, mai sănătoasă , prin procese care să respecte
natura şi sistemele acesteia[14]. Agricultura ecologică are la bază cunoștințe fundamentale de
ecologie, protecția mediului, agroecologie, cunoștințe fără de care nu s-ar fi putut
dezvolta[3,8]. În Europa atrag atenția trei curente în ceea ce privește agricultura ecologică.
Primul curent, al cărui inițiator a fost Rudolf Steiner a apărut în Germania, în anul
1924; a fost cunoscut sub denumirea de „agricultură biodinamică‖[12,15].
În 1940, în Marea Britanie, Sir Albert Haward și Lady Eve Balfour au dezvoltat cel de
al doilea current, fiind numita „agricultură organică‖, iar cel de al treilea curent, „agricultură
organo- biologică‖ a fost dezvoltat de către Hans Peter Rusch și H. Muller, în Elveția[12,13].
Aceste trei curente sunt privite ca și izvoare ale agriculturii ecologice.
Care sunt motivele apariției și dezvoltării agriculturii ecologice?
Motivele sunt numeroase, iar unul dintre ele este că, agricultura ecologică poate
rezolva (și rezolvă, de altfel) impactul negativ al agriculturii tradiționale asupra mediului și a
calității produselor. Se poate face afirmația ca agricultura ecologică este soluția viabilă și
ideală în această direcție[13].
Ca atare obiectivele majore ale agriculturii organice sunt:
- îmbunătățirea și conservarea calității mediului înconjurător și reducerea surselor de
poluare,
- obținerea unor produse agricole de bună calitate, la prețuri accesibile și în cantități
suficiente,
- crearea unui cadru general pentru fermierii care dețin ferme ecologice și sunt
producători de produse agroalimentare biologice, care să le permită obținerea de
profit, oferindu-le satisfacția muncii desfășurate[13,21].
2. Reglementări și evoluția suprafetelor cultivate în sistem ecologic
Ponderea cea mai ridicată privind repartizarea fermelor ecologice o are Europa, cu un
procent de 37,7%, urmată fiind de America Latină (30,9%), Africa (15,4%), Asia (!3,3%). Ca
atare a fost necesar să se pună la punct o serie de reglementări legislative[19].
Sistemul de agricultură biologică este reglementat în UE prin Regulamentul
2092/1991 pentru sectorul vegetal, iar pentru sectorul animal prin Regulamentul 1804/1999.
Reglementările legislative naţionale cu privire la producerea, prelucrarea şi
valorificarea produselor agroalimentare ecologice sunt în concordanţă cu normele
internaţionaleale agriculturii ecologice[9].
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În acest sens menționăm: Ordonanţa de urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 34/2000, privind
produsele agroalimentare ecologice, din 17 aprilie 2000, aprobată prin Legea nr. 38/2001;
H.G. nr. 917/2001 pentru aprobarea normelor metodologice de aplicare a acestor
reglementări, etc.
Punerea în aplicare a dispoziţiilor reglementărilor menționate este realizată de
Autoritatea Naţională a Produselor Ecologice (ANPE, care are rol de a asigura respectarea
tuturor prevederilor legale specifice şi, totodată asigură controlul privind metodele de
producţie ecologică a produselor agroalimentare), Comisia de Agricultură Ecologică,
Federaţia Naţională de Agricultură Ecologică (FNAE), etc[6,9].
În România, activitate intensă în domeniu desfășoară Asociația Bioagricultorilor din
România (BIOTERA), înființată în 1997, având sediul la Cluj, iar un an mai târziu a fost
inființată Asociația Națională de Agricultură Biologică (BIOAGRIROM ) cu sediul la
Brașov[18].
Statisticile arată că în perioada 2007-2012, suprafaţa afectată sistemului ecologic a
crescut de 3,5 ori, iar numărul operatorilor din agricultura ecologică a crescut de la 3.834 (în
2007) la 26.736 (în 1012).
De asemenea , într-un raport al Ministerului Agriculturii şi Dezvoltării Rurale
(MADR) se menționează că agricultura ecologică creşte, în țara, în fiecare an, într-un ritm
mediu ponderat de 23%,[20], de aici și afirmația potrivit căreia, în 2011 România a ocupat
locul 10 în Europa, printre țările care practică și o agricultură organică, având o suprafață de
229.946 ha cultivată în acest sistem, iar pe primul loc s-a situat Spania (cu 1.803.661 ha)
(figura 1)[19].
Fig. 1. Topul țărilor care practică un sistem ecologic (Sursa MADR)[19]
La nivelul anului 2012, suprafeţele cuprinse în sistemul ecologic au crescut, față de
anul 2011, cu 45%, reprezentând aproximativ 3,38% din totalul suprafeţei agricole utilizate a
României. Ponderea o dețin pășunile și fânețele, urmate de culturile cerealiere și oleo-proteice
(tabelul 1)[16,19].
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Tabel 1. Culturi în sistem ecologic
Nr. Suprafețe cultivate(ha)
Culturi în sistem ecologic
crt. 2007 2012
1 cereale 32.222 130.000
2 oleo-proteice 27.713 105.000
3 pășuni, fânețe 57.600 165.000
3. Cercetări privind managementul dezvoltării agriculturii ecologice
Agricultura ecologică este o formă de ecologie aplicată cu o serie de obiective care
trebuie să fie echilibrat într-un context agricol. Nu trebuie neglijat faptul că pentru realizarea
obiectivelor agriculturii ecologice să se aibă în vedere atât influența factorilor biologici, dar și
a celor din economie, nutriție și preferințele consumatorilor[17,22].
Pentru aceasta un rol deloc de neglijat revine și activității de informare și educarea
resursei umane[11] prin aceasta înțelegând să fie cooptați nu numai consumatori , ci și cei
care practică o agricultură ecologică.
Considerăm că este mai mult decât benefic, pentru ca agricultura ecologică să câștige
cât mai mult teren, și, de ce nu, încredere și din partea consumatorilor, dar și a
producătorilor,ca în planurile de învățământ preuniversitar să se rezerve mai multe ore pentru
studiul acestui domeniu[10].
Facem această mențiune deoarece una dintre opțiunile pentru viitor este de agricultură
ecologică (organice), care pune accentul pe durabilitate, sănătatea umană, conservarea
biologice și a calității vieții.
Producţia ecologică se obține în gospodării individuale, asociaţii familiale, ferme, pe
suprafețe cuprinse între 5 și 50 hectare şi, mai rar, în asociaţii şi societăţi agricole şi
agroindustriale mari sau de tip holding (peste 50 hectare ajungând uneori și pănă la 1000-
2000 hectare). Dar, fermele şi societăţile agricole, agroindustriale şi comerciale ecologice
trebuie să parcurgă o perioadă de conversie, care, perioadă, este egală cu timpul dintre
începerea managementului ecologic şi obţinerea certificatului de fermă sau societate
ecologică. Certificarea se face de către o organizaţie naţională sau internaţională recunoscută
de Serviciul Internaţinal de Acreditare al Federaţiei Internaţionale a Mişcărilor de Agricultură
Organică (IFOAM); aceasta este abilitată să evalueze şi să garanteze în scris că sistemul de
producţie sau de prelucrare se desfăşoară în conformitate cu standardele agriculturii
ecologice[9]. Perioada de conversie se face pas cu pas, pentru ca structurile economice să nu
resimtă efectele scăderii productivităţii, iar producătorii săcapete încredere în noile sisteme.
Imediat ce unitatea economică corespunde standardelor ecologice, iar cele două sisteme -
convenţional şi ecologic - sunt separate clar, atât în documentaţii, cât şi în activitatea
productivă se poate face certificarea[1,4].
Conţinutul managementului ecologic este adecvat situaţiei prezente, unde, ca și
rezultat al numeroaselor și diferitelor activităţi umane (şi mai ales al abuzului de insecticide)
s-a înregistrat o creştere a efectivelor dăunătorilor specifici diferitelor culture, dar şi a
dăunătorilor polifagi[1,2]. Să se încerce rezolvarea separată a problemei dăunătorilor, fără o
abordare globală a efectelor intervenţiei umane asupra speciilor aflate în strânsă
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interdependenţă în cadrul biocenozelor, nu poate conduce la realizarea obiectivelor strategice
ale unui management ecologic, dintre care amintim:
- evaluarea nivelului controlului natural,
- stabilirea pragurilor economice de aplicare a metodelor alternative,
- maximizarea acţiunii factorilor biotici naturali de control,
- armonizarea aplicării simultane a diferitelor metode de control[1,2,4].
În managementul ecologic există o serie de modele, agreate fiind cele care se bazează
pe metode alternative de control[4].
Pentru elaborarea unor asttfel de modele se au în vedere:
- principiile de bază ale ecologiei sistemice;
- stabilirea populaţiilor dominante;
- corelarea ciclurilor biologice ale populaţiilor dominante;
- organismele dăunătoare nu sînt eradicate, ci menţinute la sau sub un nivel numit
prag economic de dăunare (PED);
- potenţarea sau maximizarea factorilor naturali de control;
- modelarea tehnologiilor de cultură (în special a celor intensive) în direcţia unei
monitorizări a factorilor de impact care pot induce consecinţe neprevăzute;
- introducerea sistemelor de asistare a deciziei în cadrul intervenţiilor privind
controlul bolilor şi dăunătorilor (sisteme expert; simulări ale proceselor;
agricultura de precizie), etc.
Un management ecologic de control se aplică unui anumit ecosistem localizat şi
delimitat spaţio-temporal și nu este de loc de neglijat posibilitatea aplicării unui astfel de
management având în vedere interdisciplinaritatea metodelor şi posibilitatea aplicării
modelării statistico-matematice[21].
Controlul integrat a avut propria sa dezvoltare de la o primă cristalizare a concepţiei de
către S. A. Forbes în 1880 până la introducerea formulării „integrated control‖ de către J. S.
Kennedy în 1953 (citat de Teodorescu, 1999) şi dezvoltată într-o primă fază într-o lucrare
experimentală de către Stern şi colab., 1959[18,21].
La primul simpozion FAO pe probleme de control integrat, desfăşurat la Roma în anul
1966, R. F. Smith şi H. T. Reynolds au lansat formularea integrated pest control (IPM),
definind metoda ca „un sistem de management al populaţiilor de dăunători care utilizează
toate tehnicile adecvate, într-o manieră intercompatibilă pentru a reduce densitatea
populaţiilor dăunătorilor şi a le menţine la nivele inferioare celor la care produc pagube
economice‖[21].
La propunerea Comitetului pentru Agricultură, Consiliul Național de Cercetare din
cadrul Academiei de Științe din SUA, pentru înțelegerea rolului important al componentei
biologice în cadrul controlului integrat s-a adus o nouă abordare a problemei dăunătorilor
(„Ecological Based Pest Management- EBPM‖); este o abordare holistică a problemei
dăunătorilor, care se bazează pe cunoaşterea principiilor şi proceselor ecologice, a
interacţiunilor biologice ce se desfășoară în culturi, precum şi pe căutarea de soluţii pentru a
le dirija în detrimentul dăunătorilor.
Pentru aceasta se au în vedere următoarele:
- protecţia oamenilor şi a mediului;
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- asigurarea unui profit pentru agricultori;
- durabilitate pe termen lung.
În managementul ecologic al culturilor se propun ca și obiective strategice:
- informarea
- testarea oportunităţii
- planificarea conversiei
- implementarea conversiei,
Planificarea conversiei presupune următoarele etape:
- înregistrarea la Ministerul Agriculturii a activităţii ce urmează a se desfășura;
- cererea către un organism de control pentru verificare;
- întocmirea planului de conversie;
- organizarea comercializării produselor ecologice;
- afilierea la o asociaţie de agricultură ecologică.
Implementarea conversiei presupune:
- concretizarea măsurilor din planul de conversie;
- concretizarea comercializării .
4. Concluzii
Agricultură ecologică (organică) pune accent pe sănătatea umană, conservarea
biologică și calitatea vieții.
Agricultura ecologică are o contribuţie majoră la dezvoltarea durabilă, la creşterea
activităţilor economice şi la sporirea interesului pentru spaţiul rural.
În mediul economic românesc, elaborarea şi integrarea unor metode alternative de
control în managementul organizaţiilor/fermelor ce practică o agricultură ecologică, constituie
o veritabilă sursă de avantaj competitiv față de utilizarea unor metode din agricultura
tradițională.
Dacă sunt respectate standardele impuse de legislaţia în vigoare și se dovedeşte
calitatea ecologică a produselor şi a tehnicilor agricole folosite, agricultura ecologică poate
aduce venituri substanțiale.
Cu toate că în România piaţa de desfacere a produselor ecologice nu este prea extinsă,
cauza fiind puterea de cumpărare redusă a consumatorilor, de remarcat că există cerere
externă pentru astfel de produse, ceea ce reprezintă o şansă pentru exportul acestora, o
posibilitate pentru producători de aș valorifica produsele obținute în sistem de agricultură
ecologic.
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436
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THE BAROMETER OF INSOLVENCY FOR ROMANIAN AGRICULTURAL
COMPANIES
Gabriela Ignat, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine, Iași
Abstract: The fear sensed by the Romanian managers in the field of agriculture, the fear to
declare a state of insolvency, represents the main reason for the increase in the number of
bankruptcy cases within the Romanian market, the majority of these companies entering
straight into bankruptcy procedures. Insolvency is not yet regarded by managers as a way for
the company to recover, this being the consequence of a lack in a certain culture of
insolvency, a culture that the managers in the other European have long possessed. For this
very reason, the delay in declaring a state of insolvency is translated, in most cases, straight
into a state of bankruptcy. The difficulties of companies are signalled by certain indicators,
and if these are not identified in due time, the difficulties can be heightened by the slow
reaction of the managers, who play a major role in assessing the difficulties as well as
repairing the damage in case of unfavourable situations. Simultaneously, the the attention
was focused on initiating a state of alertness, clearly stating the facts affecting the
continuation of the business, the choices of the company when payments are ceased, but it
intends to continue its activities, as well as the consequences of declaring a state of
insolvency. Being aware of the risks, action can be taken for designing the adequate strategy
of prevention and control of risk factors, and to undo, as much as possible, the damage
already done.
Keywords: : insolvency, Profit and Loss Account, turnover, assets, risk
Introduction
Insolvency represents the lack of financial funds for paying the companys‘
commercial and fiscal debts. Insolvency implies insufficient funds to cover the debtor‘s
contingent debts. There are three possible options for a company in a state of insolvency:
voluntary restructuring, judicial restructuring and bankruptcy. Each of these implies a specific
approach, with different economic and legal implications. The consequences of a state of
insolvency are of a material order, through the costs involved by the measures that need to be
taken, and also of a psychological order, involving all the ―actors‖ related to the company‘s
activity: creditors, managers, stuff. The diagnosis provides a realistic vision of the company‘s
situation and of the process of degradation to the decision-makers, being the starting point in
formulating the plan for reorganization or liquidation. Regarding the financial-accounting
diagnosis, Peter Druker noted: ―it is an important available to the company manager, likely to
help him understand the past and present of the business, as well as to offer direction to his
present and future actions. An efficient manager has to allocate about 50% of his time to
diagnosis‖.
Material and method
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Our approach aims at clarifying the concept of insolvency. Our research focused on
synthesizing the notions comprised by specialty literature. In order to elaborate the study we
have analyzed the data comprised by the financial statements of the evaluated company, along
a 3 – year period, in order to detect the appearance of insolvency caused by objective as well
as subjective factors
Results and discussions
In preparing this analysis, we have taken into consideration the economic and financial
situation of the analyzed company, starting from the idea that they reflect an accurate and
complete image of the economic activity undertaken by the company. The financial-
accounting diagnosis plays the role of „centre of synthesis‖ in giving insight to management
decisions, so that the final result is represented by performance. For any manager, the
diagnosis of the entity he manages represents the action through which the „health‖ of the
company is evaluated. Through identifying the internal and external factors related to the
tendency of evolution and through the estimation of the impact of their modification, strong
and weak points in the company‘s activity are established. In preparing the present analysis,
we have taken into consideration the economic and financial situation of the company we had
in view, starting from the idea that they reflect an accurate and complete image of the
company‘s activity. The case study was undertaken at SC C&C Harlau, Iasi. In the period we
analyzed we recorded a downward trend in turnover (with the exception of the year 2012,
when it increased from 2.266.989 lei in 2011 to 2.318.249 lei), it reaches the minimum point
of 1.530.813 lei in 2013. This evolution of the turnover takes place against the background of
the diminishing, year to year, of the revenues obtained from selling merchandise, as well as
the revenue of the production. Through the Profit and Loss Account, between 2011 and 2012,
we followed the activity of exploitation and financial activity. The exploitation activity
presents a major importance in the framework of the Profit and Loss Account, irrespective of
the particularities of the activity.
As far as the situation of the company SC C&C Harlau, Iaşi, we met a fluctuating
evolution, so that in the year 2011 the profit incurred was 167,590 lei, with a decline
beginning in 2012, when the recorded loss reached the level of 10,921 lei, without returning
to a profitable situation for the rest of the analyzed period. The total amount of loss is 214,661
lei, with a minimum in 2013, of 117,058 lei. The revenue from the exploitation drops
continuously in the analyzed period, with the exception of the year 2012, when a slight
improvement is recorded, mainly consisting in income from the sales of production and
income related to sales of merchandise.
The largest percentage in exploitation revenue is represented by the sale of
merchandise (more than 60%), followed by sold production, which clearly indicates the fact
that the commercial activity undertaken by the company was predominant. The sold
production amounted to more than 39%. The exploitation expenses represent the total amount
of expenses generated by the activity of the analyzed company and exhibit a pattern of
evolution that is similar to exploitation revenues, following, like the latter, a fluctuating trend.
One can observe that along the entire period that was analyzed the largest percentage of
exploitation expenses is represented by the expenses on merchandise, which is a natural thing
if we take into account the fact that the basic activity was commerce (47.25% in 2011 to
39.00% in 2013).
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Alongside with these expenses with merchandise, expenses with raw materials and
other materials are also recorded (from 18.72 in 2011 to 19.18 in 2013), expenses with energy
and water, expenses with taxes, personnel, depreciation and other various expenses,
amounting to 4,988,301 lei. The revenues are slightly higher than the costs, with the result of
the exploitation signalling profit, but in the last 3 years the total amount of exploitation
expenses occasioned by the activity was higher than revenues, generating negative results in
this period. Thus, given the rise in the costs related to raw materials, production costs also
rise, while the sale price remains the same, so that the exploitation activity starts to become
unprofitable. Financial income amounts to a low percentage in the total revenue obtained by
the company, structurally consisting in income generated by the differences in exchanging
currency, income from discounts and income from bank interests, their total being 207,787
lei. The financial expenses record considerable amounts, especially during the first 2 years of
the period that was analyzed. The evolution of these expenses follow a fluctuating trajectory,
in accordance with the income from this category, and structurally they represent expenses
with the differences in currency exchange and expenses with bank interests. As one can notice
in the evolution of Profit and Loss Account, the fact that significant fluctuations were
recorded was caused by the high level of fluctuations in the field of currency exchange,
translated into significant losses in the financial activity. These losses were recorded as a
consequence of reimbursing the bank loans and the corresponding bank interests. With the
exception of the year 2012, when the company had a positive net result, its activity was not
profitable, with significant losses each year, with a peak in 2013 – 116,524 lei. Then, we
moved to the analysis of liabilities based in structure rates, which give information regarding
the financial policies of companies and highlight various aspects concerning their stability and
autonomy.
The rate of financial stability points out the percentage of permanent resources in total
liabilities. In the specialty papers, various authors mention the matter of inclusion – or the
lack thereof – of provisions for risks and expenses in the company‘s own capital. The risks
and expenses provisions correspond to an increase of short- or long-term liabilities. Being
considered ―probable debts‖ covering a real risk, in the balance sheet, they are situated
between own assets and debts. The size of the rate of financial autonomy depends on the
financial policy adopted, the efficiency of the decisions taken and the profitability of the
enterprise.
The rate of financial stability reflects the connection between the capitals available for
the company permanently and the total amount of assets, and is significantly below the
optimum level, to the extent that is even recorded negative values in the last year. This
evolution is caused by the fact that along the entire period the reported results recorded
negative values (losses). This means a diminishing of the financial stability and security of the
company, caused by the decrease of capital and the increase of losses. The rate of global
financial autonomy represents the extent to which payment obligations can be met by the
company. It has negative values (caused by having finished the financial exercise with losses
that, cumulated, consumed the whole capital of the company), displaying a high risk of
insolvency. The rate of global debt shows an increase, getting as high as 153% in 2011. It is a
significant value, taking into account the maximum acceptable level is 66%. It is clear that the
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
company‘s own funds are not capable to support its activity. In the following table (Fig. 1) we
present the values recorded by some of the structural rates of liabilities:
Fig. 1. Ratele de structura ale pasivului
The current activity of the agricultural company involves using the mobile and fixed
assets. The rates concerning the company‘s activity reflect the connection between the
revenue (or elements of the revenue) and the assets needed by the current activity, measuring
the efficiency of their management. The evolution of these rates and the comparisons with the
values obtained by companies in the same field of activity can offer information regarding the
posible difficulties or opportunities.
Fig. 2 Management analysis
The inventory turnover rate represents the number of days necessary for the stock to
go through different phases of supply, production and sale. An acceleration of the inventory
turnover means an increase in the efficiency of their use. In this particular case, it is
accelerated, between 5 and 30 days, taking into account the fact that the minimum value that
ensures an acceptable efficiency of stock management is around 45 days. The recovery time
varies between 11 and 46 days, in the period 2011 – 2012, so in this case the recovery time is
medium (between 10 and 30 days). One aspect has to be mentioned, though: the company has
to recover debts from clients that entered the procedures for bankrupcy, as we intend to show
in the following. The time needed for paying off debts is fluctuating, reaching values that are
rather high, at the end of 2013 being 158 days, as opposed to the 30 days – the amount of time
that is considered to be optimum. These values suggest impossibility in paying off debts, in
this case, mainly debts to suppliers. To have an image that is as complex as possible, we
analyse the ratio claims – debts. Looking at this ratio, we notice that the sum of debts is
significantly bigger than the sum of claims, which is translated into difficulties with payment.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fig. 3 The ratio claims - debts
Between 2011 and 2013, for the company we analyzed, the indicators of financial
balance are presented in the following chart:
Fig. 4 The indicators of financial balance
Based on the analysis, one can predict an unfavourable situation, represented by a
negative working capital along the entire period with values fluctuating towards the negative,
which means a state of financial unbalance. This situation is caused by the permanent capital
dropping year after year, even recording negative values towards the end of the time frame.
The working capital requirement represents the part of current assets that needs to be funded
from permanent, stable sources, and gets more and more values. This happens as a result of
the increase in company‘s debts, beyond the level of current assets. The net cash accurately
reflects the financial balance of companies, through comparing the working capital
requirement and the necessary turnover, recording negative values throughout the entire
analyzed period. Against the background of increasingly bigger short-term debts, compared to
the level of permanent capital, it registers an extremely large deficit. In order to strengthen the
overall picture we envisioned regarding the analysed company, we have calculated the
indicators of liquidity analysis, management and financial balance, according to the chart
below.In this particular case, general liquidity is below 1 throughout the entire period 2011 –
2013, a fact denoting the company‘s weakening possibilities to handle its payment
obligations. The liquidity ratio is lower than the minimum of 0.8, being beyond the safety
framework.
Fig. 5 The analysis of liquidity
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Conclusions
A series of factors contributed to the failure to the economic failure of the company:
management incompetence and management errors (60%); the unfavourable evolution of the
market (20%); other causes (20%). The main cause of decline in the case of our company is to
be found in the processes linked to management and market information. That is why we
consider it a necessity for the management to identify in due time the signals of a possible
deterioration of the financial situation, such as: obtaining negative financial results; negative
turnover; the impossibility of repaying loans according to their maturity; the bankruptcy of
suppliers or of clients that are important to the company.
From the economic and financial analyses discussed above one can clearly notice the
fact that the assets of the company were characterized by a shortage of liquidity, throughout
the entire period. At the same time, one can notice the fact that the activity of the company is
characterized by constant losses, so that the seeds of insolvency can be observed even from
the very beginning of the analyzed period. As a result of our analysis, we can underline the
existence of a faulty management at the level of the agricultural company, caused by
precarious management of assets, as well as the lack of measures meant to repair the
company‘s financial status. All of these eventually led to more debts. Once the degree of debt
increased, the risk of insolvency also rose for the agricultural company.
The reduced possibilities of facing payment obligations and supporting the activity
using its own funds caused the company to have negative values along the entire time frame,
which translates into a high risk of insolvency. The difficulties with recovering debts led to a
deterioration of liquidities, so the financial balance was influenced unfavourably, ending with
stopping the payments altogether. The accumulation of significant debts, situated way above
the level of assets, presented the company with the impossibility to pay its debts.
Bibliography
1. CerchallAna, 2010 - Procedura insolventei, Editura Universul Juridic
2. Ignat Gabriela, Doina Cojoc, 2008 – Bilantul contabil şi reuşita economică. Ed. PIM
Iasi
3. Mircea N. 1997 - Reorganizarea si lichidarea judiciara - analiza de legislaţie si
doctrina. Editura Lumina Lex.
4. Negrila A., 2003 - Restructurarea întreprinderilor aflate în dificultat. Editura Mirton,
Timişoara.
5. Petrescu, S., 2006 - Analiză şi diagnostic financiar-contabil. Editura CECCAR,
Bucureşti;
6. Zamfirache D., 2009 Societatile comerciale aflate in insolventa, Editura Universul
Juridic
7. ****Legea nr. 85/2014 privind procedurile de prevenire a insolventei si de insolventa
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THE DECISION OF INVESTMENT USING THE DECISIONAL TREE
Robert Gabriel Dragomir, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University
Abstract: The present economic context sees the decision as an act of a great responsibility,
with direct and complex consequences on the company present and future. The importance of
the decision consists in the fact that it is present with all the functions or attributes of the
managerial process. The multitude of the decisional criteria that takes into consideration the
investments expresses the manager decision regarding the dominant aspects of the socio –
economic reality, such as: the investment expenses, the actual net value, the cash-flow, the
residual value, the updating rate, the lifetime rate of the investment project, the retrieve
deadline etc.
The decision tree represents a performing managerial tool that puts together the impact of the
risk factors on the whole process and their feedback.
The present paper is a case study that proposes to describe a decision action using the
instrument depicted above, namely the decisional tree. So, we use the analysis technique and
also the technique of optimizing the potential results of the complex, strategic decisions in
risk situations. We show all the stages, the components, the specific points and the effects of a
decision of investment by using this method.
Keywords: investors, managerial decision, project for investment, working equipment,
managerial process
The decision represents, mainly, a deliberate act, an act of authority, bearing a
compulsory character for the organisational structures and for the persons under the ferule, in
order to fulfil the common objectives. Decisional speaking, this intercession cover all the
imperative and conscious actions met with the leading issues; these are disposed on three
panels: organisational (data preparing and analysis; identifying and elaboration of the action
alternative; explaining, adopting and choosing the optimal variant), informational (data and
valuable ideas picking, stocking, processing and evaluating) and methodological
(homogenous activities, logical procedures, algorithmic, heuristic and logistic operations).
Within the managerial theory and practice, the decision can be defined as the
conscious act that establishes the future objectives to be fulfilled, the directions of action and
their ways and the necessary resources capable to assure the economic – financial auto
regulation of the company and a high level of profitability.
The clear formulation of the problem and the building of the descriptive model
represent the main working tool when evaluating the consequences of the decision
alternatives. It is a logic and rational approach that has to answer some requests, such as:
coherence, correctness, consistency, completion, efficiency, the model conception with
minimal human and material efforts [1].
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The role of the modern methods in sustaining the decisional act at the level of the
strategic management is greater and greater. In order to obtain performing and consistent
results of the real foresights, one has to correctly dimension the following parameters: the
total sum of the investments initial expense; the life span; the cash-flow; the residual value;
the discount rate. These initial elements processing and combining lead to determining the
resulted parameters of the net present value, the recovery period, the profitability, the risks
etc. Any investment project needs an analysis of the forecast performances, depending on the
application background: certain, with risks, uncertain one.
The uncertain conditions are met when one cannot dispose of the necessary pieces of
information in order to establish the probabilities of manifesting the objective conditions and
when the variables are partially out of control. Those projects of investments with associated
uncertain conditions have to take into account the following analysis techniques: the decision
tree and the sensitivity analysis.
The decisional tree represents a managerial tool that takes into account both the impact
of the risk factors on the investment project and the response reactions to them [2]. It has to be
used for complex, strategic decisions, those decisions referring directly to the investments
optimization.
In order to apply this technique, one has to follow the next stages:
- defining the decisional issue that is to be optimized; here also one identifies the
main events that are supposed to influence the decisional consequences;
- graphic representation of the tree; the tree structure details periods of decision
and of risk;
- determining the decisional consequences corresponding to every forecast
alternative; here one can take care of probabilities that events should appear and
manifest. The probabilities can be calculated with three types of reasoning:
statistic, analytic and empiric. The main consequences can be: profit, cost,
productivity, stocks, selling level, working capacity and so on.
- Choosing the optimal variant, by calculating the mathematic hope for every
consequence and decisional alternative. It will result the optimal variant offered by
the mathematic hope bearing the highest value.
c1‘
c2‘
a 1‘ C
D c3‘
c1 a2‘
C a3‘
a1 c2
d1
D
a2 c3
d2
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Figure no. 1 Graphic representation of the decisional tree
Where:
- a expresses actions, c – consequences, d – decisional alternatives,
- geometrical forms - nodes of consequences and decisional nodes.
For resolving this type of problem, one starts with the consequences of every possible
decision alternatives, with the help of mathematic hope [3]. The set of decisions for the future
investment project is analyzed as a succession of decisions appeared as responses to different
evaluative scenarios of the phenomena [4].
How to make a decision by using the technique of the decisional tree for an investment
project – a case study
We suppose that a company proposes to consolidate its position on the open market
and wants to make an investment in a new and more performing piece of equipment. The
activity is cutting and woodworking; in this case sawmill is the most important tool that
affects the production. The company already owns working equipment, but its productivity is
low and its physical and moral depreciation is high. The alternative is acquisition of a new
equipment, with the investment value of 200000 euro; the old one is now valued at 20000
euro; the productivity of the new one is of 120 square meters/day, of the latter is only 20
square meters/day. The decider has to make a strategic decision, starting from the next two
hypotheses:
- gives up the old equipment in the favour of the new expensive but performing
investment;
- making repairs to the old equipment, thus investing 30000 euro.
The market is variable too, as it depends on the periods when wood can be cut and
processed; the domestic and foreign request; the rate exchange and so on. The average selling
price is of 150 euro/square meter.
Here we meet two production scenarios:
- with the new working equipment, the production price for a square meter of timber
is of about 100 euro and the daily productivity of 84 square meters of timber,
obtained from 120 cubic meter of wood.
- with the old equipment the production price of a square meter of timber is of 113
euro, the daily productivity is only of 14 square meters obtained from 20 cubic
meter of wood.
Under these circumstances, the investors have to choose in order to establish the new
direction of action for developing the business. If they choose the major investment for the
new equipment, they will have the advantage of a six times greater productivity, high quality
products and a greater volume of finite products. Otherwise, the productivity is less, the
quality is medium and there is also the risk to lose new contracts as the equipment has
limitations of any kinds.
By applying the technique of the decisional tree, one can choose the optimal variant.
Taking into account the two mentioned alternatives: the new equipment and a great
investment or the old equipment and a small investment, we applied all the possibilities and
got the first variant of the decisional tree, as one can see in the figure no. 1.
The arch calculation was done under these scenarios:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
A-1: we own new equipment and sell 80 square meters with 150 euro => R = 12000
transposed as R=12
A-2: we own new equipment and sell 80 square meters (sm) with less than 145 euro
=> R = 11600 transposed as R=11.6
B-3: with the old equipment we sell 15 sm with 150 euro => R = 2250 transposed as
R=2,25
B-4: with the old equipment we sell 15 sm with 145 euro => R = 2175 transposed as
R=2,175
1-C: sell 80 sm with 150 euro => R = 12000 transposed as R=12
1-D: sell 80 sm with 145 euro => R = 11600 transposed as R=11,6
1-E: sell 75 sm with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
2-F: sell 80 sm with 145 euro => R = 11600 transposed as R=11,6
2-G: sell 75 sm with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
3-H: sell 15 sm with 150 euro => R = 2250 transposed as R=2,25
3-I: sell 15 sm with 145 euro => R = 1800 transposed as R=1,8
4-J: sell 12 sm with 150 euro => R = 2250 transposed as R=2,25
4-K: sell 12 mc with 145 euro => R = 1740 transposed as R=1,74
C-5: sell 80 mc with 150 euro => R = 12000 transposed as R=12
C-6: sell 80 mc with 145 euro => R = 11600 transposed as R=11,6
D-7: sell 80 mc with 150 euro => R = 12000 transposed as R=12
D-8: sell 75 mc with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
E-9: sell 75 mc with 150 euro => R = 11250 transposed as R=11,25
E-10: sell 75 mc with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
F-11: sell 80 mc with 145 euro => R = 11600 transposed as R=11,6
F-12: sell 75 mc with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
G-13: sell 75 mc with 145 euro => R = 10875 transposed as R=10,875
G-14: sell 70 mc with 145 euro => R = 10150 transposed as R=10,150
H-15: sell 15 mc with 150 euro => R = 2250 transposed as R=2,25
H-16: sell 15 mc with 145 euro => R = 1800 transposed as R=2,175
I-17: sell 12 mc with 150 euro => R = 2250 transposed as R=1,8
I-18: sell 12 mc with 145 euro => R = 1740 transposed as R=1,74
I-19: sell 15 mc with 145 euro => R = 1800 transposed as R=2,175
I-20: sell 12 mc with 145 euro => R = 1740 transposed as R=1,74
K-21: sell 12 mc with 145 euro => R = 1740 transposed as R=1,74
K-21: sell 12 mc with 140 euro => R = 1680 transposed as R=1,68
The quantity of timber for sale in each situation based on the productivity of the pieces
of equipment and its correlation with the inflexions timber suffers on the open market. The
more branches the decisional tree will have, the more varied action states the forecast
scenarios will determine.
Thus, in order to obtain the optimal variant, one has to follow a longer route, a variety
of more and more complex situations where variables such: price, sold quantity, open market
usually change their values. All these forecasts together with certain probabilities operate with
statistical values obtained by different companies along the time.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The figure below presents the first variant of the decisional tree:
0,2 5
R=12
C 0,8
0,2 R=11,6
R=12
6
0,5 7
0,2 R=12
0,5
R=11,6 D R=10,87
8
0,6 0,4
R=10,87 R=11,25
0,6 9
0,4
1 R=10,8710
R=12
0,4 11
0,6 R=11,6
R=11,6 0,2 F 0,6
A R=11,6 E R=10,87 12
0,8 0,5
R=10,87 R=10,87 13
G 0,5
R=10,15 14
new 0,5
old R=2,25 15
0,4
H 0,5
R=2,25
0,6 16
23 R=2,175
R=2,25 0,6
0,4 17
R=2,175
R=1,8
I 0,6
R=1,74 18
0,4 0,4
R=2,175 0,5 R=2,175 19
R=1,8 J 0,6
4
0,5 R=1,74 20
R=1,74
0,2
R=1,74 21
K
0,8
R=1,68 22
B
Figure no. 2 Graphic representation of the decisional tree after the first step
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
On the basis of the exposed data, one can make a decision. We have to count value of
every line that leads to the initial decision. According to each stage, we count the hope for
earning (E), going backward.
Within this step, we have:
E(C) = 0,2 x 12000 + 0,8 x 11600 = 11680
E(D) = 0,5 x 12000 + 0,5 x 10875 = 11437,5
E(E) = 0,4 x 1125 + 0,6 x 10875 = 6975
E(F) = 0,4 x 11600 + 0,6 x 10875 = 11165
E(G) = 0,5 x 10875 + 0,5 x 10150 = 10512,5
E(H) = 0,5 x 2250 + 0,5 x 2175 = 2212,5
E(I) = 0,4 x 1800 + 0,6 x 1740 = 1764
E(J) = 0,4 x 2175 + 0,6 x 1740 = 1914
E(K) = 0,2 x 1740 + 0,8 x 1680 = 1689
After making calculations, we can remove some lines, taking into account maths hope.
Under these circumstances, in point 1 between E(C), E(D) and E(E) we choose E(C) as it has
the biggest value – 11680 and eliminate the other two. Applying similar procedures, we get a
simplified tree, as the one in the figure no. 3:
Figure no. 3 Graphic representation of the decisional tree after eliminations
Successively, we eliminate outperforming lines, until we get two situations from
which we have to choose the optimal one – as in figure no.4:
Figure no. 4. Identifying the optimal variant
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In conclusion, the decisional tree allows us establish the optimal decision; that is a
company has to make the investment and buy the new working equipment, as the calculated
earning hope shows clearly the superiority of the new machine against the old one, even
having it repaired.
The economic context oblige the investors be extremely prudent when thinking of
updating or developing, this fact makes the assisted decision be sustained by scientific bases
and mathematically modelled.
This work was supported by the project “Excellence academic routes in doctoral and
postdoctoral research - READ” co-funded from the European Social Fund through the
Development of Human Resources Operational Programme 2007-2013, contract no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137926.
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financiar, Editura Economică, București, 2003
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București, 1997
5. Victor Dragotă, coord. și colectivul, Abordări practice în finanțele firmei, Editura
Irecson, București, 2005
6. Peter Drucker, Despre decizie și eficacitate, Editura Meteor Press, București, 2007
7. Tatiana Gavrilă, Viorel Lefter, Managementul organizațiilor, Editura Economică,
București, 2007
8. Peter Druker, Managing for the future, Butterworth – Heinemann, Oxford, Marea
Britanie, 1994
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București, 2007
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LE RÔLE DES TECHNOLOGIES EN LIGNE POUR PROMOUVOIR LE
TOURISME RURAL
Paul Pașcu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Ștefan cel Mare” University of Suceava
Abstract: This communication aims to present an overview of the economic realities of the
rural sector, focusing on the elements that influence the promotion of Romanian rural
tourism. In our approach, we will focus on the importance of online technologies for house
holders that have limited resources compared to large tourism structures that are part of a
much more developed economic mechanism.
Keywords : tourism, online technologies, rural holders, tourism promotion, rural
development.
I. Introduction
La promotion et l‘intégration touristique rurale représentent un processus en cours
d‘application, qui vise le développement de tous les niveaux du tourisme national. Les
objectifs du développement et de l‘intégration du tourisme rural englobent le
perfectionnement de la préparation professionnelle, la professionnalisation de la qualité des
services et la protection de l‘environnement. Composante économique de grande importance,
ayant multiples possibilités, le tourisme roumain doit devenir une véritable locomotive pour
relancer l‘économie nationale.
La réussite du redressement touristique pourrait entraîner des effets positifs globaux
tels : des ressources supplémentaires, l‘équilibre de la balance financière, la création de
nouveaux emplois, l‘aménagement du territoire, la réhabilitation de l‘image internationale et
l‘arrêt du processus de marginalisation de la Roumanie lors de la dynamique mondiale. [1]
II. Les caractéristiques définitoires du tourisme rural roumain
La promotion du tourisme rural est influencée par le fait que les services offerts par
cette forme de tourisme présentent des caractéristiques différentes par rapport à d‘autres
services touristiques[2] :
Le facteur émotionnel est présent dans la décision d‘acheter un produit touristique.
Parmi les alternatives offertes, on va choisir le produit touristique rural qui a donné à
l‘acheteur la meilleure image et qui, à un certain moment, peut lui offrir les plus
grandes satisfactions;
La complexité des services touristiques ruraux – la complexité possède une
signification relative pour le tourisme rural, des produits touristiques ayant une
structure simple, fondée sur la tradition et la culture locales. En général, le tourisme
rural offre une gamme de services complémentaires beaucoup plus restreinte par
rapport à d‘autres formes de tourisme (récréation, traitement, culture etc.) ;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
La dépendance des services touristiques face aux services offerts par les entreprises
complémentaires. Ainsi, les services touristiques sont offerts aux consommateurs par
le biais des entreprises touristiques, mais la prestation proprement-dite est réalisée par
des entreprises complémentaires. Dans un paquet des vacances offert, le transport est
réalisé par une ou par deux entreprises spécialisées, employées par l‘entreprise
touristique de base, l‘hébergement peut se réaliser dans une ou plusieurs structures de
réception touristique, le repas pouvant être servi dans un ou plusieurs restaurants etc.
Dans ces conditions, les entreprises touristiques sont censées d‘envisager la qualité des
services offerts dans les entreprises complémentaires, voire l‘observation diachronique
de leur évolution économique et sociale ;
Les services touristiques sont offerts au consommateur soit directement, soit par le
biais des intermédiaires qui y jouent un rôle important, non seulement dans la
distribution, mais aussi dans la décision du consommateur qui veut acheter. Dans le
tourisme rural, le rôle des intermédiaires augmente, puisque, habituellement, les
prestataires sont des entreprises à dimension réduite, dépourvues de pouvoir propre de
distribution. C‘est justement pourquoi la décision du consommateur de produits
touristiques ruraux est directement dépendante de l‘image offerte par les
intermédiaires (les lignes de distribution) visant la qualité des services touristiques
ruraux, les consommateurs les considérant comme des experts.
Le caractère saisonnier du tourisme, en général, et du tourisme rural, également, est
déterminée par les facteurs environnementaux et sociaux et possède des intensités
différentes selon la destination touristique. Ainsi, si la promotion est réalisée en extra-
saison, par excellence, le prix et la distribution acquièrent des valeurs maximales
pendant la saison. En extra-saison, on réalise des travaux de réparation et de maintien
des structures et on projette les futurs produits touristiques.
III. La promotion et la distribution du produit touristique rural dans les pays de
l’Union Européenne
Dans les pays de l‘Union Européenne, la promotion du tourisme rural se réalise par
des moyens classiques de la manière suivante:
des supports publicitaires (des dépliants, des brochures, des catalogues, des cartes
etc.);
des objets publicitaires (des écussons, des médailles, des jouets, des cartes, etc.)
la présence aux foyers de tourisme ;
des offres envoyées par courriel électronique ;
les moyens médiatiques (TV, publications locales et nationales, radio etc.).
On utilise également des réseaux de promotions suivantes : bancaires (France,
Allemagne), territoriales et touristiques (France, Allemagne, Benelux), des clubs touristiques
(Allemagne, Angleterre).
En ce qui concerne la commercialisation du produit touristique rural dans les pays de
l‘Union Européenne, elle peut être analysée, d‘une part, comme l‘une des formes de
commercialisation au niveau de l‘UE et, d‘autre part, au niveau régional et local.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Dans la plupart des pays de l‘Union Européenne, la commercialisation des produits
touristiques ruraux est réalisée :
1. sur le plan interne par :
agences de réservation internationale (France) ;
agences de réservation nationale (France, Espagne, Portugal) ;
agences de réservation régionale (certains lands allemands, Espagne, Italie) ;
agences de réservation départementale / locale (France, Grèce) ;
vente directe (tous les pays de l‘UE).
2. sur le plan externe par :
des opérateurs touristiques de voyage (Allemagne, France, Angleterre) ;
des structures touristiques territoriales (Allemagne, France, Benelux, Angleterre) ;
des mairies, des conseils locaux (France, Italie).
IV. Stratégies de promotion en ligne
Les agences de tourisme et les opérateurs de tourisme de Roumanie ont compris que,
pour une meilleure information des clients actuels et potentiels, le Web est un instrument qui
commence être de plus en plus à la disposition des touristes.
Sur le marché touristique en ligne, il y a deux catégories d‘opérateurs: les acheteurs /
les touristes / les agences de tourisme et les vendeurs de services touristiques. Dans cette
vision, il n‘est pas important si le client est le consommateur final, un intermédiaire ou une
organisation.
Entre les deux catégories est placé le marché électronique qui offre les services
suivants: recherche, valorisation, logique, payement, authentification (fig.1) [3].
1 2 3 A Acheteurs
marché électronique
services
recherche valorisatio logique payement authentificatio
n n
1 2 3 V Vendeurs
Fig. 1. Le marché touristique en ligne
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
La promotion en ligne apporte une série d‘avantages incontestables par rapport aux
formes traditionnelles de commerce, ce qui explique le succès et l‘intérêt persistants depuis le
début. Du point de vue du touriste, les avantages concernent :
- le temps : le touriste peut visiter plusieurs offres / paquets touristiques pendant une très
courte période de temps (moins que le temps exigé par la présence physique dans une
agence de tourisme) ;
- la disponibilité : les offres et les locations virtuelles sont disponibles presque 24/24
heures, 365 jours par an ;
- l‘internationalisation : on peut faire une réservation et comparer des offres à
l‘étranger ;
- la liberté du choix : grâce au grand nombre d‘offres et de locations virtuelles que le
touriste peut visiter, il va avoir la possibilité de choisir un paquet touristique selon un
grand nombre d‘options (prix, location, conditions d‘accès et de hébergement, saison,
etc.) ;
Pour les opérateurs touristiques, la présence en ligne comporte les avantages suivants:
- l‘augmentation significative de la vitesse de communication, spécialement pour les
communications internationales : plusieurs entreprises peuvent établir une plateforme
de collaboration à travers laquelle elles puissent concevoir et développer ensemble
différents paquets touristiques ; la communication par téléphone ou télécopie
marquerait un ralenti malheureux pour ces processus de conception ou de
développement ;
- la réduction des couts : par exemple, en utilisant le courriel électronique, on réduit les
couts avec la poste ou la messagerie traditionnelle et les couts visant le mouvement
des papiers
- la consolidation des relations avec les fournisseurs et les clients : par un web site, les
clients / les touristes de l‘entreprise sont au courant avec les nouveautés et les services,
on leur offre un support informatif pour les nouveaux paquets touristiques achetés,
ayant la possibilité d‘offrir des suggestions pour les éventuelles améliorations des
produits, des services, etc. ; il y a des sites où le consommateur peut personnaliser le
paquet choisi selon les attentes individuelles ; les fournisseurs peuvent y présenter
aussi les nouvelles visant leur domaine ;
- l‘existence d‘une voie rapide et commode pour fournir les informations sur
l‘entreprise : site Internet, intranet et extranet ;
- les canaux alternatifs pour la vente des paquets touristiques : le déroulement des
affaires par le biais d‘un tel site.
V. Conclusions
Beaucoup de pays européens utilisent l‘Internet pour promouvoir le tourisme rural. Par
l‘amélioration de l‘échange des informations sur les sites spécialisés, on essaye de fidéliser les
touristes, en mettant à leur disposition des informations utiles pour ceux qui se trouvent sur le
point de partir en vacances, de même que des photos pour attirer l‘attention ou pour
encourager les touristes de placer sur les sites des photos prises dans les vacances, d‘initier
des blogs sur les sites de tourisme local.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Il faut souligner l‘idée selon laquelle la qualité des services touristiques ruraux et de
l‘activité de projection d‘une image des destinations touristiques joue un rôle fondamental
pour refléter la réalité, pour attirer des offres nationales et internationales. Le tourisme rural
représente l‘une des formes de tourisme qui peuvent placer la Roumanie dans une compétition
réelle avec tout autre pays européen.
Bibliographie:
[1] Nistorescu P., Ghereş coord., M., Turismul rural, Editura C.H. Beck, 2010
[2] Neacsu N., Glăvan V., Geografia şi economia turismului, Editura
ProUniversitarea, 2012
[3] Tiliute D., Comerţ Electronic, Note de curs, 2013
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STUDY RELATED TO THE ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ANALYSIS OF
PRODUCTION UNITS (CASE STUDY)
Elena Gîndu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, Aurel Chiran, Prof., PhD, University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași
Abstract: The performed study was based on the data and information of the official
specialized documents of the company S.C. Multiagra S.R.L. Vlasinesti, located in Vlasinesti,
in Botosani district. The company manages a crop-livestock mixed farming system and owns
an agricultural area of 1500 hectares.The profit and loss account measures the farm
performance within the fiscal year and comprises the net turnover, the incomes, the expenses
and the profit of the fiscal year.The assessment of the company‘s performance was performed
on the following indicators: the gross commercial margin, the turnover, the yearly production
and the added value.The turnover comprises the value of the sold production and the
subsidies.The added value must present a growth index bigger than the production index,
with a positive evolution.The gross profit of the fiscal year reflects briefly the efficiency of
the whole activity performed during the fiscal year, consisting of the profit of the fiscal year
and the result of exploitation.The rates of return have been improved to the preceding fiscal
year, but with values under the minimum recommended level. The best values have been
obtained in the gross and net economic return, but they were influenced by the high costs of
the financial indebtedness.
Keywords :agriculture, strategies, efficiency
INTRODUCTION
The strategy for improving the agricultural production in a certain area is based on the
economic and financial analysis of the agricultural sector. It must take into consideration the
adoption of measures to lead firstly to the increase of the agricultural production and secondly
to its efficiency by attracting European funds.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The researches were performed in Botoșani district. This district has an agricultural
area of 392788 hectares, out of which the arable area represents a proportion of 76,1 %. The
case study was performed at the company S.C. MULTIAGRA Vlăsinești S.R.L. in Botoșani
district, which deals with the producing, processing and sale of the agricultural production.
The researches aim consists to study the main economic and financial indicators of S.C.
MULTIAGRA Vlăsinești S.R.L. and to recommend some strategies for improving the
agricultural production by attracting European funds. Briefly, the authors applied several
methods to achieve the researches aim and objectives, such as: the analysis of specific
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indicators, the comparison, the structural analysis and the evolution progress, the economic
analysis, etc. The researches aimed the 2006-2012 period.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
By analysing the evolution of the total incomes and turnover during the whole studied
period, the authors observed an obvious economic growth registered in the period after the
implementation of the European funds and also the improvement of the exploitation
conditions.They observed increasing values of the rates of return during 2009-2012 period as
compared to 2007, representing the year of reference, excepting the year 2010, which was
characterized by a weak economic and financial performance, due to the negative influence of
climatic conditions (extreme drought and very high temperatures). The efficiency of the
assets and liabilities and the capacity of paying the financial obligations were improved in the
studied period. The sudden changes for the better were insignificant in 2009-2012 period, but
with a significant increase of indicators in the year 2011 and even more in 2012. The
available cash-flow reached a positive value in 2011, by decreasing the variation of the
financial debts and the increasing of the operating cash-flow which was generated by the net
result put down to the increase of the sinking expenses.Moreover, the ascending turnover of
8.221.660 lei in 2012 proves an efficient use of the working capital, which presented also an
increase (1.925.299 lei in 2012). The company disposed of a surplus of circulating assets as
compared to the current debts, for getting higher incomes by putting up for sale of the
products from exploitation. All these elements certify the improving possibilities of the
agrivultural production by attracting and using of the European funds.
The assessment of the company‘s performance was performed on the following
indicators: the gross commercial margin, the turnover, the yearly production and the added
value. The turnover must reach a proportion of 85 % of the incomes by exploitation and 75
% of the total incomes, within a normal situation of the company‘s activity. The turnover
reached a level of 69,41 % of the incomes of exploitation in 2007 and it has been improved to
76,09 % in 2009, but it decreased to 61,55 % in 2012. The incomes of exploitation were
influenced by the production in stock, as well as by the incomes from the subsidies for
investments (table 1):
Table 1
Evolution of the turnover, the sold production and the incomes of the company
S.C. MULTIAGRA S.R.L. Vlăsineşti in Botoşani district
Studied period
Indicators U.M.
2007 2009 2012
Turnover ths. lei 1675,0 2453,8 3051,0
Incomes from the subsidies of exploitation ths. lei 500,3 1035,3 1171,4
Sold production ths. lei 1174,7 1866,0 1879,6
Growth index of the turnover %/2007 100,0 146,5 182,1
Growth index of the sold production %/2007 100,0 158,8 160,0
Incomes from exploitation ths. lei 2413,1 3224,6 4957,3
Proportion of the turnover in the incomes of exploitation % 69,4 76,1 61,54
Total incomes ths. lei 2413,4 3224,6 4965,1
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Proportion of the turnover in the total incomes % 69,4 76,1 61,45
Source : Processed data by the official specialized documents of S.C. MULTIAGRA
S.R.L. Vlăsinești in Botoșani district
The proportion of the turnover within the total incomes was similar to the turnover
calculated by reporting to the incomes of exploitation, due to the unsubstantially of the
financial incomes within the total incomes.The 2007-2012 period is situated in the context of
big changes in the national economy and apparition of a global economic crisis, as well as of
the economic recession.
The authors observed an ascent of the registered expenses, both the expenses of
exploitation and the financial expenses due to an ascending evolution of the company‘s
activity, the doubling of incomes and of the exploitation for increasing of fixed capital with
the effort of implementing the developing and investments projects by accesing European
funds, as well as credits (table 2):
Table 2
Evolution of expenses and incomes from exploitation in the 2007-2012 period
Studied period
Indicators
2007 2009 2010 2011 2012
Expenses of exploitation – ths. lei 2.238,7 2.597,1 3.415,5 4.385,2 4.462,6
Incomes from exploitation – ths. lei 2.413,1 3.224,6 3.959,1 5.009,6 4.957,3
Expenses of exploitation at 1000 lei
927,7 805,4 862,7 875,4 900,2
incomes from exploitation - lei
Source: Processed data by the official specialized documents of S.C. MULTIAGRA
S.R.L. Vlăsinești in Botoșani district
The financial effort deposed to realize the investments, was visible in the evolution of
financial expenses which represented about 95-100 % expenses for paying interests and
increased in the total expenses from a proportion of 4,8 % in 2007 to 13,1 % in 2010, but
diminished to 9,9 % in 2012. The production of the fiscal year presented an ascending
tendency, having a maximum value in 2011 (table 3).
The added value must present an growth index higher than the growth index of the
production of the fiscal year and a positive evolution (table 4).
Table 3
Evolution of the production of the fiscal year at S.C. MULTIAGRA S.R.L.
Vlăsinești in Botoșani district, in 2007-2012 period
Studied period
Indicators
2007 2009 2010 2011 2012
Sold production – thousands lei 1.174,7 1.418,3 1.866,0 2.874,7 1.879,6
Production in stock – thousands lei 525,4 666,8 1.019,7 863,1 1.070,0
Production of the fiscal year-ths. lei 1.700,1 2.085,1 2.885,7 3.737,8 2.949,6
Growth index of the sold prod..- % 100,0 120,7 131,6 154,1 100,7
Growth index of the prod. in stock - % 100,0 126,9 152,9 84,64 104,9
Growth index of the prod.of the fiscal year % 100,0 122,6 138,4 129,53 102,2
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Source: Processed data by the official specialized documents of S.C. MULTIAGRA
S.R.L. Vlăsinești in Botoșani district
Table 4
Evolution of the added value and of the gross profit from exploitation in 2007-
2012
Studied period
Indicators 2007
2009 2010 2011 2012
Production of the fiscal year – ths. lei 1700 2085 2886 3738 2950
Added value – thousands lei 177 415 647 1234 155
Growth index of thousands added value - % 1947 234 156 191 13
Gross surplus from exploitation - ths. lei 422 1059 1110 1213 697
Source : Processed data by the official specialized documents of S.C. MULTIAGRA
S.R.L. Vlăsinești in Botoșani district
The added value registered an oscillating tendency from a year to another in 2007-
2012 period, being directly influenced by the value of the production of the fiscal year and by
the different volume of expenses for obtaining this production.
The indicator increased with 234 % in the year 2009 as compared to 2007, which
represents the year of reference, and later in 2010 (156 %) and in 2011 (191 %). The added
value was still positive in 2012, but lower than in the previous years, because of a smaller
production and a bigger volume of intermediary consumptions. The value of the indicator ―the
added value per employee‖ decreased in 2012, reaching the value of 4.072 lei, which was
smaller than the value of 5.536 lei reached in 2007, both being very small as compared to
those from the years 2010 (23.963 lei) and 2011 (34.273 lei).Some indicators of
profitableness are mentioned in the table 5:
Table 5
Evolution of the rates of return at S.C. MULTIAGRA S.R.L.Vlăsinești in 2007-
2012
2 2 2 2 2
Indicators 007 009 010 011 012
3 1 1 2 0
Rate of the economic profitableness .67 4,59 ,00 ,25 ,33
2 4 3 3 2
Rate of the economic gross profitableness 5,17 3,15 8,86 2,79 2,86
6 2 7 9 8
Rate of the economic net profitableness ,97 4,23 ,08 ,21 ,44
9 2 1 6 0
Rate of the financial profitableness ,03 9,31 ,97 ,10 ,32
Source: Processed data by the official specialized documents of S.C. MULTIAGRA
S.R.L. Vlăsinești in Botoșani district
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a) the rate of the economic profitableness, which represents the gross pay of the
invested capitals and the result must be at the minimum level of efficiency,
respectively, the average rate of the interest (5-6 %);
b) the rate of the economic gross profitableness, which presents how much of the
gross surplus from exploitation corresponds to one unit of the invested capital; the
recommended optimal value must be of 25 %;
c) the rate of the economic net profitableness, which expresses how much of the
gross profit from exploitation corresponds to one unit of invested capital, within
the activity of exploitation; the results must be at least at the level of the average
rate of the interest;
d) the rate of the financial profitableness, which measures the company‘s capacity
to obtain profit based on own capitals.
The rates of profitableness at the end of the year 2011 were improved as compared to
the previous year, but they were under the minimum level recommended. The rates of
profitableness decreased in 2012. The best values were obtained on the net and gross
profitableness, due to the exploitation activity which created an added value, but the net profit
decreased due to the financial deficit caused by the high costs of the financial indebtedness.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The authors calculated the indicators of cash, solvability, bookkeeping and
profitablenes, which represent the main categories of indicators to put a
comprehensive diagnosis of the studied company‘s activity, based on the
accounting balance and the profit and loss account. The overall analysis of the
company‘s capacity to face the total debts, represented by the solvability indicator,
presented an ascending tendency, approaching by the value of the optimal
recommended coefficient: 2.
2. The solvability of a company depends both on the available assets and the volume
of debts, which are evaluated by the indicators of indebteness. The accounting
indicators and the profitableness indicators revealed that a small capacity of
funding resources was mobilized or of creating bigger resources out of the new
created value (profit) in the preadhesion period to the European Union. But the
situation change in good during the 2009-2012 period.
3. The indicators of profitableness were situated under the optimal level and they
presented a decreasing tendency, with a negative direct effect, both in the process
of ensuring the own funding sources and in attracting foreign funding sources.
4. The rotation speed of the circulating assets was very small in 2007: a complete
rotation was done at 329 days, representing a little bit more than a rotation in a
fiscal year; this fact reveals a low efficiency of the circulating assets used in
getting incomes;
5. The current analysis should be completed with informations concerning the new
Common Agricultural Policy and its effects on P.N.D.R. and on the rural
development policies.
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REFERENCES
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București.
2. Alexandri Cecilia and colab., 2004 – Tratat de economia agriculturii. Editura Expert,
București.
3. Antonescu D., 2003 – Dezvoltarea regională în România. Editura Oscar Print, București.
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agriculturii județului Botoșani după anul 1990. Lucrări șt. U.S.A.M.V. Iași,
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teoretică și practică. Editura CERES, București.
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producției agricole din județul Botoșani prin atragerea fondurilor structurale
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U.S.A.M.V. Iași, vol. 56, seria Agronomie.
12. Goșa V., 2000 – Sisteme de finanțare a agriculturii. Editura Mirton, Timișoara.
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CERES, București.
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AN APPLICATION OF THE ELECTRE METHOD FOR THE CHOICE OF
TRAVEL INSURANCES
Mariana Nagy, Prof., PhD, ”Aurel Vlaicu” University of Arad, Valentin Burcă,
PhD Student, West University of Timișoara
Abstract: In the last decades, mathematical models are used for solving various decisional
situations. Specific software applications are developed in order to implement decisional
models. The paper presents the use of Electre method for supporting the choice of a travel
insurance. The problem is a typical multicriterial decision problem and is solved through a
specific implementation of the ―Electre‖ software developed at ―Aurel Vlaicu‖ University
from Arad. The case study is based on the personalized choice of a flight insurance and
proofs the utility of the software in real situations.
Keywords: Multicriterial decision, Electre method, Travel insurance.
1. Introduction
Choosing the best solution to a decision problem is not always at the tip of the fingers
and has to be scientifically proved. Decision theory refers to mathematical models that help
decision maker to solve complex problems involving several criteria (Nagy, Vizental, Ghazal
& Lile, 2006). Multiattribute decision making refers to decision making in the presence of
various elements, which are usually contradictory.
Multiattribute decision problems are very different, depending on the situation
generating the decision. They present some common features, of which the most important
are: alternatives, multiple attributes, the conflict between attributes, incompatibility of the
attributes, criteria, weights of criteria and the structure of the decision matrix. (Gass, 1985)
Among the common models in practice, we chose the particular case of multiattribute
decision that can be solved by using the ―Electre‖ model. The software application made
within the Department of Mathematics and Computer Sciences at ―Aurel Vlaicu" University
of Arad bears with a high level of generality, thus it can be adapted to solve various decision
problems of real life. The case study in this paper is taken from the field of life insurance
while the decision maker is the client of a flight insurance.
2. The general characteristics of flight insurances
Life insurances were developed in the last decades and currently are determined by the
various needs of customers. Insurance companies offer a wide range of life insurance
products, each covering different risks and bearing different names.
Travel insurance policy provides coverage for specific events occurring on various
travels, especially by air, for example: loss of baggage, trip cancellation, illness or injury,
medical assistance. Depending on the flight, company, period, purpose of travel or
destination, the flight insurance may cover the following risks: cancellation or trip
interruption; loss, theft or damage of luggage; delayed luggage; missed take-off; missed
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connection; trip delay; emergency medical expenses; repatriation in case of illness or
accident; repatriation in case of death; death in accident; disability from and accident; legal
expenses, etc.
Among the factors to take into account by the beneficiary of insurance are: the price of
insurance; assured sum; the expected services; the prestige and the confidence of the insurer;
validity of the policy in time; area of the validity - Europe, all over the world, excepted
countries, etc.; maximum age for completion of insurance; other restrictive conditions.
Typically, each flight company works with one or more insurance companies.
Nowadays, when the air transportation is a whole industry focused on profit where the
"refutes" can‘t be excluded, the quality of insurances offered to potential customers is
important. Moreover, modern man has already the culture of insurance - life, car, house, field
crops, etc, thus insurance while traveling by plane should be part of the offer of any insurer.
Under these conditions, a comparison between different types of insurance is very important.
(www.asigura.ro)
3. The model
ELECTRE method (Elimination et Choix Traduisant la Réalité), proposed by Bertrand
Roy in 1967, is a useful tool for optimizing the decisions in conditions of certainty. Electre
method can be used in typical situation when there are a certain number of alternatives /
action variants to reach the goal V i (i=1, m), the evaluation being performed on the basis of a
number of criteria C j (j=1,n) while comparing the alternatives two by two. (Ionescu, Cazan
& Negruşa, 2001).
Step 1
For the target to achieved, the decision maker will establish:
- the Variants – the Alternatives or possible action courses V i (i=1, m);
- the Criteria – the attributes to be considered while evaluating the alternatives C j (j=1,
n);
- the type of evaluation – quantitative or qualitative.
Step2
Each Alternative is evaluated according to the Criteria and the qualifiers are used to
build the decision matrix.
C1 C2 … Cn
V1 G VG ... B
V 2 VB B ... S
.... ... ... ... ...
B G ... S
M= V m
Step 3
A linear numeric scale is used for each criteria and the qualifiers in the matrix are
replaced with the corresponding values vij.
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C1 C2 … Cn
V1 v11 v12 ... v1n
V 2 v 21 v 22 ... v 2 n
.... ... ... ... ...
v
M1 =
V m m1 v m 2 ... v mn
Step 4
The importance of each Criterion is given by a numeric value that will be used to
weighting the criteria. The sum of all weights must be 1 or 100 (depending on the scale)
K j = (K 1 K2 … … K n ), (j=1, n)
Step 5
The values in the matrix M 1 are multiplied by the coefficients Kj , obtaining the
homogenous matrix M 2 = (N ij ) i=1,n; j=1,m, cu N ij =K j *v ij
C1 C2 … Cn
V1 N 11 N 12 ... N 1n
V 2 N 21 N 22 ... N 2 n
.... ... ... ... ...
N
M2 =
V m m 1 N m 2 ... N mn
Ki (K 1 K2 … Kn )
Step 6
The matrix of concordance and the matrix of discordance are computed. The
concordance matrix is (m,m) and its elements Ci,j express the superiority of the Alternative ―i‖
with respect to Alternative ―j‖.
m
K
conc1
J
ij
K
j 1
j
c = , where:
m
K
conc1
j
- - the sum of the Kj for which the elements corresponding to Vi (in the
homogenous matrix M2) are greater or equal to the elements corresponding to Vj .
m
K
j 1
j
- - the sum of Kj (1 or 100).
The discordance matrix is (m,m) too, being computed as:
max( d )
d ij = hm , where:
- h m - the difference between the highest and lowest score in the homogenous
matrix M2.
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- max( d ) – is the maximum of the scores corresponding to Vi and Vj for the same
criteria.
Step 7
The final ranking for the Alternatives is established according to a surclass relation
determined by the differences:
if c ij - d ij > c ji - d ji then Alternative V i is a better decision better then Alternative
Vj.
4. Using the “Electre” software for solving the model
Lets‘ consider a potential client for a flight insurance, age between 30 and 40,
traveling 4 - 7 times a year using international flights, for business or pleasure, having a
family and income slightly over the media. The data source are the common insurance
contracts available on the Romanian market.
Figure 1 – The main menu of the application
In order to solve the problem, we properly adapted the ―Electre‖ application designed
at the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at ―Aurel Vlaicu‖ University from
Arad. Figure 1 presents the main menu that controls all the actions of the program. (Nagy &
Varlan, 2001)
4.1. The input data
Considering the available flight insurances offered by various companies
independently or in packages, an analysis revealed the main criteria suitable for the
comparison of the products. The analysis included products offered by: AIG, Tarom and AIG,
Vola and AIG, eSky, CityInsurance, WizzAir, Astra, Allianz-Tiriac.
(www.portaldeasigurari.ro)
The Alternatives are the products offered by most of the companies. The Alternatives
(Vi) are denoted in the program as Ai:
- A1 – International travel insurance
- A2 – Flight insurance
- A3 – Package of flight insurance - basic
- A4 – Package of flight insurance – plus
- A5 – Package of flight insurance - extra
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The common clauses found in all the contracts are used for applying a simplified
model. The Criteria (Ci) are denoted in the program as Xi. The considered criteria are:
- X1 – Price of the contract (Ron)
- X2 – Insurance period – number of the days before/after the flight
- X3 – The amount of insurance (Ron)
- X4 – Compensation for luggage delay – number of days in delay
- X5 – Loss of theft of luggage
- X6 – Illness or accident
- X7 – Covering of the medical expenses – full or partly, in Schengen countries or
allover the world
- X8 – Death
- X9 – Repatriation in case of illness or death
- X10 – The maximum age of the insured person.
The first four criteria are quantitative, expressed by numbers, while the rest are
qualitative being described in common language. X1 is a criterion ―best if minim‖ and the rest
are ―best if maxim‖ – the advantage of the client is to pay as less as possible for as much
benefits as possible.
For establishing the weights – the importance of each criterion, we used information
available from insurance companies, travelers, posted on the Internet or written in the
insurance contracts. We considered the ―standard traveler‖ for this example: male, age 30 –
40 that flights 4-7 times a year for business or pleasure, mostly in Europe, has 2 children and
income slightly above media. For such a subject, important are the price, the insured amount,
compensation for the lost or delay of language. Due to his youth and specific way of thinking,
less important are the criteria connected to medical expenses, death or repatriation.
The weights (Ki) are denoted in the program with Ci. The result of the evaluation
(Ioan & Ioan, 2011) give the following values:
- C1 – 25%
- C2 – 15%
- C3 – 10%
- C4 – 15%
- C5 – 15%
- C6 – 8%
- C7 – 1%
- C8 – 0%
- C9 – 0%
- C10 – 2%
4.2. The dialog for data input in the application
The data input consists of 4 steps: dimensioning the structures, input of the
preliminary data of the problem, evaluating the qualitative criteria and data validation. (Nagy
& Miranda, 2012)
Using the dialog in Figure 2, the program receives the following data:
- the number of possible Alternatives for decision
- the total number of criteria considered
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- the number of quantitative (numeric) criteria. These have to be introduced first.
Figure 2 – Dimensioning the model
After introducing the dimension for the problem – thus for the all the matrix involved,
the specific data will be typed in the tables (Figure 3).
Figure 3 – Input of the specific data
For the qualitative criteria, a quantitative estimation must be done, using a linear scale
between 0 and 1. A similar dialog is used (Figure 4).
Figure 4 – The input matrix, after the numeric evaluation of the qualitative criteria
At this step, data validation consists of verifying the sum of the coefficients – the total
of weights must be 1 (Figure5).
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Figure 5 - Message for valid data
4.3. Solving the model
The software application is based on the theoretic considerations presented in the
previous chapter. However this works transparently for the user, at request the intermediary
steps can be viewed (Figure 6).
Intermediate matrix computed by the program can be visualized as presented in Figure
7. The result matrix is presented in Figure 8 while the result is presented in Figure 9.
Figure 6 – The step by step menu
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Figure 7 – Intermediate matrix (step by step view)
Figure 8– The matrix of results
Figure 9 – The result
5. Conclusions, optimization and further developments
The top of preferences for the considered case study is: A5, A3, A4, A2, A1.
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The result in Figure 9 is understood like this: a potential ―standard‖ client, chosen for
the problem, considering the criteria and the adequate weights, should choose alternative A5
and buy a ―Package of flight insurance – extra‖. The fewest benefits are offered by the
product named ―International travel insurance‖.
For this case, optimizing the decision means to reload new data in the application –
this facility gives a strong didactic approach too (Miranda & Nagy, 2011). For instance, the
client may have different preferences that leads to a different decisional situation. Or, the
client may be an older person with higher investment power, giving more importance to the
criteria such as maximum age, medical or death insurance. Modifying the weights, the
number of criteria or other input data, by repeatedly using the program, the results are for sure
different and the client will choose the insurance that best fits his needs.
The paper outlines the importance of using the computer instruments for assisting the
decision process and proves the flexibility of the ―Electre‖ application that can be easily
adapted to any decisional situation. The program is in a continuous improvement process,
being already integrated in a decisional software package, mainly for didactical use within
―Aurel Vlaicu‖ University from Arad.
References
[1] Gass S.I. Decision-Making Models and Algorithms: A First Course, John Willy
eds., New York; 1985.
[2] Ioan C.A., Ioan G. A Method of Choice of the Importance Coefficients in the
Electre Method, J Accounting and Management, 2011, Volume 1, no.2.
[3] Ionescu Gh., Cazan E, Negrusa A. Modelarea si optimizarea deciziilor
manageriale, Tribuna Economică eds., Bucuresti; 2001.
[4] Miranda J, Nagy M. A Case of Cooperation in the European OR Education, Eu J
Eng Educ, 2011, Volume 36 (6), p.571-583.
[5] Nagy M, Varlan Gh. A Didacic Software for Studying Electre Model by Examples,
Bul.PAMM, 2001, (BAM–1790), p.135-142.
[6] Nagy M, Miranda J. Computer Application for Interactive Teaching of Decision
Making Methods, AWERProcedia Information Technology & Computer Science.
2013; [Online]. (WCIT-2012), University of Barcelona, p.1584-1589
[7] Nagy M., Vizental M., Ghazal C., Lile R., A short overview on the multiattribut
decision-making methods, Debreceni Műszaki Közlemények, Debrecen, 2006/3,
p.25-38, 2006
[8] http://www.asigura.ro/asigurari-de-viata/ (available 21.04.2013)
[9] http://www.portaldeasigurari.ro/asigurari/asigurare_viata.php/ (available
17.05.2013)
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GENERIC COMPANY STRATEGIES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
Roxana Ştefănescu, Prof., PhD, ”Spiru Haret” University
Abstract: The paper approaches the problems of the diversified companies strategies
correlated with their investment implications.
In the first part methods of analysis of the strategies of the most famous diversified companies
and namely: the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix, General Electric (GE) matrix and
Arthur D. Little (ADL) matrix, are briefly exhibited.
The central part of the paper includes a detailed analysis of the key investment aspects that
are presumed by the strategies established based on the 3 analyzed models.
Whereas the internal and external conditions differ from one company to the other and also
they change in time, the process of wording the strategy of a company is in continuous
development.
Keywords: BCG matrix, GE matrix, ADL matrix, investment implications, strategies
Introduction
Wording the strategy of a company consists of choosing among the multiple possible
development direction alternatives of the company, of a variant to correspond to the specific
conditions of the company, in order to achieve the strategic objectives.
Depending on the size of the company, the managerial level at which the strategy is
worded, there are different reasons, methods, and various models of elaborating the strategy
of a company.
1. Technique of Analyzing the Strategy of the Diversified Companies
The most known methods of evaluation of the strategy of a company with diversified
business are those based on a bidimensional graphic representation of a matrix, of the
portfolio of business of the company. The matrix is built using two relevant variables from the
strategic viewpoint. The relevant variables considered most frequently are the growth rate of
the field of activity, the market share, and the attractiveness on long term of the field , the
competitive strengths, the stage of evolution of the product/market. Due to their simplicity,
the bidimensional matrices methods of the portfolio are a practical and important tool in
evaluating the strategy of the portfolio.
Among the most frequently used models are Boston Consulting - Group (BCG)model,
General Electric (GE) model and Arthur D. Little (ADL) model.
1.1. Boston Consulting - Group (BCG) Matrix
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The most frequently used model1, was elaborated by the managerial consulting group
Boston-Consulting- Group, and consists of a matrix formed by four quadrants. The matrix is
formed using on the y-coordinate the growth rate of the field and on the x-coordinate relative
market share. Each business within the portfolio is represented by a circle within the matrix,
the size of the circle being directly proportional with the weigh of the turnover of the unit in
the total figure of the corporation turnover.
As concerns the growth rate of the field, the matrix shows a center line which
separates the „high‖ quadrant of the „low‖ quadrant. In the „high‖ quadrant those turnovers
are located that have a faster increase rhythm than the global rhythm of the economy and in
the „low‖ quadrant those businesses are placed which have a lower rhythm of increase than
the rhythm of the economy as a whole.
As concerns the variable in the x-coordinate „relative market share‖ this is defined as
the ratio between the market share of the business analyzed and the market share of the largest
competitor company in the field. And this variable divides the matrix in two columns „high‖
and „low‘, the separating line being stable at the value 1. Under these conditions, the circles in
the two left vertical quadrants represent the strong businesses, unlike those of the two right
quadrants, which represent the businesses that go bad.
1.2. General Electric (GE) Matrix
This model has been elaborated in cooperation with the consulting office McKinsey
and Comp. It defines a matrix of the portfolio with nine cells, having on the x-coordinate the
competitive position of the business and on the y-coordinate the attractiveness on long term of
the field. The variable „attractiveness of the field‖ is defined by a series of factors such as:
market size, market growth rate, projected profitability of the field, competitive intensity, the
technological and capital needs, opportunities and threats of the environment.
The second variable, the competitive position is also determined by a series of factors
and namely: the relative market share, the capability of the company to defeat and overrun the
competitors as concerns costs and quality of products, quality of management, marketing and
distribution network, efficiency of the production technology. Considering the two variables
determined thus, each business is then positioned in a matrix, as a circle proportional with the
size of the business, inside which the circular sector proportional with the market share of the
business is represented..
1.3. Arthur D.Little (ADL) Matrix
The strategic consulting group Arthur D. Little proposes a model of strategic analysis
structured on matrix, similar with the models showed previously and that positions various
activities of the company based on the following two variables:
- Degree of maturity of the field of activity of the company
- Competitive position of the company in the field of activity .
Considering the first criterion, the field of activity of a company may pass by four
phases, and namely: starting, growth, maturity and decline. The identification of the phase
1
Bruce D.Henderson ― The Experience Curve .The Growth Share Matrix of the Product Portfolio‖, Boston 1973
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where the field of activity is existing, based on an analysis of the strategic, financial and
organizing characteristics of the activities.
The financial needs for investments of the companies are more accentuated in the
starting and growth phase, while from the competitive viewpoint, where this is dominant,
powerful or favorable company may self finance, which is not happening in the most
unfavorable cases of the competitive position (especially in a marginal position). As
consequence in these cases the risks of activity are high.In case of the other types of activities
existing at the maturity or in decline, the investment efforts are lower and hence the financial
needs also. The same thing may be said about the risk the activity is confronted. .
The competitive position is the one that dictates the intensity and the amplitude of the
investment effort that follow to be made. Thus, the dominant and powerful position involves
an intense strategy on all the segments of the market, unlike the activities on lower or
marginal position that will involve market shares (niche) only.
2. Implications of the investment decision the portfolio strategy
A strategic problem which is especially important is represented by the decisions of
investments in various business components of the portfolio. These decisions have a key role
because they foreshadow practically the evolvement of each business, as well as of the
portfolio as a whole.
The investment recommendations in case of the analyzed businesses by the prism of
the Boston Consulting Group model targets the businesses in each quadrant of the matrix.
Thus, for the „question mark ― businesses , the needs of liquidity for investments are
high due to the fast increase, as well as of the development of products, while they generate
too little liquidity. The strategy at the corporation level will decide in case of each business, if
it worth to invest the capital of the corporation to support the needs of such a business.
In case of businesses that are framing in „stars‖ quadrant, the recommended strategy
consists of a substantial investment, in order to satisfy the surface, production dedicated
buildings and the working capital extension needs of these companies. There is also a trend
so that they alone to generate the funds needed to the development due to their high
competitive function.
From this viewpoint, the „star‖ type businesses are divided in two categories and
namely: those which generate enough liquidity to satisfy the investment needs or the second
category, that needs infusions of investments from the corporation in order to be able to
provide fast increase and high performance. Hence, certain „star‖ businesses succeed to not
appeal to the mother company for investment needs, while the young ―stars‖ need often
infusions of liquidity from the mother corportion, additionally to those they are able to
generate themselves.
The third categories of businesses, ―milk cow‖ type, generate liquidities over the
investment and growth needs. Although they are not so attractive from the growth viewpoint,
they are extremely useful for the corporation because they generate liquidities for new
acquisition achievements.
They are those which facilitate investments in young „stars‖ and in „question marks‖.
It is necessary that they preserve the position on the market in order to be able to provide
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funds for the investments in the other businesses. In case they do not produce enough, these
businesses may be liquidated.
As concerns the last category of business in the quadrant „dogs‖, they cannot even
generate enough liquidity to keep a satisfying position on the market. Due their low
competitiveness it is recommended for the corporation to give up to these businesses.
This model does not always offer the solution for optimizing investments; thus to
invest in a „star‖ is not mandatory more profitable than to invest in a business in the quadrant
„cow milk‖. The model also does not offer answers to the question- a „question mark‖
business – is potential winner or may become a‖dog‖ type business?
A company, may make also strategic mistakes of the kind of over investing in a certain
„milk cow‖ type buasiness, or of under investing in a „question mark‖ tyope business so that
this instead of developing towards „star‖ transforms into a „dog‖ type business. Another
error as concerns the strategic investments could consists in investing small amounts towards
„question marks‖ instead of concentrate substantial investments on the most promising
„question marks‖ in order to increase the chances to transform them in „stars‘.
The most important contribution of Boston Consulting Group model consists of
underlining the role of investments characteristics of the various business types of the
portfolio and upon the method where financial resources may be allotted to one or another of
the portfolio businesses in order to optimize the competitiveness of the entire corporation and
in order to optimize its strategic position on long term.
In the context of this model, a good strategy consists of using liquidities in excess
generated by the „milk cow‖ business category in order to finance the increase of the market
share of the young „stars‘ incapable of their own financing to become „stars‖. If this strategy
has success and they manage to self finance, as their market matures, they become „milk
cow‖ category businesses.
This is the success trajectory of a business, but there are non desired trajectories of the
businesses. One of these is the one when the position of a „star‖ degenerates in time towards a
„question mark‖ business, and further in a „dog‖ type business or another case when a
business in „milk cow‖ quadrant looses the leader position of the market arriving to the point
of becoming „dog‖ type business. .
In the case of the second model showed, General Electric, the strategic implications
are directly correlated with the importance of the investments. Thus, the businesses in the area
of growth of the matrix benefit of priorities in fund allotment for investment. The second area,
of keeping the existing businesses is characterized by average priorities of fund allotment for
investments. For the third area, the strategic recommendations consist of renouncing and
liquidation of the businesses in this area.
In fact, in General Electric model, each type of business may enter in one of the
following 5 categories :
a) Businesses with high potential of increase that represent first priority for the
investments
b) Companies with stable basis that receive constant reinvestment to keep their
position
c) Companies with support role which receive investment funds periodically
d) Companies with potential which receive reduced investment funds
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e) Companies which receive substantial investments in the field of research and
development.
From these reasons, we can draw the conclusion that the main accent of this methods
falls on the way of draining the resources of the corporation towards those businesses that
combine a high attractiveness with a powerful competitive position.
Generally, the determination of the way where the resources of the corporation may be
used to reinforce the competitive position of each business is an action that takes place,
especially, when the company includes businesses existing in a competitive disadvantageous
position and when improvements are needed in certain key fields. It is also important that the
strategy wording considers the correlation of the global strategy with the businesses strategy.
One of the methods of correlation of these strategies consists in achieving a correspondence
between the resources and corporation competencies and the key success factors of the fields
they carry on their activity. The more accentuated is this connection the more substantial are
the resources and the capabilities of the corporation, the more successful is the strategy.
If we analyze the investment strategy form the perspective of Arthur D. Little model,
we will find out that many of the conclusions detached with the help of the other models are
coincident. Thus, for the starting activities or being under development important investment
are needed. For activities characterized by a good competitive position a so called ‖natural
development‖ is recommended that presumes mobilizing all the financial resources for
investment purposes, in order to allow these activities that show potential in the competitive
context existing to develop. For the activities with dominant position or with powerful
position this is not needed, because they can achieve the need for investments from own
resources.
The ―selective development‖ as concerns the investment resources allotted,
recommends to achieve a selection of activities between the existing activities, considering
the perspective of reaching a good position and then a higher profitability.
For the mature activities or for the activities in decline, the financial resources needed
to the investment effort , rise, practically no problem. But, for the activities with low yield or
where the competitive position of the company is low, the abandon is preferable.
Conclusions
1. Among the most frequent models of analysis the diversified companies strategy
Boston Consulting - Group (BCG) model, General Electric (GE) model and Arthur D. Little
(ADL) model are enumerated.
2. The most known method of evaluation of the strategy of a diversified business
company are those based on a graphic bidimensional representation of the company business
portfolio matrix . 3. The matrix is built using two relevant variables. The relevant
variables considered the most frequently are the growth rate of the field of activity, the market
share, the attractiveness of long term of the field, the competitive strengths, the stage of
evolution of the product/market .
4.If we analyze the investment strategy from the perspective of the 3 analyzed
models, one can find out that many of the conclusions detached with the 3 models are
coinciding.
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5. For the starting activities or existing under development important investments are
needed..
6. For the activities characterized by a good competitive position mobilizing all
financial resources for investment purposes is recommended in order to allow those activities
that show potential in the existing competitive context to develop.
7.For the activities with dominant or strong position no investments are needed,
because they can achieve the need of funds for investment form own resources.
8.For the mature activities or in decline, the financial resources needed to the
investment effort, practically, no problems are risen.
Reference
1.Belli, P. ş.a., Economic Analysis of Investment Operations, The World Bank,
Washington D.C., 2001
2.Ciobanu I., Management strategic, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 1998
3.Deac V., Bâgu C., Strategia firmei, Ed. Eficient, Bucureşti, 2000
4.Gavrilă T., Lefter V., Managementul general al firmei, Ed.Economică, Bucureşti,
2002
5.Stancu I., (coord), Investiţii directe şi finanţarea lor, Ed.Economică, Bucureşti, 2003
475
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THE CRISIS IMPACT ON THE CULTURAL CONSUMPTION IN ROMANIA
Dan Lungu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: On September 15, 2008, when Lehman Brothers Bank announced its bankruptcy,
the global economic crisis officially emerged. In this paper we discuss the immediate
consequences of the economic crisis on the cultural consumption in Romania, at the end of
2008 and first half of 2009. With this regard, we have used the Cultural Consumption
Barometer for 2008 and 2009.
Keywords: economic crisis, books purchasing, cultural consumption, public consumption,
domestic consumption.
1. Introduction
On September 15, 2008, when Lehman Brothers Bank announced its bankruptcy, the
global economic crisis officially emerged, although it had started earlier. Its effects have been
quickly felt in the cultural field too, at various levels: public funding and sponsorship of
cultural projects, public and domestic cultural infrastructure, investment in art, activity of
state cultural institutions, of private companies and non-governmental organizations, cultural
consumption, etc. This article aims to describe the dynamics of cultural consumption in
Romania after the crisis appeared. With this regard, we will use a series of Cultural
Consumption Barometers and, before that, we will use the items for the analysis of cultural
consumption of the Centre for Research and Consultancy on Culture (CRCC).
2. CRCC topics: public consumption and domestic consumption
For the analysis of cultural consumption, CRCC makes a distinction between public
and domestic consumption. Public consumption is divided into three categories: consumption
of ―elitist culture‖ (opera/operetta, theater, museums/exhibitions), of ―mass culture‖
(entertainment/music, local festivals/events, going to cinema) and ―non-cultural activities of
leisure‖ (consumer activities in hyper/supermarkets and malls, body care activities, attending
sporting competitions, attending discos/clubs, traveling, outdoor activities in parks or green
areas). Domestic cultural consumption is measured through consumption of TV shows and
purchasing behavior of cultural goods (books, movies, music). To this, we will add a
discussion on the frequency of reading books which virtually completes the topic of cultural
domestic consumption.
In the following, we will make a brief comparison between the cultural consumption
in 2008 and that in 2009, according to the data presented by the Cultural Consumption
Barometer (CCB) for 2009 of CRCC, a barometer that consists of a nationally representative
poll, applied on a sample of 1100 respondents over 15 years. The maximum sampling error, at
a confidence level of 95%, is + / - 3% for national data.
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2.1. Public consumption
The category ―elitist consumption‖ of the topic public consumption, according to
CCB for 2009, shows that: in 2009, the average consumption of theater was 15% compared to
2008, especially among the regular audience and graduates of higher education: museums and
exhibitions consumption decreased by 20% in 2009 compared to 2008, especially among
those with secondary education: frequency of attending opera and operetta decreased by 8%,
especially in the regular audience represented by those who had access to higher education.
The component ―mass culture‖ of public consumption, shows the following data: the
average consumption of cinema in 2009 decreased by 17% compared to previous year 2008,
reaching the lowest level in the last five years; the consumption of entertainment and music
shows decreased by 17% compared to 2008, when it had reached the highest rate in the last
five years, a decline which is less visible among regular audience, among those who have
graduated high school as their last school, but among graduates of higher education; taking
part in local festivals and events also decreased by 15%, reaching the lowest value of the last
five years; the average value in attending sporting competitions decreased by 14%; consumer
activity in super / hypermarkets or malls decreased by 17% among all categories of
respondents: body care activities also decreased by 18%, going to disco decreased by 10%,
traveling decreased by 25%; outdoor activities, in parks or green areas, in 2009, remained at
the same rate as in 2008.
2.2. Domestic consumption
Domestic cultural consumption, to remember, is measured by the following categories:
watching TV and purchasing behavior of cultural goods (books, movies, music).
Consumption of TV shows decreased by 7% in 2009 compared to 2008. Regarding cultural
goods, the trend is towards non-consumers, especially for movies and music. In 2009, 71%
did not buy any movie, while in 2008 only 53% were non-consumers. The number of music
buyers decreased by 33% in 2009 compared to 2008. Book buyers have decreased the least,
6%, from 55% in 2008 to 49% in 2009.
3. Books purchasing behavior
As we saw in the CCB for 2009, 45% of Romanians over 15 years did not buy any
books in 2008, and their percentage increased to 51% in 2009. Regarding the purchasing
behavior, from the ―People Activities and Cultural Practices of Romanians in 2010‖ (IRES),
we find out that in 2010, 65% of Romanians over 15 years did not buy any books. From the
study ―Reading Habits of Romanians‖ (IRES, 2011) we find out that 12% never buy books,
25% bought less than one book a year, 25% bought less than five books a year, 13% bought
5-10 books and 22%, over 10 books. The profile of the assiduous buyer of books, according
to the number of titles, is a woman, 36-50 years old and lives in urban areas. The non-buyer is
also a woman, over 65 years old and lives in rural areas. To purchase books, 12% spend less
than 50 RON per year, 26% spend 51-100RON, 21% allocate 101-200RON, 8% between
501-1000 and 5% over 1000. Those with consistent budget (over 500 RON per year) are
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likely women, up to 35 or over 65 years old, live in urban areas, and, regionally, they are
more likely from Moldova, Bucharest or the southern part of the country.
People buy books from the bookshops (58% of the readers), book corners in shopping
centers (15%), from second-hand bookshops (8%), ordered from websites in Romania (6%) or
from abroad (1%). Those who purchase books get information directly from the bookshop or
place of purchasing (50% of readers), from friends or acquaintances (30%), from editorials in
the newspapers and magazines (28%), from websites of publishing houses (15 %), from
posters or billboards in bookshops or shopping centers (15%), from bookstore sites (13%),
specialized sites containing reviews and presentation of new issues (7%), online forums (5%).
Those who read, even if they do not buy books (a multiple choice question) re-read books
from personal library (44% of readers), borrow from friends or acquaintances (43%), receive
books as gifts (18%) or lend books from the library (15%). Those who buy books also re-read
titles from personal library (49%), borrow from friends or acquaintances (22%), receive them
as gift (10%) or borrow from the library (20%). 47% of book readers do not buy books that
are sold with newspapers, 14% rarely buy such books, 31% only when they are interested in a
certain book, and 7% buy them with every issue.
4. New crisis in reading?
Domestic cultural consumption concept can be enriched if we add to the purchased
cultural goods the actual consumption, i.e. watching movies, listening to music or reading
books. We will focus on reading below, trying to reconstruct its dynamics from the collapse
of dictatorship and until the economic crisis, according to the existing data.
Since 1990, due to the Diagnosis of the Quality of Life and, afterwards, to the Public
Opinion Barometer (POB) of OSF (Open Society Foundation), we can study the dynamics of
non-consumers of books. Thus, the percentages of adults (18 years and over) from Romania
who declared they did not read books at all are: in 1990 - 28% (ICCV-The Research Institute
for Quality of Life ), in 1991 - 29% (ICCV), in 1992 - 35% (ICCV), in 1993 - 39% (ICCV),
in 1994 - 37% (ICCV), in 1995 - 41% (ICCV), in 1996 - 50% (ICCV), in 1997 - 53%
(ICCV), in 1998 - 50% (ICCV), in 1999 - 56% (ICCV and 34%, POB OSF), in 2000- 48%
(ICCV and 47%, POB OSF), in 2001- 36% (POB OSF), in 2003 - 43 % (POB FDS-
Foundation for a Open Society - in May, Gallup, and 45% in October, CURS) in 2004 - 46%
(POB OSF), in 2006 - 56% (ICCV and 41%, POB OSF), in 2010 - 54% (ICCV).
In ICCV questionnaire, the reading scale had three steps, ―often‖, ―seldom‖ and ―not
at all‖, while the POB OSF questionnaire the answer options were ―almost daily‖, 2several
times a week‖, ―several times a month‖, ―once a month or less‖ and ―not at all‖. So, only ―not
at all‖ is common, in order to get a long series of data, the non-consumer analysis being the
most appropriate. We do not have any national survey regarding the reading frequency before
1989, so we can not make a meaningful comparison between the two periods. From the above
data, we can identify three periods: 1990-1999, which represent the years of decline in the
number of readers, at first slowly, then faster and with a poor attempt at stabilization in the
last four years; 2000-2007/2008, which is a period of slight increase in the number of readers,
with fluctuations, and a third period, after 2008, which meant the beginning of the economic
crisis, a period which, taking into account the results of ICCV 2010, seems to reflect a
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subsequent decrease in the number of readers. Meanwhile, from the Cultural Consumption
Barometer (CCB) for 2006, we find out that 35% of people aged 15 and over do not read
literature, and, from the BCC for 2008, that 34% of the same kind of people never read books,
articles or magazines. From the report of IRES ―Reading Habits of Romanians‖, we find out
that, in 2011, 22%1 of the adult population of Romania (which owns a telephone) declares
they not read at all, 2% read only books for school / faculty, and 20% declared they had read
their last book more than a year before. Taking into account the results of BCC and IRES, the
economic crisis seems to multiply the number of readers, if we consider the increase from
2000-2007/2008 will continue. Even when surveys are made in the same year, having the
same target population, sometimes puzzling differences occur, difficult to manage, as is the
case of 1999 when, according to ICCV, we have 56% of non-consumers of books, and POB
OSF, 34%. Perhaps the particular events in the eve of data collection period induced a series
of distortions. From the existing data, up to now incomplete and sometimes contradictory, we
cannot say with certainty that after the economic crisis appeared the book reading frequency
increased or decreased, but even with the negative scenario, that is the decrease, it does not
compare to the collapse registered in the first ten years after the fall of communism.
Assuming that there is a relationship between the dynamics of the number of readers
and the evolution of book market, we will see what happened to the latter. From the ―The
Cultural Life Index in Romania (1998-2007)‖ published by CRCC we can see that in 1998
there were published 0.63 books per capita and 0.23 book titles/per capita, and in 2007, after a
fluctuating evolution, especially in the print run, it reached 0.41 books copies/capita and 0.67
titles/per capita. Broadly speaking, we can say that with fewer readers, print runs also
registered a decline, but we have a big increase in the number of titles, that is a rich editorial
offer. It is assumed that once the economic crisis emerged, in addition to a diversification
policy of book offer, we have a policy regarding prices.
5. Some conclusions
To be sure, cultural consumption, as it was defined by CRCC, decreased in 2009
compared to 2008. It is hard to establish to what extent this decrease is caused by the
economic crisis or by other factors such as obsolete public infrastructure (mainly cinemas); or
we should think that, in general, after a period of intense cultural consumption (2006, 2007), a
certain recession occurs. However, the fact that cultural practices with a regular audience,
such as attending opera and operetta, recorded a decrease (8%) shows that the economic crisis
and cultural consumption should not be neglected. It would be a mistake to think that a
decline in cultural consumption is subject only to an economic pattern. The behavior of social
actors during the crisis is complex: some prefer to limit expenditures (culture represents the
last priority on the Maslow pyramid of needs; therefore, probably, of the leisure activities,
outdoor activities in parks and green spaces, being cheap, registered no decrease in 2008
compared to 2009), others prefer to work harder to maintain their living standards, which
means less free time (this explains, among other things, a decrease by 7% of a cheap, but
1
The percentage is probably higher. Its value is smaller because interviews were conducted by telephone, on one hand, and,
on the other hand, because the respondents had the possibility to choose an answer that was meant to protect their self-
esteem, i.e. the last book they read in more than one year before.
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time-consuming activity, that is watching TV), while others prefer to make sacrifices for their
favourite cultural activities (cultural activities with a regular audience, like going to opera,
which declined by only 8%, or going to disco, by only 10%). Regarding the purchase of
cultural goods, having in view music-movies-books pattern, books had the best sales, with the
smallest decline, of only 6%, but for a short period, because in 2010 and 2011, sales
decreased more. Perhaps the advantage books have versus movies and music is that they are
more difficult to be reproduced by infringements of copyright. With regard to the reading
behavior, we cannot conclude that the reading activities intensified/decreased after the
economic crisis, as the data at our disposal do not allow this, but even with the negative
scenario, that is, the 46% decrease in the number of readers (ICCV, 2010), it does not
compare to the collapse of the first decade after the fall of dictatorship.
6. Some solutions
The Cultural Consumption Barometer for 2009 sets forth three types of solutions to
reduce the effects of the economic crisis on cultural consumption: financial, social and
innovative. Regarding the first type, it was suggested to cut down entrance fees (to cultural
institutions delivering performances and music shows), to bring special offers and programs,
and take measures to counteract the tendency to save money. Solutions to social networking
issues have in view the arrangement of spaces inside museums, theaters, cinemas, such as bars
or cafes. Innovative solutions refer to a better adaptation of cultural production to audience
needs, which could increase consumer motivation in performing cultural activities. We can
identify other solutions by examining the activity of institutions in various areas of culture.
Publishing houses, theatres and entertainment agencies started to use online promotion, which
means both a decrease in expenditures and a better informed audience for which the
traditional advertising has fewer results. Using social networking services (Facebook or
Twitter) in promoting cultural goods has registered a strong increase. Another attempt to face
crisis is the initiation, after more than twenty years from the collapse of dictatorship, of a
pocket book series having reasonable prices for cultural consumers. Beyond the clear
shortcomings the economic crisis causes to the cultural consumption, we can also see some
positive aspects, such as a better adaptation to financial constraints, to the cultural needs of
the general public or the promotion, with increased creativity, of cultural goods.
Acknowledgement: This work was supported by the strategic grant
POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62259, Projet „Applied social, human and political sciences. Postdoctoral
training and postdoctoral fellowships in social, human and political sciences‖ cofinanced by
the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human Resources
Development 2007 – 2013.
Bibliography:
*** Diagnoza calităţii vieţii, rapoarte de cercetare, ICCV, coord. I. Marginean
*** Barometrele de Opinie Publică ale Fundaţiei pentru o Societate Deschisă, anii
1998-2007
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*** Barometrele de Consum Cultural ale Centrului de Cercetare şi Consultanţă în
Domeniul Culturii (CCCDC), anii 2005-2009
*** Inventarul activităţilor şi practicile culturale ale românilor în 2010, raport de
cercetare al Institutului Român pentru Evaluare şi Strategie (IRES), 2010
*** Obiceiurile de lectură ale românilor, raport de cercetare al Institutului Român
pentru Evaluare şi Strategie (IRES), 2011
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INTERNAL MIGRATION IN ROMANIA IN THE POST-COMMUNIST
DECADES: EVOLUTIONS AND CONSEQUENCES
Laura Diaconu (Maxim), Assist. Prof., PhD, Cristian C. Popescu, Assoc. Prof.,
PhD, Andrei Maxim, Assist. Prof., PhD
Abstract: Nowadays, migration is a subject of great interest, as people continually look for
better living conditions. The present study approaches the Romanian migration issue in close
relationship with the demographic changes involved by this phenomenon. The data we used
were collected from various secondary sources such as statistical yearbooks and reports, and
was subsequently analysed and interpreted in accordance with the established objectives. We
intended to identify in our analysis the main reasons of migration, the areas from witch the
individuals are leaving and the regions towards witch they are directing to, the evolution of
the migration flows from the beginning of the ‘90s until present times, as well as the positive
and negative consequences of internal migration, in each region of the country. The
conclusions of the study reflect the fact that the individuals are motivated to migrate
especially by to the quality of the medical and educational services, by the easiness of finding
a job and by the higher incomes they could get in the destination areas. As expected, during
the analysed period, the main migration flows were directed towards the areas with a high
economic development. Thus, the West and Bucharest-Ilfov regions have a positive migration
balance, while the North-East, South East and South West areas show a negative balance. We
notice that, unlike in the 1990s, when the internal migration was from rural to urban areas,
after 2008, in the context of the economic-financial crisis, the direction of migration flows has
changed.
Keywords: internal migration, economic development, demographic changes, social changes,
human capital
4. Introduction
The transition is a complex phenomenon, generating significant substitutions in the
socio-economic structures, during a certain period of time. At the same time, transition is a
comprehensive process aimed to achieve specific objectives. In the case of Romania, it
involved the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market one and from an
undemocratic socio-political system to a democratic one, in the Western meaning of the word.
It was not an easy process, as a number of impediments have hampered and delayed the
reform steps. But, as Mises said, "there are no shortcuts to an earthly paradise. It takes time
and work" (Mises, 1998). However, after 25 years of major changes, the Romanian society
seems to be sufficiently changed not to resemble the country of the 1980s. But this result
involved sacrifices, failures, incoherencies and regrets. From all the shortcomings, those that
struck the citizens‘ wellbeing had the highest impact. Development inequalities between
Romania and other countries and among Romanian regions have generated an adjusting
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effect, manifested by strong migration flows. There is nothing abnormal in the case of the
individuals who were looking for a marginal remuneration consistent with their expectations
(Haris-Todaro, 1970; Stark, 1991; Yap, 1977; Williamson, 1988). It is necessary to mention
that Haris and Todaro (1970) considered the income differences between regions to be more
important. Moreover, according to Hicks, the differences in net benefits, especially in wages,
are the main cause of migration (Hicks, 1932). Borjas (2008) also agrees with this statement,
saying that the expected earnings have to exceed the costs of migration. Unlike the
neoclassical approaches, which assume that migration occurs prior to find a job, the so called
searching theories assume that the migration takes place during or after finding a job at the
destination.
Migration occurs, most of the times, as a consequence of some economic, social,
political or even personal constraints. According to Miftode (1984), migration means
movement both within the social systems and between them, representing a "spatial
expression" of the desire for mobility. Other approaches see migration as a life strategy,
offering "a perspective of the sustainable relationship between goals and means" (Sandu,
2000), or as a form of protest to the changes and of abandonment of a society where one does
not find a suitable place.
If, most of the times, migration involves benefits for the migrants, at least material
ones, it is not very clear what the effects of migration are on the origin and destination
regions. Most of the approaches regarding migration address this issue from the cross-border
perspective. However, we should not neglect the internal migration, such as rural-urban,
urban-rural and underdeveloped-developed regions. This type of migration is determined,
most of the times, by aspects related to the labour market. Some authors believe that the
migration decision is also influenced by the opportunities offered by the destination region
(Korpi and Clark, 2013). Following this approach, Mariangela (2012) considers that prices of
real estates and rents, pollution, population density and crime rate are equally compelling
reasons to take the decision of moving to another region.
Trying to synthesize, the International Organization for Migration divides the
migration determinants in two categories (Deshingkar and Grimm, 2005): push factors (low
living standard, lack of jobs and poverty) and pull factors (high wages, higher living standard,
individual freedom and possibility of finding a better job).
If we consider the advantages and disadvantages of migration, then the approaches
can be divided into two categories: optimistic and pessimistic ones.
The optimists, who highlight the benefits of migration, belong especially to the
neoclassical school. According to the neoclassical theory, any economic activity reaches an
optimal point if the factors of production are marginally rewarded. For example, the owners
of the labour are in search of the best remuneration while the employers are looking for the
lowest costs. The interaction between supply and demand leads to an increased mobility of the
labour and to an equilibrium of the wages. Moreover, mobility eliminates the shortage or the
abundance in certain areas, solving the problem of unemployment or that of the unjustified
increase of the labour force price. However, some authors consider that migration leads to the
accumulation of experience, to the acquiring new skills and knowledge and to the boost of
productivity. The remittances are also included among the advantages. The amount of money
sent to the families increases the living standards, improves children's education and may
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stimulate the investments. The unemployment problem from certain underdeveloped areas can
be solved with the help of migration. The social pressure diminishes and, thus, a structural
solution for the problem can be found.
The pessimists consider migration a phenomenon which clearly disadvantages the
underdeveloped regions, depriving them of one of the most important growth factors: the
human capital. Studies show that, on the long term, the periphery to centre and the rural to
urban migrations lead to an increase of the development disparities. In most of the cases,
internal migration is permanent, the well trained individuals leaving the disadvantaged areas
definitively. However, there are several observations to make regarding this approach.
According to Borjas (2008), there are two types of individuals: the tide stayers – those people
willing to make personal sacrifices in order to stay with the partner who earns more in the
current location – and the tide movers – those who follow their partner even if this involves
lower revenues for him compared to those earned in the current location. When taking with
them their family, the remittance‘s argument no longer stands, the net loss being clear. Hence,
the vicious circle of underdevelopment no longer allows a readjustment of the phenomenon,
according to the scarcity of the production factors.
5. Internal migration in Romania
5.1. Literature overview
The internal migration phenomenon in Romania is significant and has amplified after
1990. During the last years of communism, the large urban centres were closed for the
migrants. Therefore, the pressure increased after removing these barriers, in 1990. A
significant flow of migrants from rural areas has put pressure on the labour markets of the
major cities.
According to Zaman and Vasile (2006), the dynamics of internal migration in
Romania has been influenced by demographic factors (number of population, population
growth rate, urbanization rate, population density, natural increase of population, population
structure by age and areas), by economic determinants (incomes and their distribution,
structural adjustments, activity rates, unemployment rate, investments, number and types of
jobs), by socio-cultural factors (historical relationships, literacy rate, participation rate in
secondary education, enrolment rate and consumption) and by political aspects
(democratization of the society and the rights/security of minorities).
Sandu (1984) believes that migration has historical roots, with specific features for the
analysed period. In a recent study, he shows that shock events, such as the ‘46-‘47 famine, the
deportations after the war, the forced industrialization in the ‘70s, the economic collapse of
the ‘90s have significantly influenced the migration phenomenon in Romania (Sandu, 2010).
Other authors, such as Petre (2008) or Horvath (2008), have analysed the migration by age,
concluding that migration of young people is a representative feature of this phenomenon,
especially after 1990. Thus, as Kupiszewski et al. (1997) also mentioned, in Romania, a large
part of the migrants are young people, more often single than married and better educated and
prepared to take higher risks than the stayers.
Even though sex differences are not as significant as those between ages, empirical
evidences show that in Romania more and more women are migrating for work and not just as
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accompanying spouses. In fact, as Deshingkar and Grimm (2005) noticed, the feminization of
migration is one of the main recent changes of population movement.
Many researchers consider that, from the demographical point of view, there are
several very important and visible effects of migration in Romania after 1989. First of all, we
can see that certain regions confront with the demographic aging problem due to the
migration of a large part of the young population (especially those between 20 and 35 years
old). The impact of this fact is felt by the labour market, because the share of the active
population decreases, augmenting the pressure on those who remained home to support the
elderly (Bălaşa, 2005), and also by the social services and educational systems (Sime and
Eşanu, 2005). Secondly, those areas with a large number of emigrants face a declining fertility
rate, changes in the gender and age pyramid and in the families‘ dimension.
5.2. Empirical findings
In 1990, the internal migration rate registered its highest level from the communist and
post-communist period (33.9‰), as a result of the cancellation of some restrictive legislation
regarding the free movement of persons (National Institute of Statistics – NIS, 2008).
Surprisingly, however, we notice that in 1991 the internal migration rate dropped sharply, to
11.3‰. An explanation for this could be the fact that many of the migrants registered in 1990
were de facto residents in those towns, who then had the opportunity to legalize their
residence.
Analysing the statistical data, we see that between 1991 and 2000 the internal
migration rate had a sinuous evolution, with ups and downs, the average rate being 12.12‰.
However, the migratory flows have increased especially after 2001, the highest value of the
internal migration rate, since 1990, being of 21.4‰, in 2010 (see Figure 1). Considering that
the first effects of the nowadays crisis have been felt in Romania only starting with the end of
2008, we can assume that the unfavourable economic situation from certain regions
determined a large part of population to change its residence in 2010, looking for better living
conditions.
Figure no. 1. Internal migration in Romania determined by permanent residence
changing, during 1990-2011 (rates per 1000 inhabitants)
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Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
Starting with 1990 and up to 1995, Romania faced the so-called ―rural exodus‖, the
rural-urban flow reaching the highest share in 1990: 69.8% of all migrants (NIS, 2008).
Several causes of this phenomenon can be found, such as the willingness to earn more, to
have access to a wider range of jobs and to better educational and sanitary systems.
In 1995 and 1996 we can see that the percentage of those migrating from rural to
urban, urban to urban, rural to rural and urban to rural are very close. However, the highest
value was registered by the flows from rural to rural areas.
Starting with 1997, the Romanian demography has faced a historical change: the
number of the rural emigrants was constantly surpassed by the number of those who came
into this space. Therefore, between 1997 and 2011 the urban-rural migration rate was about
30% of all the internal migrants (NIS, 2008; NIS, 2012). As we can see, the number of those
who were attracted by the rural areas has increased not only in the context of the economic-
financial crisis, but also during the more prosperous periods. This fact leads us to the
conclusion that the urban unemployment has determined a large number of people to return to
agriculture and, moreover, that more and more people want to invest in the rural areas.
According to the data offered by the National Institute of Statistics (2008 and 2012),
between 1990 and 2011, the most mobile population segment was the working age group 15
to 59, followed by the age group 0 to 14 years, while the share of the elderly population
registered the lowest rate of internal migration of all residence changes. We notice that the
young persons (15 to 34 years old) have migrated the most, totalling between 64% and 74%
of the migrants‘ age segment 15-59, during the analysed period.
Analysing the statistical data regarding the internal migration determined by
permanent residence change, by age group and area, it is obvious the fact that, if between
1990 and 1991 most of the people, from all age groups, preferred to migrate to urban areas
than to the rural ones, the situation has changed since 1992 (see Table 1). During the entire
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period 1992-2011, most of those included in the youngest segment moved to the rural areas.
Moreover, according to the statistics, after 1995 most of the migrants aged between 40 and 59
have preferred the rural areas.
Table no. 1. Age groups for which migration to rural areas prevailed during 1992-
2011
Years Age groups
1992-1994 Under 15
1995 Under 19 and between 45-54
1996 Under 19 and between 45-59
1997-1999 Under 19 and between 35-59
2000 Under 19 and between 35 and over
2001-2003 Under 19 and between 40-59
2004 Under 19 and between 40 and over
2005-2006 Under 19 and between 40-59
2007-2010 Under 19 and between 40 and over
2011 Under 19 and between 45 and over
Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
The statistical data collected over time show that, between 1990 and 2011, the internal
migration rate was always superior in the case of women than in that of men (see Figure 2).
The highest differences between the percentages of the men and women who migrated were
registered in 2001, while in 1990 the percentages was almost equal.
Figure no. 2. Internal migration determined by permanent residence changing, by sex,
between 1990 and 2011
Source: Adapted from NIS (2008) and NIS (2012)
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Analysing the internal migration among the development regions we found out that the
situation did not change too much between 2007 and 2011. Therefore, while the rural
migration had a positive balance in all the eight development regions, the urban migration had
a negative balance, except for the region Bucharest-Ilfov, where in 2011 a positive balance
was registered. This fact indicates that the number of the in-migrants in rural areas is larger
than the number of the out-migrants, unlike the urban areas where the situation is reversed.
The region with the highest negative global balance of migration was North-East, both
in 2007 and 2011, followed by South-West Oltenia, South-East and, at a far distance, by the
Centre region. Among the favourite destinations of the out-migrants from the North-East
regions are the Centre, West and Bucharest-Ilfov regions (Daedalus Millward Brown, 2011).
Regarding the evolution of the in-migrants in North-East, since it is the poorest region of the
country, we notice that most of the population has chosen to move into the rural areas than
into the urban ones. In the South-East region, the only county which had a positive global
balance of migration in 2007 and 2011 was Constanta. Meanwhile, Braila and Galati recorded
the highest negative global balance of migration. A study conducted in 2011 by Daedalus
Millward Brown showed that the out-migrants from the urban areas of the South-East region
go either to the rural areas from the North-East region or to Bucharest-Ilfov. A large part of
those who migrate from South-West Oltenia also go to the capital, looking for a better living
standard.
A significant change occurred in the South-Muntenia region in 2011 compared to
2007. If in 2007 the number of the in-migrants was larger than that of the out-migrants, in
2011 a negative global balance of migration was registered. The only regions with positive
migration balance both in 2007 and 2011 were North-West, West and Bucharest-Ilfov
regions. It is not surprising since they have a high economic development level and offer job
opportunities in almost all the fields. However, compared to all other regions, Bucharest-Ilfov
has the highest attractiveness, being the largest economic, cultural, educational and political
centre.
6. Conclusions
After 1990, as a result of the cancellation of the restrictions regarding the persons‘
right of free movement, the internal migration augmented very much. However, a year after, it
dropped sharply, by one-third. Between 1992 and 2000 the internal migration rate had a
sinuous evolution, but staring with 2001 it increased very much, the highest level being
reached in 2010.
Analysing the information included in various statistical yearbooks and reports, we
found out several major aspects related to the internal migration in Romania. First of all,
regarding the directions of the migrants, we saw that if during the 6 years after the collapse of
communism there was a rural exodus, starting with 1997 the situation has changed. The
number of the in-migrants in rural areas overpassed the number of the out-migrants, the
urban-rural migration rate being approximately 30% between 1997 and 2011.
Secondly, we noticed that the most mobile age segment of population was represented
by the young people, especially those less than 19 years old, followed by those aged between
19 and 34. Most of migrants under 19 years old preferred the rural areas to the urban ones.
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Thirdly, during all the analysed period (1990-2011), the internal migration rate was
superior in the case of women than in that of men, fact that indicates that women became
more mobile and willing to improve their living conditions, not only to follow their partner
when moving to another region.
Last but not least, another significant conclusion of our empirical analysis shows that
while three of the development regions of the country (North-West, West and Bucharest-
Ilfov) had a positive migration balance during the period 2007-2011, other four regions
(North-East, South-West Oltenia, South-East and Centre) registered each year a negative
migration balance. Looking at the values, we can confirm the fact that the least developed
region (North-East) has the highest negative internal migration balance, most of the out-
migrants looking for a higher living standard in a more developed region. Meanwhile, the
highest positive internal migration balance can be found in Bucharest-Ilfov, the most
developed region of the country, which attracts the migrants from all the other regions.
As a final remark, we may say that the consequences for the areas that are losing
population are severe on the long term, as the effects are magnified by the loss of reproductive
capacity for the original community, transferred by the young people to the benefit of other
communities.
Bibliography
Bălaşa, A., (2005), ―Îmbătrânirea populaţiei: provocări şi răspunsuri ale Europei‖,
Revista Calitatea vieţii, vol. XVI, no. 3-4, pp. 4-10.
Borjas, G.J. (ed.), (2008), Issues in the Economics of Immigration, University of
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Daedalus Millward Brown, (2011), Rata migratiei interne in Romania,
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Deshingkar, P., Grimm, S., (2005), Internal Migration and Development: A Global
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Horváth, I., (2008), ―The culture of migration of rural Romanian youth‖, Journal of
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Korpi, M., Clark, W., (2013), ―Human Capital Theory And Internal Migration: Do
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Kupiszewski, M., Berinde, D., Teodorescu, V., Durham, H., Rees, P., (1997), Internal
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Mariangela, B., (2012), ―Twenty years of internal migration in Italy. Answers from
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Miftode,V., (1984), Elemente de sociologie rurală, Iaşi: Editura Ştiinţifică şi
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Mises, L. Von, (1998), Capitalismul şi duşmanii săi, Bucuresti: Editura Nemira.
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National Institute of Statistics (NIS), (2012), Romanian Statistical Yearbook –
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Sandu, D., (1984), Fluxurile de migraţie în România, Bucureşti: Editura Academiei.
Sandu, D., (2010), Lumile sociale ale migrației românești în străinătate, Iaşi: Polirom.
Sandu, D., (2000), ―Migraţia circulatorie ca strategie de viaţă‖ în Sociologie
românească, Iaşi: Editura Polirom.
Sime, A. V., Eşanu, G., (2005), Migraţie şi globalizare, Bucureşti: Editura Detectiv.
Stark, O., (1991), The migration of labor, Oxford: Blackwell.
Williamson, O. E., (1988), ―Corporate finance and corporate governance‖, The journal
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Zaman, G., Vasile, V., (2006), Transferul tehnologic şi investiţiile – priorităţi ale
dezvoltării durabile. Bucureşti: Editura Expert-CIDE.
490
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EMERGING EUROPE BETWEEN THE BOLOGNA PROCESS AND THE POST-
CRISIS INTERNATIONALIZATION
Constantin Hălăngescu, Post PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/133675 Project,
Romanian Academy, Iași Branch
Abstract: The novelty of the last two and a half decades, the Bologna Process has generated
profound and multidimensional transformation in higher education system in Europe. Of
course, about the objectives and principles, provisions, development, implementation and
effects of the Process was written and pro and contra, and diachronic and synchronic, and
analytically and synthetically, and and official and journalistic way in different socio-
cultural, economic, managerialand academic reflexes, and authority level or "through the
eyes of students", but what generally transpires is that the entirety of the Bologna Process
created and resized the European values, transplanted them into a more or less globally
level, imposed a new way of thinking and designing the entire system of higher education.
With a target (failed, by the way) to become the most competitive and dynamic economy in the
world, Europe has scaled academic mobility, cooperation in quality assurance, partnerships
between the European Research Area and the world's top universities.
Adopting a questioning approach in research methodology, based on interrogations such as
"What is the expression of academic globalization before the current recession?", "There are
similarities of approach in two speed Europe?", " What effect has the financial and economic
crisis on the higher education system in the countries of Emerging Europe?", this study aims
to present some elements of comparative analysis of internationalization strategies pre-crisis
and post-crisis in some countries in Emerging Europe, in order to prove (argued by some
causal relationship) that the effects of financial crisis affecting the European academic in a
differentiated manner, even if the strategies are common.
Keywords: Emerging Europe, higher education, internationalization, economic crisis,
Bologna Process
Introducere
Chiar şi într-un simplu demers al radiografierii literaturii de specialitate, facil se poate
observa că studiile privind internaţionalizarea în învăţământul superior sunt extrem de
numeroase, orientate fie către abordări generale, fie pe analize structurale ale diferitelor
aspecte care constituie in integrum esenţa fenomenului de internaţionalizare, iar volumul
acestor cercetări este în continuă creştere. În plus, devine foarte evident faptul că interpretarea
de tipul internaţionalizarea ca fenomen, activitate şi efect al globalizării include mai mult
decât mobilitatea studenţilor şi a personalului academic, gama problemelor pe care le incumbă
fenomenul în discuţie cunoscând o multiplă abordare începând cu anul 1990.
Internaţionalizarea devine o parte tot mai integrantă a sistemului mondial al învăţământ
superior şi al politicilor sale. Legătura dintre internaţionalizare, politici naţionale,
491
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
instituţionale şi politicile regionale generale ale învăţământului superior, chiar au condus la
salturi calitative ale acestui domeniu strategic, cum observa Teichler (2004). Şi aceasta,
deoarece activităţile la nivel internaţional ale universităţilor nu mai sunt privite cazuistic,
disparat şi la nivel auxiliar, ci au căpătat caracter regulat şi sistemic. Observaţia noastră
generală este că toate abordările care presupun activităţile de internaţionalizare şi efectele ei la
nivel local şi instituţional, nu mai sunt marginale sau lăsate pe seama unor servicii auxiliare la
nivel de universitate, ci au devenit de importanţă strategică centrală, fiind cuprinse în
politicile naţionale şi regionale din domeniu.1
Cererea mare pentru persoanele cu înaltă calificare din ţările dezvoltate a promovat
migraţia de lucrători calificaţi din ţările emergente către economiile dezvoltate. Atunci când s-
a constatat că programele de studiu au fost una dintre cele mai profitabile surse de recrutare
pentru viitorul personal calificat, cele mai multe ţări au optat pentru a promova
internaţionalizarea. Creşterea rapidă a mobilităţii transfrontaliere a studenţilor este un
indicator referenţial al acestei tendinţe. Studiile empirice pe această temă au dovedit că
majoritatea celor care devin studenţi în SUA sau în Europa de Vest au dorit să rămână acolo
după finalizarea studiilor, iar aceasta este o sursă atractivă de personal calificat. Tendinţele
maximizate ale creşterii mobilităţii transfrontaliere a instituţiilor academice, a profesorilor şi
studenţilor din perioada ante-criză nu poate fi comparată cu situaţia crizelor anterioare. În
aceeaşi ordine de idei, concurenţa de atragere a creierelor (vânătoarea de talente) între
marile universităţi a creat poli mondiali de cercetare, care au reconfigurat harta academică a
lumii. În acest context, recenta criză economică s-a manifestat pe un teren nu doar al
naţionalului disparat, ci la nivel transfrontalier în ceea ce priveşte mediul academic. Criza a
modificat paradigme, re-modelează abordări tradiţionale sau alternative consacrate,
repoziţionează dialectica public-privat în manieră reactivă şi/sau proactivă, reconfigurează
rolul statelor, regiunilor conferind sensuri noi.
În studiul de faţă vom prezenta câteva elemente de analiză comparativă privind
strategiile de internaţionalizare ante şi post-criză în cadrul unor state din Europa Emergentă,
cu scopul de a demonstra (argumentat prin relaţii de cauzalitate) faptul că efectele crizei
economico-financiare afectează în mod diferenţiat mediul academic european, chiar dacă
strategiile sunt comune.
Procesul Bologna - acceleratorul internaţionalizării
Procesul de globalizare şi construcţia unei Europe unite, problematica agitată a lumii
contemporane, societatea bazată pe cunoaştere, dinamica accentuată a pieţelor muncii şi a
fluxurilor de capital, resurse umane şi informaţionale, decalejele vizibile dintre sistemele
regionale de învăţământ din Europa, multiplicarea ―factorială‖ a furnizorilor de educaţie
superioară, creşterea competiţiei globale între şi/sau dintre universităţi - toate acestea sunt
elemente cheie în ceea ce mi-aş permite să denumesc efectul de domino între inovaţiile
1
Principalele abordări ale studiilor teoretice şi/sau empirice despre fenomenul internaţionalizării învăţământului superior se
referă, cu precădere, la mobilitatea academică, aspectele financiare care implică şi care sunt implicate de această
mobilitate, educaţia transnaţională, consorţiile universitare şi hub-urile de cercetare, aspectele legate de curriculum şi
activităţile de predare şi învăţare, politici de internaţionalizare. Toate acestea au trei dimensiuni specifice comune:
expansiunea, diversificarea şi mobilitatea. Modelul cel mai familiar al fluxului transfrontalier de mobilităţi este cel de la
ţările în curs de dezvoltare în ţările dezvoltate.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
procesului Bologna şi triumful valorilor. Element de noutate al ultimelor trei decenii,
Procesul Bologna a generat profunde şi multidimensionale transformări atât în cadrul UE cât
şi la scară globală.
Despre obiectivele şi principiile, prevederile, derularea, implementarea şi efectele
procesului s-a scris pro şi contra, diacronic şi sincronic, analitic şi sintetic, oficial şi
jurnalistic, în reflexe socio-culturale/economice/managerial-academice, la nivel de autorităţi
şi ―prin ochii studenţilor‖, însă ceea ce transpare general este faptul că în integralitatea lui,
procesul Bologna a redimensionat valorile europene, le-a transplantat într-o măsură mai
mare sau mai mică la scară globală, a impus un nou mod de gândire şi concepere a
întregului sistem de învăţământ superior. De aceea astăzi se vorbeşte despre europenizare, în
egală măsura cu americanizarea.2 Provocarea în faţa globalizării a impus procesului Bologna
metamorfozarea vechilor concepte şi valori medieval-academice ce au generat noi dimensiuni
axiologice în societatea bazată pe cunoaştere: coexistenţa culturilor, accentuarea competiţiei
academice, mobilitatea studentului şi a profesorului său, autonomia universitară,
sustenabilitatea şi identitatea unei universităţi, asigurarea calităţii etc.3
Politica educaţională europeană generată de procesul Bologna, grefată pe variaţiile
dintre filosofiile life long learning (Raportul OECD din 1996), towards the learning society
(Cartea Alba a UE, 1996), a declanşat reformele multiple cvasi-guvernamentale, de asigurare
a calităţii şi internaţionalizare ştiinţifică.4 În contextul în care a fost leagănul universităţii,
Europa se bucură astăzi de vizibilitatea cea mai crescută a programelor sale de mobilităţi. Fără
îndoială, internaţionalizarea Europei academice prin mobilităţile generate de programele
special concepute, a condus şi la dezvoltarea unor servicii integrate mult mai profesionale.
Aceste sisteme, iniţial axate pe mobilitatea studenţilor, acordă astăzi o atenţie sporită
europenizării prin internaţionalizare.5
În mod semnificativ, obiectivele ―comune‖ pentru sistemele naţionale europene
adoptate în 2001, au fost dezvoltate prin iniţiativa Education & Training 2010 a cărei
caracteristică - opening up to the wider world - este politică majoră actuală.6
De-a lungul timpului, în rapoarte speciale,7 au fost formulate atât „temeri‖ (atenuarea
diferenţelor dintre sistemele de învăţământ superior din Europa va induce invazia de
specialişti dinspre ţările mai dezvoltate; formarea HEA va afecta originalitatea acestor
2
Pavel Zgaga, „1999–2010 - The making of Bologna‖, f.a., disponibil online la http://www.duz.de/docs/downloads/duz
spec_Bologna.pdf (accesat la 2 septembrie 2014).
3
Terence Karran, „Academic Freedom in Europe: Time for a Magna Charta?‖, în Higher Education Policy, nr. 22, 2009, pp.
163-189, disponibil online la http://www.palgravejournals.com/hep/journal/v22/n2/full/hep 20092a.html (accesat la 2
septembrie 2014).
4
T.Heinze, C.Knill, „Analyzing the differential impact of the Bologna Process. Theoretical considerations on national
conditions for international policy convergence‖, în Higher Education, nr. 56 (4), 2008, pp. 493-510, disponibil online la
http://www.springerlink.com/content/15q31223508w7192/ (accesat 5 septembrie 2014).
5
Baiba Rivza, Ulrich Teichler, „The Changing Role of Student Mobility‖, în Higher Education Policy, nr. 20, 2007, pp. 457-
475, disponibil online la http://www.palgrave-journals.com/hep/journal/v20/n4/full/8300163a.html (accesat la 5
septembrie 2014).
6
Acţiunile concertate la nivel instituţional, local, naţional, regional şi european converg, în esenţă, scopului de oferire de
stimulente financiar-logistice pentru facilitarea cooperării internaţionale; legătura intrinsecă dintre îmbunătăţirea calităţii
şi coerenţei interne a sistemelor naţionale şi Europa în ansamblul ei, pe de o parte, şi promovarea atractivităţii externe pe
de altă parte, este singura în măsură de a monitoriza potenţialul domino-ului european la nivel de cooperare region-to-
region şi Europe-Rest-of-World Relationship.
7
Andrejs Rauhvargers, Cynthia Deane, Wilfried Pauwels, Bologna Process Stocktaking Report 2009, disponibil la
http://www.ond.vlaanderen.be/hogeronderwijs/bologna/conference/documents/Stocktaking_report_2009FINAL.pdf
(accesat la 6 septembrie 2014);
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sisteme; restructurarea studiilor universitare va duce la scăderea calităţii pregătirii studenţilor,
etc) însă au fost şi evaluări pozitive care au constatat sporirea mobilităţilor şi implicit a
rezultatelor ştiinţifice, reducerea diferenţelor de calitate, implementarea unor indicatori de
performanţă etc.
Procesul de la Bologna a fost conceput şi ulterior a cunoscut o amploare deosebită mai
ales experienţei cvasi-pozitive a programului de mobilităţi Erasmus (1987), devenit una dintre
cele mai de succes iniţiative europene. Obiectivul UE de a deveni cea mai competitivă
economie la nivel global în 2010 nu a avut sorţi de izbândă, şi nu doar datorită efectelor
recesiunii şi a crizei datoriilor suverane. Obiectivul alocării de 3% a rămas fără interes chiar şi
după anul 2012, domenii conexe precum susţinerea financiară a mobilităţii studenţilor,
cadrelor didactice şi cercetătorilor prin programul Erasmus Mundus cunoscând chiar o
reducere.
După trei decenii de reformă intensivă şi eforturi comune în vederea realizării unei
mai mare integrări, transparenţă, calitate, creştere economică, eficienţă şi excelenţă, rolul
învăţământului superior european în societatea şi economia bazate pe cunoaştere s-a
consolidat şi mai mult (De Boer şi colab., 2012, p. 10). Noua strategie pune accentul pe ―o
creştere inteligentă, durabilă şi favorabilă incluziunii‖, care subliniază importanţa
învăţamântului superior ca un domeniu cheie pentru a promova creşterea economică,
ocuparea forţei de muncă şi coeziunea socială (CE, 2010). Sectorul învăţământului superior
are un dublu impact (direct şi indirect), de care beneficiază societatea în general, prin urmare,
joacă un rol important în infrastructura economică a tuturor ţărilor (dezvoltate sau emergente)
(Varghese, 2010, p. 11). Unanim recunoscut este faptul că ultima criză financiară şi
economică, a avut un impact semnificativ asupra tuturor sistemelor economice şi sociale în
jurul lumii. Din cauza nivelului redus de activitate economică, se pare că abilităţile statelor
membre ale UE de a investi în continuare în învăţământul superior din bugetele publice deja
suprasolicitate, au devenit limitate (De Boer şi colab., 2012, p. 41). Chiar şi înainte de criză,
investiţiile nu au coincis într-o directă proporţionalitate cu numărul tot mai mare de studenţi
înscrişi, în timp ce ponderea din PIB alocat acestui sector a rămas la acelaşi nivel sau chiar au
scăzut (EACEA/Eurydice, 2010, p. 2). Fondurile publice încă reprezintă cea mai mare sursă
de finanţare pentru majoritatea instituţiilor de învăţământ superior din Europa Emergentă, în
ciuda promovării guvernelor de a-şi diversifica sursele de finanţare. În medie, instituţiile de
învăţământ superior primesc 85% din totalul activelor din surse publice (EACEA/Eurydice,
2010, p 35; CE, 2010, p. 6). Prin urmare, orice contracţie a ponderii fondurilor publice, fără
resurse suplimentare, poate avea consecinţe importante pentru dezvoltarea învăţământului
superior, iar criza a dovedit indubitabil acest lucru.8
Europa Emergentă - între criza economică şi internaţionalizarea academică
Criza financiară din 2007-2008 şi criza economică ulterioară au avut un impact enorm
asupra finanţelor publice în toate ţările Uniunii Europene în ultimii şase ani. Creşterea
deficitelor publice şi nivelul datoriei publice a ridicat temeri cu privire la sustenabilitatea
finanţelor publice în Uniunea Europeană. Această situaţie a determinat Comisia Europeană şi
statele membre să ia măsuri puternice pentru a stabiliza şi apoi consolida situaţia lor fiscal.
8
Vezi mai pe larg la Varghese, N.V. (2009), ―GATS and transnational mobility in higher education‖. In: Global Education
Research Reports. New York: Institute of International Education, and American Institute for Foreign Study Foundation
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Este evident faptul că la nivelul învăţământului superior perspectiva este puţin mai complexă,
în ciuda faptului că şi Declaraţia de la Bologna şi Strategia de la Lisabona au creat toate
premisele unui Spaţiu European comun al Învăţământului Superior. Deşi cele mai multe state
europene, fie că politic şi financiar fac sau nu parte din Zona Euro, fie că sunt dezvoltate sau
emergente, au aplicat prevederile de uniformizare cerute de strategia-tratat şi declaraţia
amintite şi au resimţit într-o gamă diversificată efectele crizei, altfel că răspunsurile mediului
academic au fost foarte variate. Astfel, ţările din Europa Emergentă9 au fost deosebit de greu
lovite de criza economico-financiară globală care a afectat puternic zona, la sfârşitul anului
2008. Ele au fost vulnerabile la colapsul serviciilor financiare transfrontaliere, pentru că
economiile lor au avut expunere mare la pieţele externe şi au fost dependente în mare măsură
de investiţiile străine ca urmare a integrării lor în spaţiul economic al UE. În ţările unde
guvernele au contractat împrumuturi de la instituţiile financiare internaţionale, s-au înăsprit şi
mai mult cheltuielile publice, ca parte a condiţiilor de creditare, erodând posibilităţi pentru o
reducerea impactului negativ asupra sectorului public.10 Spre sfârşitul anului 2009 şi începutul
anului 2010, majoritatea ţărilor din Europa Centrală şi de Est au redus cheltuielile pentru
educaţie la aproape toate nivelurile, inclusiv pentru învăţământul superior.11
Conform Funding of Education in Europe 2000-2012: The Impact of the Economic
Crisis. Eurydice Report (2013) (cu date coroborate şi EUA, 2012; Estermann, 2011), pentru
viziunea de ansamblu a principalelor efecte ale crizei asupra sistemului european de
învăţământ superior, importanţi devin patru indicatori, iar cei referitori la Europa Emergentă
se prezintă astfel:
Bulgaria Estonia Letonia Lituania Ungaria România Polonia
per total creştere semnificativă: între 25%-50% (2000-2010)
Totalul scădere
cheltuielilor până în
-21.6% -28,5% -40% creştere
publice 2009,
(2007- (2006- (2007- uşoară
pentru +5%
2008) 2010) 2008)
educaţie (2009-
2010)
stabilă, până la sfârşitul anului 2007; în perioada 2008-2012, evoluţia este:
Variaţia
scădere scădere scădere scădere scădere scădere
chewltuielilor creştere
>10% >10% <10% <10% <10% >10%
pentru uşoară
1-1,29% 1-1,29% >1% 1-1,29% 1-1,29% 1-1,29%
educaţie >1% GDP
GDP GDP GDP GDP GDP GDP
Cheltuielile după costurile per student, de obicei, cresc odată cu nivelul după 2007
9
La 16 iulie 2012, FMI a etichetat ca fiind economii emergente, dintre ţările Europei: Bulgaria, Estonia, Letonia, Lituania,
Polonia, România şi Ungaria. Cf. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/update/02/index.htm
10
Guvernele au contractat diferite tipuri de împrumuturi (de la FMI, CE, BM BERD etc.) în cursul anului 2009. Guvernele
din Letonia (7,5 miliarde €), Ungaria (20 miliarde €), Polonia (15,5 miliarde €), şi România (20 miliarde €). Estonia a
negociat un împrumut de cinci ani, cu Banca Europeană de Investiţii (BEI), în valoare de 550 milioane €. Cf. Education
and the Global Economic Crisis: Summary of results of the follow-up survey December 2009, updated February 2010,
http://download.eiie.org/Docs/WebDepot/05March10ImpactcrisisreportfollowupMDK.pdf [accesat 15 septembrie 2014]
11
Trendul este ascendent atât la nivelul cererii (datorită fenomenului de accelerare a creşterii numărului de şomeri
concomitent cu necesitatea de re-calificare pentru îmbunătăţirea şanselor de angajare sau intrarea pe piaţa muncii), cât şi
la nivelul ofertei (prin reducerea deficitelor publice şi a cheltuielilor, finanţarea învăţământului superior nefiind exceptată
de la aceasta.).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
per student 2007 de educaţie, dar nu este o regulă; cheltuielile anuale creştere
(în funcţie de creştere per student au fost mai mari în 2009 comparativ cu cu peste
date cu peste 2000. 50%
demografice 50% faţă de
şi ratefaţă de 2000
şcolarizare) 2000
după anul 2007, toate ţările au menţinut cuantumul acestor cheltuieli la
nivelul de dinainte de criză, însă în perioada 2000-2012, variaţia maximă a
acestui indicator a fost la nivelul a două puncte procentuale.
Cheltuielile
+6% -0,4%
pentru
(2009) (2009)
educaţie ca
-0,5% -0,5% -0,5%
procent din
-0,5% +6% (2010) (2010) -5% (2010)
PIB-ul stabilitate
(2010) (2009) -5% -5% (2011) -5%
naţional
(2011) (2011) (2011)
-5% +1%
(2012) (2012)
Tabel nr. 1 - Cheltuielile publice pentru învăţământul superior din Europa
Emergentă în timpul crizei
Finanţarea publică a învăţământului superior european reprezintă 75% în ponderea
finanţării la nivel european, deci există o dependenţă mare, ceea ce înseamnă că orice
schimbare în această sursă de finanţare are un impact major asupra sistemului. Analiza
efectuată pe baza datelor prezentate în rapoartele invocate anterior, arată că tendinţele în ceea
ce priveşte finanţarea publică pentru învăţământul superior din Europa Emergentă pot fi
identificate, dezvăluind modul în care guvernele naţionale au răspuns la criza economică. Însă
trebuie subliniat faptul că, în general, este dificil de comparat aceste date între ţări atât de
diferite, metodologiile fiind costisitoare în măsurarea şi evaluarea efectelor. În ciuda acestui
fapt, putem prezenta punctual principalele tendinţe, astfel:
Direcţii Acţiuni
Reduceri (efectuate sau programate):
Finanţarea în Letonia -48% în 2009 şi 18% în 2010;
din între 5 şi 15% în: Lituania, România, Estonia
1
fondurile reduceri minore sau nesemnificative: Polonia
publice Anularea angajamentelor de a creşte finanţarea:
Ungaria: reduceri cu 15% faţă de planurile din 2007
Deşi datele pentru acest segment nu au fost monitorizate, ca urmare a
lipsei unor raportări naţionale (ceea ce a determinat o slabă identificare a
Finanţarea
tendinţelor în această direcţie), diversificarea fluxurilor de venituri,
din
2 existentă în unele universităţi, sugerează că schimbări au survenit şi în
fondurile
acest perimetru. Criza a intensificat dezbaterile privind contribuţiile
private
financiare ale studenţilor la învăţământul superior, politica taxelor de
şcolarizare devenind una dintre cele mai viabile soluţii pentru reducerea
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deficitului finanţării universităţilor.
reduceri privind activităţile de predare: Estonia, Letonia,
Ungaria
presiunile suplimentare cauzate de cererea pentru
învăţământul superior prin creşterea şomajului şi, implicit, a nevoii
de reprofesionalizare au determinat reducerea cheltuielilor per
student: Ungaria, România.
reducerea fondurilor privind infrastructura educaţională:
La nivel de
Bulgaria, România.
sistem şi la
3 reducerea numărului de instituţii academice: Bulgaria,
nivel
Letonia şi Lituania (din motive de eficientizare a finanţelor
instituţional
disponibile, evitarea fragmentării excesive şi dublarea unor
domenii de studiu) sau ca urmare a evaluărilor negative primite de
la autorităţile de evaluare şi acreditare (Estonia),
desfiinţarea unor departamente: Estonia, România
crearea unor consorţii, prin fuziuni care să ajute
universităţile mai slabe financiar, sau crearea de departamente
inter-universităţi şi programe comune: Letonia
reduceri de personal: Bulgaria, Lituania, Letonia,
îngheţarea angajărilor: Letonia, România sau concedieri: Ungaria
între 2010 şi 2012, majoritatea ţărilor au suferit o scădere
a numărului de cadre didactice. Motivele: raţionalizare în
utilizarea resurselor financiare alocate, închiderea sau fuziunea
La nivelul
unor instituţii, scăderea salariilor şi reorientarea unor cadre
personalului
4
didactice spre alte sectoare. Combinarea acestor trei motive se
academic
regăsesc în măsurile luate în Estonia, Lituania, România.
creşterea numărului de personal academic: Ungaria
schimbări în salariile şi indemnizaţiile profesorilor:
reduceri salariale în România, îngheţarea salariilor în Bulgaria,
Ungaria, Lituania, Letonia, Estonia, creşterea salariilor în Polonia.
majoritatea ţărilor au păstrat sistemele lor principale de
sprijinire a studenţilor, în anul 2009, la nivelul UE-27 a fost alocat
6,7% din cheltuielile publice totale pentru educaţie pentru sprijin
La nivelul direct pentru studenţi (granturi şi împrumuturi), desigur existând
sprijinului anumite diferenţe: în Bulgaria, procentul acestor cheltuieli a fost
financiar
5 mai mare decât media UE-27, peste 13%; în anul 2012 fondurile au
pentru crescut, mai ales în Polonia.
studenţi sistemul acordării de împrumuturi cu condiţii preferenţiale
şi garantate de autorităţile publice este în curs de dezvoltare ca o
metodă alternativă de finanţare, pentru perioada 2010-2012 cele
mai conistente politici în acest domeniu remarcându-se în Polonia.
Tabel nr. 2 - Principalele efecte ale crizei economice la nivelul invăţământului
superior în Europa Emergentă. Sursa datelor: EUA, Eurostat, CE
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Pentru a putea analiza legătura dintre aceste date şi procesul de internaţionalizare, cel
mai adecvat instrument este analiza comparativă a fluxurilor de mobilităţi. Mobilitatea
include o gamă largă de programe pe termen scurt, cum ar fi stagii sau plasamente de lucru,
sejururi de cercetare, şcoli de vară, cursuri de limbi străine şi stagii de voluntariat. Mobilitatea
în Europa nu poate fi disociată de tendinţele existente la nivel global. Deşi diverse analize se
focalizează pe ţările europene, fluxurile de mobilitate către şi dinspre Europa, alcătuiesc o
parte distinctiv-semnificativă a imaginii de ansamblu. Referindu-ne strict la cele şapte ţări
emergente ale Europei, situaţia fluxurilor de mobilităţi, în ansamblul lor, pentru perioada de la
începutul crizei economice, redată grafic în varianta de pondere în Figura nr.1, situaţia se
prezintă astfel :
Figura nr. 1 - Fluxurile mobilităţilor studenţeşti – ponderi (2008-2009). Sursa
datelor: EACEA, Eurostat
1a. Ponderea nr. de studenţi cu mobilităţi finalizate cu diplomă din afara SEIS - cea
mai atractivă în grupul acestor ţări este Letonia, restul avînd o pondere de sub 1% şi cu mult
faţă de media SEIS (2,25); 2a. Ponderea nr. de mobilităţi finalizate cu diplome pentru
studenţi la studii în afara SEIS – Bulgaria se află de această dată chiar deasupra mediei SEIS
(0,34), cu o pondere de 1,1%, alături de ţări precum Norvegia, Elveţia, Islanda şi Cipru; 3a.
Ponderea numărului de mobilităţi finalizate cu diplomă pentru studenţi din SEIS, în numărul
total al studenţilor din ţara respectivă – şi la acest capitol Bulgaria înregistrează un număr mai
mare la mobilităţile de trimitere, atât faţă de restul grupei, cît şi de media ponderată SEIS; 4a.
Ponderea numărului de mobilităţi finalizate cu diplomă pentru absolvenţi din SEIS în numărul
total de absolvenţi din ţara de origine – Valorile privind numărul de absolvenţi incluse în
grafic constituie unele dintre cele mai importante elemente pentru evaluarea progresului
realizat pentru atingerea indicatorului Bologna – ca 20 % dintre studenţi să beneficieze de o
perioadă de studiu în străinătate. Din grupul acestor ţări, doar Bulgaria şi Estonia se detaşează,
apropiindu-se de media celor mai multe ţări la nivelul SEIS.
În corespondenţă cu distribuţiile numărului de studenţi (vezi Figura nr. 2 unde 1b -
reprezintă distribuţia studenţilor străini din afara SEIS, 2b. - distribuţia studenţilor cu
mobilităţi în afara SEIS, 3b. - distribuţia studenţilor ce studiază în ţări din SEIS pentru a primi
o diplomă, 4b. - distribuţia numărului de studenţi cu mobilităţi către ţări din SEIS, finalizate
cu diplomă, din perspectiva ţărilor de origine), toate aceste ponderi capătă alte valenţe, având
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
în vedere faptul că nu trebuiesc excluse şi alte variabile, precum dimensiunea geografică a
ţării şi numărul total de studenţi care aleg să studieze în ţara respectivă, aşa cum se poate
observa mai ales în cazul indicatorilor 2b, 3b şi 4 b. unde Polonia, România şi Bulgaria, la
mici diferenţe se detaşează de celelalte patru ţări europene emergente. Trebuie specificat că
în cazul ultimului indicator, Polonia chiar face parte din grupul ţărilor către care vin cea mai
mare parte dintre studenţii SEIS, alături de Germania, Franţa, Rusia, Ucraina, Italia, Slovacia
şi Grecia.
Figura nr. 2 Fluxurile mobilităţilor studenţeşti – distribuţii nr. studenţi (2008-
2009).
Sursa datelor: EACEA, Eurostat
Statistica prezentată mai sus se referă la mobilităţile finalizate cu obţinerea unei
diplome academice, pentru mobilităţile finalizate cu obţinerea de credite singura sursă
semnificativă de fiind programul Erasmus al Uniunii Europene.12 Dincolo de numerele
studenţilor mobili, impactul programului a fost asupra internaţionalizării şi reformei
învăţământului superior. Erasmus a deschis drumul către reforma învăţământului superior din
Europa prin Procesul Bologna, şi a fost un iniţiator pentru deschiderea către ţările Europei
Centrale şi de Est în contextul aderării la UE. Este important de semnalat faptul că Declaraţia
de la Londra s-a subliniat pentru prima dată în evoluţia Procesului Bologna necesitatea
realizării unui echilibru echitabil între mobilităţile efectuate pe teritoriul Spaţiului European al
Învăţământului Superior (SEIS) şi sporirea atenţiei către fluxurile de mobilitate de pe
teritoriul SEIS. Acest deziderat al echilibrului între fluxurile de mobilitate a fost reluat în
Declaraţia de la Leuven/Louvain-la-Neuve unde este stipulat faptul că mobilităţile trebuiesc
astfel organizate pentru obţinerea unui echilibru între fluxurile de primire (incoming) şi de
trimitere (outgoing) a studenţilor pe teritoriul SEIS.
Din această perspectivă relevantă apare, în primul rând, analiza comparativă atât la
palierul anilor academici de la începutul crizei economice (2007-2008) şi de la cel al primelor
semne de revenire (2012-2013), cît şi al raportului dintre nr. de studenţi incoming-outgoing.
12
Politica europeană privind mobilitatea este contextualizată printr-o serie de programe şi măsuri În timp ce Erasmus este cel
mai semnificativ instrument pentru ţările participante la Programul de Învăţare pe tot Parcursul Vieţii, programele
Tempus şi Erasmus Mundus oferă condiţiile pentru mobilităţi în ţări non-UE, deşi ţările eligibile pentru aceste programe
se extinde dincolo de SEIS. Programul CEEPUS sprijină mobilităţile academice şi cooperarea între universităţi din
Europa Centrală, Estică şi de Sud-Est, iar în mod identic sub-programul NordPlus, susţine prin subvenţii cooperarea şi
colaborarea în regiunea nord-baltică a Europei.
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Figura nr.3 - Graficele privind evoluţia temporală distinctă (2007-2008 şi 2012-2013)
a mobilităţilor Erasmus (incoming vs. outgoing). Reprezentări numerice şi procentuale. Sursa
datelor: CE (2014), EACEA P9 (2012)
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Figura nr.4 - Graficele comparative cumulate privind evoluţia temporal şi diferenţele
numărului de studenţi Erasmus (incoming vs. outgoing). Sursa datelor: CE (2014), EACEA
P9 (2012)
Din reprezentările grafice ale Figurii nr. 3, putem constata că toate cele şapte ţări
europene emergente, au trimis mai multi studenţi decât au primit, atât în anul universitar
2007-2008 (rata fiind chiar de 1 la 3 în Letonia şi România şi mai mică în cazul celorlalte
cinci), cât şi în 2012-2013 (unde rata de 1 la 3 se păstrează doar în cazul României, iar pentru
Ungaria se constată singura situaţie de echilibru cerută şi de Declaraţia de la Leuven).
Polonia este singura ţară care se numără, la nivelul ambilor ani academici, printre
ţările net exportatoare de studenţi la nivelul stagiilor şi a mobilităţilor studenţeşti, în numere
absolute, iar Estonia, Letonia şi Lituania se află în topul ţărilor exportatoare ca pondere în
numărul total de studenţi. Pe lângă aceasta, rata medie anuală de creştere în aceste ţări a fost,
la nivelul anului 2007-2008 de 23,75%, ritmul anual fiind foarte mare în Bulgaria (50,34%),
Malta (41,39%) şi România (39.27%) Adiţional putem aminti că la nivelul ratei de creştere a
mobilităţilor pe întreg programul Life Long Learning, început în anul academic 2007-2008,
statisticile indică în fruntea clasamentului pe Letonia (81%), Bulgaria (71%) şi Estonia (61%),
apoi, în ordine descrescătoare, cu rate între 49%-30% România şi Lituania, iar Polonia cu mai
puţin de 30%. (CE, 2014, pp. 14-30).
În baza reprezentărilor cumulate din graficele Figurilor 3 şi 4, se poate constata ca la
nivelul ponderii numărului studenţilor incoming din numărul total de studenţi al grupului
celor şapte ţări, de la începutul programului până în anul 2012-2013, rate de scădere de există
în cazul Poloniei (2%), Bulgariei (1%) şi României (1%), stagnare pentru Estonia şi Ungaria
şi creştere pentru Letonia şi Lituania (câte un punct procentual). În cazul situaţiei numărului
studenţilor outgoing, se evidenţiază creşterea pentru România şi Bulgaria cu câte 2% şi pentru
Letonia cu 1%, stagnare pentru Estonia şi Lituania şi scădere pentru Polonia (3%) şi Ungaria
(2%). Cu toate acestea, atât din reprezentările grafice separate cât şi cele cumulate, cu
facilitate se poate observa că Polonia se distanţează apreciabil de tot grupul atât pentru
studenţii outgoing, cât şi pentru cei incoming, pentru ambii ani universitari de referinţă,
graficul comparativ ilustrând evoluţia crescătoare certă a acestei ţări, situaţii identice, dar la
scară mult mai mică, fiind şi pentru celelalte ţări, cu excepţia Estoniei (fluctuant) şi a Ungariei
(stabil, echilibrat).
Concluzii
Raportând datele statistice din figuri, cu informaţiile şi datele din tabele, putem
constata o strânsă legătură şi interdependenţă între evoluţia numărului de mobilităţi şi
măsurile, politicile, strategiile şi efectele acestora la nivelul învăţământului superior pe
perioada crizei economico-financiare. Fluxurile de mobilitate în ţările Europei Emergente
pot fi considerate ca fiind echilibrate, însă tendinţa vizibilă este de reverberare a
dezechilibrelor de la est la vest: cu cât ne apropiem de vest (Polonia), situaţia devine mult
mai favorabilă.
Interconectivitatea aceasta dintre implementarea adecvată a procesului Bologna la
nivel de mobilităţi şi răspunsurile mediului academic la criza economică, conduce, în fapt şi la
atractivitatea instituţiilor de învăţământ superior, reprezentând principalul instrument care
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susţine internaţionalizarea, argumentul concret în sprijinul acestei afirmaţii fiind şi faptul că în
topurile mondiale, din grupul ţărilor Europei Emergente, tot Polonia este în prima poziţie (6
universităţi).
De aceea, răspunsul factorilor decidenţi la nivel naţional, deşi strategiile adoptate la
nivelul UE sunt comune, trebuie să se regăsească şi să graviteze în jurul unor măsuri mult mai
intensive şi contextualizate pentru susţinerea internaţionalizării academice în condiţiile
ameliorării efectelor crizei economico-financiare, precum: măsuri de promovare şi sprijin
pentru mobilităţi, programe şi strategii adecvate la nivel naţional şi regional, corelarea
acestora cu cele de la nivel instituţional, stabilirea de obiective realizabile şi susţinerea
acestora prin investiţii în infrastructura necesară, remedierea obstacolelor semnalate de
experienţa mobilităţilor trecute - prin finanţare adecvată, eliminarea dificultăţilor birocratice,
juridice, logistice şi organizaţionale, reducerea accesului limitat la programele de mobilităţi,
crearea condiţiilor necesare pentru servicii de sprijin pentru evitarea situaţiilor de părăsire a
familiilor şi a locului de muncă, reducerea dificultăţilor legate de imigraţie şi obţinerea vizelor
etc.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. CE, (2010), Europa 2020. Communication from the Commission Europe 2020. A
strategy for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth, COM(2010) 2020 final, Brussels.
2. CE, (2011), Recent developments in European higher education systems. European
Commission staff working document (SEC (2011) 1063 final).
3. CE, (2014), Erasmus - Facts, Figures & Trends. The European Union support for
student and staff exchanges and university cooperation in 2012-13, Luxembourg:
Publications Office of the European Union, 32 p.
4. Chang, G., (2010), Monitoring the effects of the Global Crisis on Education Provision.
CISE, Current Issues in Comparative Education 12(2), pp.14-20.
5. De Boer, H., Jongbloed, Benneworth, P., Westerheijden, D., & File, J. (2012).
Engaging in the Modernisation Agenda for European Higher Education. Brussels:
ESMU.
6. EACEA P9 Eurydice (2012), Spaţiul European al Învăţământului Superior în 2012:
Procesul Bologna, http://eacea.ec.europa.eu/education/eurydice. (accesat la 8
septembrie 2014)
7. EACEA/Eurydice. (2010). Focus on Higer Education in Europe 2010: The Impact of
Bologna Process. Brussels: EACEA.
8. Education International (2010), Education and the Global Economic Crisis: Summary
of results of the follow-up survey, http://download.ei-
ie.org/Docs/WebDepot/05March10_Impactcrisis report_followup_MDK.pdf. (accesat
la 8 septembrie 2014)
9. Estermann, T. (2011). Europe: The challenge of financial sustainability. University
World News, issue 164,
http://www.universityworldnews.com/article.php?story=20110325202815735 &query
=estermann (accesat la 1 septembrie 2014)
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10. EUA (2011), Impact of the economic crisis on European universities (January 2011),
http://www.eua.be/eua-work-and-policy-area/governance-autonomy-
andfunding/publicfunding-observatory.aspx (accesat la 5 septembrie 2014)
11. EUA (2012), EUA‘s Public Funding Observatory (June 2012), http://www.eua.be/eua-
work-and-policy-area/governance-autonomy-and-funding/publicfunding-
observatory.aspX (accesat la 5 septembrie 2014)
12. Eurostat, (2013), Expenditure on education as % of GDP or public expenditure.
[educ_figdp], http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/
(accesat la 6 septembrie 2014)
13. Teichler, Ulrich, (2004), The Changing Debate on Internationalization of Higher
Education. Education, 48, pp. 5-26.
14. Varghese, N.V. (2010), Running to stand still. Higher Education in a Period of Global
Economic Crisis, IIEP Ed., UNESCO, Paris
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
Această lucrare a fost realizată în cadrul proiectului POSDRU/159/1.5/133675
―Inovare şi dezvoltare în structurarea si reprezentarea cunoaşterii prin burse doctorale şi
postdoctorale (IDSRC - doc postdoc)‖, cofinanţat de Uniunea Europeană şi Guvernul
României din Fondul Social European prin Programul Operaţional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 2007-2013
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NON-FINANCIAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE SUCCESS OF A
MERGER TRANSACTION
Anca-Simona Hromei, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: Nowadays, the performance of mergers is a subject of great debates, being quite
difficult to establish if these transactions will end as predicted. There are numerous cases in
which studies made prior the merger, based only on financial data, show great chances of
success, but, in the end, those transactions fail to accomplish the expected results. This
frequently happens because some non-financial factors are overlooked, compromising the
entire merger process. Some of these elements are the organizational culture and the internal
policies of the merging companies, the human resources involved, and the managing or
leadership style. This paper aims to highlight the most important non-financial factors that
influence the post-merger integration success and to synthesize the ways in which these
elements will enhance the financial and non-financial performance of the company resulting
from a merger or acquisition.
Keywords: merger, integration, human resources, organizational culture, non-financial
performance
Introduction
The number of mergers and acquisitions is constantly growing due to the popularity of
these reorganizing operations in the business world. Although very popular, these transactions
require a great involvement and rigorous management, in order to successfully end. Studies
conducted at the European and international level had shown a significant number of mergers
that turned out to be a fiasco, due to bad planning in the period prior the merger and after its
completion, in the integration phase.
There are some very important factors, besides the financial aspects, that must be
taken into account both in the planning phase and in the integration period. This paper will try
to highlight the importance of some non-financial factors that must be considered when
planning a merger and its integration, the most important ones being directly correlated with
the organizational culture, management style and human resources. All these factors and their
proper integration and adaptation will materialize in a non-financial performance. The non-
financial performance of a merger can be assessed based on the degree of innovation and
adaptation to the market requirements, the company‘s popularity among customers, the
general reputation of the company, etc.(Meglio and Risberg, 2010). In time, this non-financial
performance will contribute to achieving better financial results.
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The importance of an experienced manager and a good leadership
In the integration phase following the merger, both the absorbed and the absorbing
companies have to make efforts and compromises in order to adjust their activity and their
cultures.
At this stage, a great role is assigned to the managers involved in mergers, because
they act and speak in the name of the companies prior the merger, and are the ones who make
the first steps towards the integration, after the legal completion of the merger. In fact, the
interaction between representatives of both parties might be considered the first way of
communication between the merging companies. This is why the persons from the top and
middle management are in charge with setting an example for all the employees of the
combined companies, having to show confidence in the success of the merger, and also
patience when it comes to dealing with new or critical situations.
The post-merger integration task should fall into the responsibility of a manager with
previous experience in this field. Otherwise, the company should contract external consultants
in order to determine the best solution for a quick and effective integration. Human resources
specialists consider that mergers are only for experienced professionals, not amateurs, the
stage of planning and integrating the companies being one in which the weaknesses of a
young manager would be easily revealed (Tower Perrin Survey, 2003).
A very important thing the management team must take into account and analyse is the
main purpose of the merger. Different reasons for mergers may determine different
approaches when it comes to the integration phase. For example, a company that absorbed
another one only with the purpose of having direct access to its intellectual property may not
need to give much attention to the integration phase. However, if the main goal of the merger
was an increase of the market share, the integration process must be well planned and
potential cultural differences or conflicts that might arise must be seriously considered.
When asked about the most challenging tasks regarding the post-merger integration,
the surveyed managers considered the cultural integration as the most difficult thing to do,
followed by the necessity of completing the merger in the planned period. On the third place
came the effective integration of the products and service portfolios, another difficult task
without a good understanding of the production process and of the supply chain (Bearing
Point Management& Technology Consultants).
Specialists from the M&A field summarized the main responsibilities a leader should
have, in order to ensure the successful completion of a merger operation (Able, 2007):
- create an enthusiastic and positive business environment and a disciplined work
environment;
- inspire employees, with a positive attitude, confidence and commitment,
supporting them in any difficult situation;
- develop a secured work environment that inspires community, trust, coherence and
which determines the employees to remain focused on their daily activities.
Before trying to influence the subordinates and involve in the integration process,
managers must first understand and clarify the exact principles, rules and values that will be
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applied in the newly created firm. Only by a good understanding of all these elements, a
leader can choose the adequate strategies and practices to be used in order to fulfil the long-
term goals.
After the proper understanding of the approach that should be used in the newly-
created company, managers must try to transfer these ideas, values and policies to all the
employees, by direct communication, and also through the power of positive and negative
examples from the past or from other companies (Aguilera et. al, 2006).
In other words, managers, especially the ones from the absorbing company, must
make all the efforts in order to build a new strong and united team, successfully integrating
the employees from the absorbed company into the new business (Harrison and Farrell,
2008).
In addition to the responsibilities and organizational culture knowledge mentioned
earlier, it is obvious that a manager will need to have a clear image regarding the financial
situation of the merging companies, especially of the acquiring one, in order to plan and
develop proper strategies regarding investments, activity development, cost planning and so
on.
It must also be highlighted that even the senior managers and the CEO must personally
participate in the integration process, their presence being a source of security, trust and
positive attitude for the employees. These highly important persons will be the ones to ensure
the employees from both of the absorbed and absorbing company that everything is under
control, and that they should not worry about their position in the company (Towers Perrin,
2003, p.5).
When it comes to leaders and leadership, it has been identified a strong connexion
between the leadership style of top managers and the success of mergers. When analysing
which leadership style is more adequate for the integration phase, researchers consider that a
socialized charismatic approach, which will lead to a collaborative vision-formation, is more
suitable rather than the personalized charismatic leaders that might be using more rough
measures, that would create a hostile work-environment, especially for the absorbed team
(Waldman and Javidan, 2009).
In delicate situations, such as integrating different teams and cultures, socialized
charismatic leaders will adopt strategies in order to serve the best interests of the company
and also to satisfy employees. Socialized charisma is considered non-exploitive and more
focused on subordinates‘ needs. On the opposite side, a personalized charismatic leader
typically considered authoritarian and even narcissistic, might be focused more on achieving
its personal interests, neglecting the needs of its team and being sometimes too exploitative
(Choi, 2006).
Another interesting fact regarding the connection between leaders and the success of
mergers is that studies identified a higher rate of success in the transactions where leaders
from the acquired or absorbed companies were kept in the newly-created team (Calori, et.al,
1997).
When the managers from both of the merging companies meet and need to work
together to get through the integration phase, some differences of view and perceptions might
arise. The compatibility of the leadership styles when the management team is created from
both of the united teams is primordial, a well-know and highly mentioned example of
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unsuccessful merger being Daimler-Chrysler. Its below expectations results were partially
assigned to cultural and leadership differences (Bearing Point Publication, p.4)
All these aspects regarding managers and their leading manner will directly influence
the success of the business after the merger. It is natural to have an increased work
productivity and no major problems such as mass resignations, when using a proper
management style, that combines fulfilling the objectives set for the newly company with a
high level of respect and care for the employees. Problems such as strikes, gaps in production,
failures in the daily activity, noncompliance with the terms and the timesheet, that will
directly increase costs and reduce profit, can be easily avoided. This happens when having a
well-trained and experienced manager, who knows its business very well, uses the right ways
to motivate employees and takes all the measures needed to connect all the departments of the
company and persons from both the old and the new company. This way the manager will
create a performing and efficient system that will benefit from the knowledge and expertise of
both merged companies, capitalizing their stronger points and transforming weaknesses into
advantages.
The Human Resources department role
The relationship between human resources practices and the performance of mergers
and acquisitions is another highly studied and popular theme. A faster and more efficient
integration is considered to be accomplished when enhanced human resources practices are
used. Among these there must be mentioned the continuous communication with employees,
trainings and also a proper combination of HR practices from both of the merged teams. In
other words, the success key is to obtain synergies through a proper resource sharing and by
implementing a knowledge-based view, which constantly develops and integrates knowledge
(Iankova, 2013)
Although it could have a great role in integrating the team and constructing a positive
image of the newly created work environment, there are many cases, of small mergers, when
companies do not have a HR representative charged with completing the specific tasks related
to the merger. There are also situations in which the merging companies do not even have a
HR department or even a HR employee. In this case, the entire responsibility of supporting
the newly created team and helping it function properly falls on the shoulders of the manager.
A global online survey conducted by Towers Perrin and the Economist Intelligence
Unit, regarding the role of the human capital in M&A success has shown that a very small
number of companies dedicated HR resources especially for the merger transaction.
Furthermore, from those that did, only in some cases the HR department intervened in the
planning stage. (Tower Perrin Survey,2003). Involving a HR specialist in the planning phase,
prior the completion of the merger would have been very useful and efficient. A HR specialist
could have identified which is the proper policy when forming the new team. He would have
been able to evaluate employees from both of the companies and to determine which are
indeed useful for the new business. In addition, he could have early anticipated a possible
need of personnel, this way avoiding gaps, delays or other production issues related to the
lack of trained staff. A specialist in the human resources field would also be capable to
provide predictions on staff costs and training costs thereof, this being extremely useful when
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preparing a cash flow or a budget for the newly business. Not to mention that HR
professionals would be the ones to identify whether there can be some economies of scale
regarding the personnel costs, if there can be some restructurings made within the
organization chart, that could favourably influence costs.
It is very important for the employees to acknowledge their specific roles, tasks, and
responsibilities within the new company and this will be possible only by using proper human
resources practices. The employees‘ handbooks should be reconsidered with the necessary
changes, and the job description should be revised and communicated to all the staff. Each
person working in the new company has to know its responsibilities, its limits of action and
the person to whom he will directly address. It is recommended that the persons working in
the acquired company to be put together with the ones from the acquiring side, in order to
facilitate their socialization.
The rewarding system is a delicate and important aspect where managers should
benefit from the help of a HR department. In the integration phase the rewards that employees
were accustomed with should be preserved, and eventually negotiated their possible increase
over a period. (Aguilera, 2006)
In addition, if necessary, the HR department is the one that needs to explain and
convince employees that a different recognition and rewards system is normal and fair,
especially for different tasks or projects of the same business. Especially for the sales team
these rewards and incentives must be discussed and analysed and the staff should be highly
motivated and satisfied with their job (Bearing Point Management& Technology
Consultants). This can be extended also to other teams, such as those from the research and
product development department or even from the management level.
The immediate period after a merger is one in which the company cannot afford
resignations from the selling team because these will directly affect sales, revenues and cash
receipts. Experts from the R&D department leaving the company will consist in a loss of
intellectual capital, creating additional investment needs. Another worst-case scenario is that
of losing one of the managers who knew and directly participated in planning the merger. The
role of the HR department in all these cases is to analyse the satisfaction level of the
employees, regarding the financial aspects but also the ones related to the work-environment.
If the company cannot afford to increase salaries, at least some extra recreational activities
should be organised, or other less expensive measures, which raise employees‘ satisfaction,
should be considered.
Merging different cultures
Over time, the merger operation has been compared to a marriage, being a process in
which two independent companies reunite in one single team, as a family, join all their assets
and liabilities and continue their journey united.
As in any new formed ―family‖, each partner of the merger has its own habits, ideas,
beliefs and visions. All these elements form the organizational culture of the firm.
Researchers in the field consider that cultural dimensions differences can be one of the
greatest drawbacks when speaking about post-merger integration. Reality showed that the
cultural integration aspect has been, in many merger cases, usually overlooked in the planning
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phase. When it has not been completely over sighted, the problem regarding cultural
integration was surely underestimated. The period in which the cultural change takes place
usually overlaps with the delicate one in which managers have a great pressure on their
shoulders regarding the financial aspects of the merger. (Cartwright and Cooper, 2000)
A good management team will take into account this very important factor even in the
phase when the suitable merger partner is identified and the opportunity of completing the
merger is evaluated. The compatibility of the organizational cultures must be well analysed
because great differences may later conduct to critical situations, that might affect the smooth
running of the business and even the financial results.
According to Deloitte, one of the culture‘s characteristics is that people perceive it as
right or even as better than others‘. This is why new cultural values imposed on employees,
seldom replace their own values and beliefs in the long term. Moreover, cultural aspects are
considered implicit, meaning that people will not recognize some elements of their life as
being related to culture, although they are.
Regarding this aspects, Deloitte consultants consider that in the due-diligence process
prior the merger, there should be an evaluation of whether the cultural elements can be
integrated. In addition, they consider that cultural aspects should be closely related to
business, by linking the cultural program established for integration to measurable business or
financial results. Connecting culture to value-creation is an effective tool that can be used in
order to achieve the objectives. (Deloitte, 2009).
When speaking about organisational culture, it has been identified a strange effect
between employees, who tend to emphasize the differences between the merged companies,
to develop distorted perceptions and to assign any error occurred to the colleagues from the
other company. (Harrison and Farrell, 2008)
There are also situations when some little cultural differences may be in favour of
stimulating dialogue, generating creative ideas and bringing innovation into the company
(Mirvis and Marks, 2003). This will happen if employees will be opened to sharing ideas,
thoughts and spending time knowing each other. Although having different organizational
culture or different cultural background, common points must be found and similar interests
should be identified.
A differentiation between cultural issues related to country of origin or religion and
the ones regarding only organizational culture problems should be made. Cross-border
mergers taking place between companies from different countries and cultures will need even
a deeper analysis when speaking about integration. What is normal in a country or region
might be considered strange or inappropriate by people from other countries. All the other
colleagues should respect habits, traditions and religious manifestations of one employee.
Otherwise, this may lead to frustration, discontent and even to accusations of discrimination,
which, in the end will affect the entire business.
It can be stated that culture, this non-financial factor influencing a merger, is consider
to be, in some situations, even more important than other strategic or financial factors. A
balanced integration of the values, beliefs and ideas of both merging companies, creating a
new identity, which inherits valuable traditional elements from the old teams, but also
constantly adapts to the changes in the business environment, will directly contribute to the
work productivity, positively influencing also the financial results.
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Conclusions
Merger operations tend to be quite stressful both for the managers of the merging
companies, but also for employees. In order to ensure the success of the transaction, in the
planning stage and in the post-merger integration phase, some non-financial factors must be
taken into consideration.
First, it is necessary the participation of managers who are competent, knowledgeable
and experienced, and who will professionally choose the most appropriate strategies and
approaches in order to achieve the objectives of the merger, and simultaneously maintain an
united, motivated and involved team. Managers should act like a linkage between employees
from all the departments, the CEO and other stakeholders.
Nevertheless, one or two managers cannot succeed in their effort without the support
of a human resources team. Although, until recent times, the human related issues were
neglected, it is now a well-known thing that employees‘ satisfaction will translate into a
higher financial performance. If the HR department uses the adequate strategies to motivate
and reward employees, their creativity and dedication to the business will increase
considerably, and this way the products created or the services rendered will be of a higher
quality. This will only translate into higher sales and revenues.
In the due-diligence phase, the team charged with the merger planning must also
evaluate the level of compatibility between the cultures of the merging companies. In
numerous cases these differences, if not early identified, can lead to internal conflicts and then
even to significant disruptions in the daily activity. In addition, certain items regarding the
organisational culture can be capitalized, in order to create a better and stronger image of the
company. In a merger, as in a marriage, partners put together all their resources, not only
material, but also ideas and beliefs, in order to create something more important, bigger and
stronger.
Planning and assessing only the financial aspects when completing a merger might
work on the short-term, but as time goes by, the influence of the non-financial factors
mentioned above will be noticed.
In conclusion, in the phase preceding the merger, it is very important to have an
experienced and well-trained manager, who takes into account also the non-financial aspects,
such as cultural issues and personnel satisfaction. Afterwards, in the integration phase, the
constant cooperation of the managers with the HR department is vital in order to keep a
balanced work environment which will directly contribute to the long-term goals of the
company in a more efficient and effective way.
References:
1. Able, R.M.(2008), The Importance of Leadership and Culture to M&A Success,
Human Capital Institute, Towers Perrin HR Services, January 2007, available on-line at:
http://dev.directorship.com/stuff/contentmgr/files/0/c53062e2326def1c90990685484e4483/mi
sc/the_importance_of_leadershpfmttvd_ef_apr30.pdf;
2. Aguilera, R. V., Dencker, J.C., Yalabik, Z.Y. (2006), Institutions and Organizational
Socialization: Integrating Employees in Cross-Border Mergers and Acquisitions, University
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of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, pp.40-41, available on-line at:
http://business.illinois.edu/working_papers/papers/06-0112.pdf
3. Bearing Point Management&Technology Consultants, Addressing the people issues in
a strategic restructuring initiative: The M&A case, p.3, available on-line at: http://www.imaa-
institute.org/docs/m&a/bearingpoint_03_addressing%20the%20people%20issues%20in%20a
%20strategic%20restructuring%20initiation%20-%20M&A.pdf
4. Calori, R., Lubatkin, M, Very, P., Veiga, J (1997), Relative standing and the
performance of recently acquired European firms, Strategic Management Journal, no.18,
vol.8, pp.593-585;
5. Cartwright, S., Cooper, G.L. (2000), Managing Mergers, Acquisitions and Strategic
Alliances. Integrating People and Cultures, Butterworth-Hainemann, Oxford, p.44;
6. Choi, J. (2006), A motivational theory of charismatic leadership: Envisioning,
empathy, and empowerment, Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, no.13, vol.(1),
pp. 24-43;
7. Deloitte(2009), Cultural issues in mergers and acquisitions, Leading through
transition: Perspectives on the people side of M&A, available on-line at:
http://www.deloitte.com/assets/DcomUnitedStates/Local%20Assets/Documents/us_consultin
g_CulturalIssuesinMA_010710.pdf;
8. Harrison, S, Farrell, P.(2007), Measuring Post-Merger Success: Integration Processes
and Human Factors, Dainty, A(Ed) Procs 24th Annual ARCOM Conference, Cardiff, UK,
pp.6-8;
9. Iankova, S. (2013), Success and Failure Factors of the Mergers and Acquisitions
Performance: Evidence from Bulgaria, International Journal of Economics & Business
Administration, vol.1, issue 1, p. 82;
10. Meglio, O., Risberg, A.(2010), Mergers and acquisitions–Time for a methodological
rejuvenation of the field?, Scandinavian Journal of Management, no. 26, pp. 87-95;
11. Mirvis, P.H., Marks, M.L. (2003), Culture in corporate combinations, Leading in
turbulent times, London, UK:Blackwell, pp.284-301;
12. Towers Perrin Survey (2003),The Role of Human Capital in M&A, p.4, available on-
line at:
http://www.imaainstitute.org/docs/m&a/towersperrin_05_the%20role%20of%20human%20c
apital%20in%20M&A.pdf
13. Waldman, D., Javidan, M.(2009), Alternative forms of charismatic leadership in the
integration of mergers and acquisitions, The Leadership Quarterly, no.20, pp.130-142;
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THE FINANCIAL STABILITY OF THE COOPERATIVE BANKS IN
COMPARISON WITH THE COMMERCIAL BANKS
Ioana Raluca Diaconu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: In the context of the Global Financial Crisis, the literature has shown a particular
interest in the financial stability issue, suggesting that it has always been a natural concern of
the monetary authorities. The financial stability can be analysed from two different
perspectives, firstly, the financial stability analysis (or the analysis of financial instability)
and secondly, the existing risk. Both of them have the same primary motivation - to counteract
the financial crisis.
This article analyses the financial stability of the cooperative banks in comparison to the
commercial banks. At the end of the analysis we are able determine whether the CreditCoop
network is financially more stable than the commercial banks. Also, we plan to see if there is
any difference among the factors affecting the financial stability of the commercial banks and
the cooperative banks within the CreditCoop network. The analysis takes place in the network
of cooperative banks, consisting of CreditCoop's central bank together with the 17 agencies
and the 13 commercial banks which make up more than 80% of the market share of
commercial banks operating in Romania, and the period of analysis is from 2008 to 2012.
Through this work we aim to identify the main factors that could affect the stability, and for
this purpose we use the regression model.
Keywords: co-operative banks, commercial banks, financial stability, Global Financial
Crisis, regression model
JEL classification: G21; D81; C23; P13
Introducere
Funcționarea sănătoasă a sistemului financiar din cadrul unei țări are un rol esențial
pentru economia reală a acesteia, deoarece aduce contribuții la creşterea economică, la
favorizarea acumulării de capital şi chiar poate înlesni redistribuirea riscurilor.
Ultimii ani, cei premergători declanșării recentei crize financiare au fost caracterizați
printr-o dezvoltare extrem de accelerată, nesustenabilă, fapt ce a condus la o serie de
dezechilibre. Criza financiară globală a surprins pe mulți în momentul în care s-a declanșat,
atât prin amploarea luată, cât și prin consecințele economice declanșate, agravând aceste
dezechilibre, dar și adăugând altele noi. Fără îndoială, putem afirma că această criză a
datoriilor suverane declanșată în 2008 a „zdruncinat lumea confortabilă a băncilor centrale‖
(Borio, 2011) și a readus în discuţie una dintre cele mai importante și serioase probleme
economice, instabilitatea financiară.
1. Literatura de specialitate privind stabilitatea sistemului bancar
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Stabilitatea financiară internaţională se află actualmente sub semnul incertitudinii
datorită slăbiciunilor evidenţiate în cadrul economiilor naţionale, a manifestării fenomenului
de contagiune şi a hazardului moral, remarcându-se faptul că sistemul financiar este
caracterizat printr-o înaltă senzitivitate la presiunile existente.
Din analiza literaturii de specialitate am ajuns la concluzia că nu există o viziune
unitară asupra conceptului de stabilitate financiară, astfel pe parcursul demersului întreprins
am întâlnit fie definiţii prea generale, fie definiţii particularizate ale acestui concept.
Considerăm totuși că este mai util şi, poate, mai firesc, ca noţiunea de „stabilitate finaciară‖ să
se definească pornind de la noțiunea opusă și anume cea de ―instabilitate financiară‖.
Astfel, referindu-ne la stabilitatea financiară, aceasta poate fi analizată din două
perspective diferite și anume: analiza instabilităţii financiare sau analiza stabilităţii
financiare, respectiv a riscului existent, motivaţia principală fiind însă aceeași - de
contracarare a crizelor financiare. În acest sens, putem afirma că managementul riscului are o
istorie destul de bine conturată, întrucât acum mai bine de şase decenii, în 1945, Leavens a
propus o primă metodă de cuantificare a riscului.
Crockett (1997) definește ―stabilitatea financiară‖ ca ―absență a instabilității‖, mai
precis ca fiind situația în care performanța economică nu este afectată în mod potențial de
fluctuația prețurilor activelor sau de incapacitatea instituțiilor financiare de a-și îndeplini
obligațiile.
Albulescu (2010) în lucrarea sa ―Stabilitatea sectorului financiar în condițiile aderării
României la UEM‖ definește stabilitatea financiară ca fiind acea stare în care mecanismele
economice de formare a prețurilor, de evaluare, divizare și gestionare a riscurilor financiare
funcționează suficient de bine pentru a contribui la creșterea performanței economice.
Criza a arătat că stabilitatea financiară nu mai poate fi considerată un obiectiv
secundar, astfel conform teoriei instabilităţii financiare susţinută de economistul Hyman
Minsky, crizele financiare urmează un curs previzibil. Astfel, primul semn care anunţă o
viitoare criză financiară îl constituie un şoc din exterior asupra economiei.
De-a lungul timpului, mai mulţi autori (Lambadiaris et al. 2003; Sollis, 2009; Davis et
al, 2004; Gottwald, 2012) au analizat cea mai utilizată metodă de cuantificare a riscului şi
anume Value-at-Risk. Această metodă de cuantificare a riscului poate fi calculată pe baza a
trei metodologii: Simularea Istorică (Historical Simulation), Metoda Varianţa – Covarianţa
(Variance - Covariance Method) şi Simularea Monte Carlo (Monte Carlo Simulation).
Alţi cercetărori au încercat să creeze diferite modele pentru măsurarea volatilităţii
instrumentelor tranzacţionate pe pieţele financiare: modelul Autoregressive Conditional
Heteroscedasticity - ARCH (Engle, 1982) sau modelul Generalized Autoregressive
Conditional Heteroscedasticity – GARCH (Bollerslev, 1986), care au fost mai departe
dezvoltate de alţi cercetători.
Un alt studiu care evidențiază cât de importantă este tratarea cu seriozitate a stabilității
financiare a fost realizat de Beaver (1966) - ―Financial Ratios as Predictors of Failure‖ care
în urma studiului pe un eşantion de 79 firme falimentare şi 79 firme nefalimentare a creat un
model de previzionare a riscului de faliment bazat pe 5 rate financiare. La scurt timp, apare și
primul model de anvergură cu privire la analiza riscului de faliment, atât în literatura de
specialitate, cât şi în practica financiară care i-a aparţinut lui E. I. Altman (1968).
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Un model mai simplificat în analiza stabilităţii financiare este reprezentat de scorul Z,
care a fost dezvoltat de Mercieca et al. (2007). Prin lucrarea lor, aceştia au analizat efectele pe
care le are diversificarea asupra performanţelor unei bănci, arătând faptul că diversificarea nu
aduce neapărat un beneficiu semnificativ.
Mergând mai departe Groeneveld şi De Vries (2009), au aplicat scorul Z pe două
categorii de bănci: bănci comerciale şi bănci cooperatiste, cu scopul cuantificării stabilităţii
financiare în perioada 2002 – 2007. Au fost supuse analizei 35 de bănci din Uniunea
Europeană, dintre care 36 de bănci comerciale și 9 bănci cooperatiste. Pe baza rezultatelor, s-a
putut observa faptul că scorul Z este mai mare în cazul băncilor cooperatiste comparativ cu
cele comerciale pe toată perioada analizată, ceea ce înseamnă că băncile cooperatiste sunt
mult mai stabile din punct de vedere financiar comparativ cu cealaltă categorie de instituție
financiară analizată.
Dacă există o lecție de învățat pentru băncile cooperatiste, aceasta ar fi că ele trebuie
să se orienteze către stabilitate și să rămână aproape de valorile lor de bază, funcționând ca
bănci tradiționale. Literatura de specialitate ne arată că cele mai mari pierderi apar de îndată
ce aceste instituții se abat dincolo de sfera lor tradițională de afaceri. Băncile cooperatiste se
pot face auzite doar împreună și să preia inițiativa în crearea noului sistem financiar global.
Mai mult, Andrieş şi Căpraru (2011), au arătat că în perioada 2004 - 2008, scorul Z a
înregistrat o creştere continuă pentru 17 ţări din Europa Centrală şi de Est (inclusiv România),
ceea ce înseamnă o îmbunătăţire a stabilităţii financiare a sectorului bancar. Acest lucru poate
fi explicat prin armonizarea legislaţiilor bancare ale fiecărei ţări la legislaţia Uniunii
Europene.
O scurtă incursiune în literatura de specialitate ne arată că stabilitatea financiară
rămâne fragilă atât în țările în curs de dezvoltare, cât și in cele dezvoltate.
În ciuda faptului că au mai existat şi alte crize de mare amploare din care nu s-au tras
învăţămintele corespunzătoare, poate dimensiunea fără precedent a turbulenţelor actuale
constituie un semnal de alarmă deopotrivă pentru decidenţi, cât şi pentru actorii sistemelor
financiare, în vederea prevenirii dezechilibrelor şi nu doar a modului de tratare a
consecinţelor, făcându-se trimitere cu predilecție la principiul prudenței în conduita bancară
(Grant, 2012).
2. Elemente metodologice privind stabilitatea sistemului bancar, cât și
identificarea determinanților acesteia
În acest demers științific vom folosi date trimestriale, pe care le vom obţine prin
interpolarea datelor anuale. Interpolarea este o metodă simplă, prin care putem determina
punctele necunoscute dintre alte 2 puncte cunoscute. De exemplu, dacă avem punctele A (XA,
YA) şi B (XB,YB), valoarea interpolată pentru un alt punct C (X, Y) dintre A şi B, este dată de
următoarea relaţie:
X XA
Y YA (YB YA )
(1) YB YA
În aceast articol vom utiliza scorul Z, aşa cum este el calculat în lucrarea lui
Groeneveld şi De Vries (2009). Acest scor este calculat pe baza a trei indicatori principali:
ROA – rata dintre profit şi total active, E/A – rata dintre capitalurile proprii şi total active,
precum şi deviaţia standard aferentă ROA. Pe baza acestui scor, vom putea afla câte deviaţii
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standard pentru ROA sunt necesare astfel încât această modificare să cauzeze o creştere a
activelor, comparativ cu datoriile avute. Scorul Z se calculează pe baza relaţiei (2):
E
ROA
Scorul Z A
(2) (ROA )
După cum afirmă şi Mercieca et al., 2007, cu cât este mai mare scorul Z, cu atât banca
este mai stabilă. Pentru a afla determinanţii stabilităţii financiare a băncilor cooperatiste,
respectiv comerciale, vom utiliza modelul de regresie aferent relaţiei (3):
Scorul Z t 0 1 INFt 2 PIBt 3 BETt 4 ROBOR 3M t t
(3)
unde, INFt – rata inflaţiei la momentul t; PIBt – rata de modificare a produsului intern
brut la momentul t; BETt – rata de modificare a indicelui BET la momentul t şi ROBOR3Mt –
rata interbancară la 3 luni. În acest sens vom estima două modele de regresie, unul pentru
băncile comerciale şi unul pentru băncile cooperatiste.
Am selectat aceste variabile cu scopul de a evidenţia impactul asupra stabilităţii
financiare a trei categorii de factori: situaţia macroeconomică generală (rata inflaţiei şi
creşterea produsului intern brut), situaţia de pe piaţa financiară (rata de modificare a indicelui
BET), precum şi situaţia din sectorul bancar (rata interbancară la termen de 3 luni – ROBOR
3M).
3. Principalele seturi de date utilizate pentru analiza stabilității sistemului bancar
Al doilea pas este cel de a analiza stabilitatea financiară a două categorii principale de
bănci: bănci comericale şi bănci cooperatiste. În vederea atingerii acestui obiectiv, pentru
băncile cooperatiste am selectat reţeaua CreditCoop, iar pentru cel de al doilea grup,
reprezentat de băncile comerciale, am selectat 13 bănci comerciale şi anume: BCR, BRD,
Banca Transilvania, Raiffeissen Bank, CEC Bank, UniCredit Țiriac, Alpha Bank, Volksbank,
Bancpost, Banca Română, Piraeus Bank, OTP Bank şi Intesa Sanpaolo Bank. Aceste 13 bănci
comerciale formează mai bine de 80% din cota de piaţă a băncilor comerciale.
Toate datele au fost preluate din rapoartele anuale ale băncilor menţionate anterior,
pentru perioada 2008 – 2012 şi pe baza interpolării am obţinut date trimestriale.
Tabel 1. Statistică descriptivă a variabilelor utilizate, pentru perioada 2008 - 2012
Variablă Medie Mediană Max. Min. Dev. Std.
Active 775 790 856 643 72
Capital 122 122 133 108 6
Bănci Profit 7 7 13 2 3
cooperatiste ROA 0.91% 0.89% 1.68% 0.24% 0.41%
E/A 15.82% 15.48% 17.15% 14.72% 0.82%
Active 273,085 280,750 300,078 209,152 25,671
Capital 27,327 28,149 32,163 19,094 4,149
Bănci comerciale Profit 2,500 2,816 5,646 -1,837 2,047
ROA 0.97% 1.00% 2.17% -0.61% 0.80%
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E/A 9.96% 10.03% 10.95% 9.13% 0.68%
Notă: Valoarea pentru active, capitaluri şi profit sunt exprimate în milioane RON.
Statistica descriptivă a principalelor variabile selectate este prezentată în tabelul 1.
Putem observa cu uşurinţă faptul că valoarea medie a activelor băncilor comerciale (273
miliarde RON) este de 35 de ori mai mare decât valoarea activelor băncilor cooperatiste. Cu
toate că profitul mediu aferent băncilor cooperatiste este de 7 milioane RON (de 250 de ori
mai mic decât valoarea medie a profitului băncilor comerciale), putem sesiza că băncile
cooperatiste nu au înregistrat nicio pierdere în perioada crizei financiare, lucru care nu poate fi
spus despre băncile comerciale, care au înregistrat pierderi, cu precădere în perioada 2011 –
2012.
Evoluţia activelor, capitalurilor şi profitului pentru băncile cooperatiste poate fi văzută
în figura 1, în timp ce evoluţia activelor, capitalurilor şi profitului pentru băncile comerciale
poate fi observată în figura 2.
Assets
data Assets Equity Profit
COMMERCIAL
2008 696 119 7 260,254,368,032
2009 784 122 2 275,450,217,553
2010 796 123 5 286,050,107,667
2011 856 126 13 293,672,848,669
2012 851 133 5 300,077,994,916
0 0 0 260,254
Figura 1. Grupul băncilor cooperatiste: active, capital şi profit (millioane RON)
350,000 8,000
300,000 6,000
250,000
4,000
200,000
2,000
150,000
0
100,000
50,000 -2,000
0 -4,000
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Assets Equity Profit
Figura 2. Grupul băncilor comerciale: active, capital şi profit (millioane RON)
La ambele categorii de bănci analizate putem constata că valoarea activelor cunoaște
un trend ușor ascendent în perioada 2008 – 2012, în timp ce valoarea capitalurilor rămâne
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constantă: la băncile cooperatiste în jur de 122 milioane RON, iar la băncile comerciale
27.327 milioane RON. Chiar dacă cifrele profitului în cazul băncilor comerciale sunt cu mult
mai mari decât în cazul băncilor cooperatiste, trebuie remarcat faptul că cele din urmă nu au
înregistrat pierderi în perioada analizată.
Dacă analizăm figura 3, putem observa că rata dintre capitaluri şi active (E/A) este
mult mai mare pentru băncile cooperatiste, comparativ cu băncile comerciale. Mai mult, după
o perioadă în care ROA pentru băncile comerciale era mai mare decât ROA pentru băncile
cooperatiste, după anul 2010, putem să constatăm că băncile cooperatiste sunt mult mai
profitabile decât băncile comerciale. Acest lucru se explică pe baza pierderilor realizate de
băncile comerciale în anii 2011 – 2012.
Figura 3. Evoluţia ROA şi E/A pentru băncile comerciale şi cele cooperatiste
Pe lângă calculul stabilității financiare a celor două categorii de bănci, suntem
interesați să identificăm principalii factori care ar afecta această stabilitate. În acest sens, vom
utiliza modelul de regresie exprimat prin relația 3.
Tabel 2. Statistică descriptivă a variabilelor utilizate în identificarea determinanților
stabilității financiare
Variablă M M M M D S K
edie ediană ax. in. ev. Std. kewness urtosis
Scorul–Z (comerciale) 14.50 14.45 15.08 13.87 0.39 0.10 1.84
Scorul–Z (cooperatiste) 40.89 39.62 45.35 38.49 2.39 0.93 2.14
Rata indice BET 0.09% -0.01% 2.72% -1.81% 1.03% 0.57 4.02
Rată creștere PIB 0.06% -0.10% 3.60% -4.80% 1.87% -0.32 3.79
Rata inflației 5.79% 6.09% 8.56% 1.88% 2.00% -0.28 1.90
ROBOR 3M 8.53% 6.73% 15.59% 4.50% 3.38% 0.78 2.39
Sursă: calculul autorilor
Statistica descriptivă a principalelor variabile utilizate pentru a identifica determinanţii
stabilităţii financiare a celor două grupuri de bănci sunt prezentaţi în tabelul 2. După cum
putem observa scorul-Z aferent băncilor cooperatiste este mult mai mare comparativ cu
scorul-Z aferent băncilor comerciale. Luate împreună, media scorului-Z pentru băncile
comerciale este de doar 14, iar calculată separat pentru fiecare bancă în parte semnifică faptul
că există diferenţe semnificative.
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Astfel, băncile care au cel mai mare scor-Z sunt: Alpha Bank (28), Raiffeisen Bank
(26) şi OTP Bank (24). Am utilizat rapoartele anuale ale băncilor pentru perioada 2008 - 2012
pentru a obţine date legate de active, capitaluri şi profitul net, iar pe baza acestor valori şi a
metodei de interpolare am calculat valorile trimestriale, ce au fost utilizate pentru a calcula
scorul-Z pentru fiecare bancă în parte.
Tabel 3. Scorul-Z aferent băncilor comerciale (statistică descriptivă)
Variabilă Medie Mediană Max. Min. Dev. Std. Skewness Kurtosis
ALPHA BANK 28.13 26.67 35.16 20.50 5.03 0.22 1.67
BANCPOST 16.09 17.06 19.79 12.16 2.74 -0.34 1.51
BCR 8.50 8.83 9.61 6.08 0.96 -1.14 3.33
BRD 11.85 11.91 13.06 10.40 0.83 -0.08 1.65
CEC BANK 12.59 10.41 19.95 9.64 3.76 1.00 2.25
INTENSA BANK 12.68 12.63 15.40 7.83 1.65 -0.97 4.87
OTP BANK 23.98 24.21 25.23 20.60 1.20 -1.29 4.33
PIRAEUS BANK 20.01 19.75 22.39 18.22 1.36 0.29 1.72
RAIFFEISEN 26.40 26.30 29.09 23.47 1.25 -0.05 3.28
ROMANEASCA 11.59 12.11 12.94 9.16 1.22 -0.78 2.29
TRANSILVANIA 18.72 18.31 20.61 17.65 0.97 0.75 2.06
UNICREDIT 21.87 21.21 29.88 19.88 2.57 2.03 6.28
ȚIRIAC
VOLSKBANK 3.94 3.91 5.22 1.11 0.99 -1.24 4.54
Sursă: calculul autorilor
După cum putem vedea din tabelul 3, o valoare foarte scăzută a scorului Z este
obţinută în cazul a două bănci, respectiv: BCR (8.50) şi Volskbank (4), ceea ce înseamnă că
aceste două bănci sunt foarte riscante şi instabile din punct de vedere financiar.
4. Rezultate obținute privind identificarea determinanților stabilității sistemului
bancar
În acest demers științific s-a analizat stabilitatea băncilor cooperatiste prin comparaţie
cu cele comerciale. Mai mult suntem interesaţi şi de identificarea principalilor determinanţi ai
stabilităţii financiare aferente celor două categorii principale de bănci ce activeză în România.
Pe baza valorilor pentru ROA, raportul dintre capitaluri şi active, precum şi deviaţia standard
al ROA, s-a calculat scorul Z pentru ambele categorii de bănci: cooperatiste şi comerciale.
Evoluţia scorului Z aferent celor două categorii de bănci poate fi observată în figura 4.
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Figura 4. Scorul Z pentru băncile comerciale şi cooperatiste.
Nu este necesar să aplicăm un t-test pentru a evidenţia diferenţa dintre scorul Z al
băncilor cooperatiste, respectiv comerciale, deoarece prin simpla analiză a figurei 6 se poate
sesiza acest aspect. După cum ne aşteptam, scorul Z este mult mai mare în cazul băncilor
cooperatiste – 41, în timp ce în cazul băncilor comerciale este de doar 14. După cum afirma şi
Mercieca et al., 2007, cu cât scorul Z este mai mare, cu atât banca este mai stabilă. Acest
lucru arată faptul că băncile cooperatiste au fost mult mai stabile decât cele comerciale în
perioada 2008 – 2012.
Mergând mai în detaliu, dorim să înţelegem evoluţia scorului Z pentru perioada 2008 –
2012. Tot pe baza figurei 4, putem vedea că între 2008 – 2009 se înregistrează o scădere
accentuată a scorului Z pentru băncile cooperatiste, urmată de o creştere constantă şi lină până
în anul 2012. În acelaşi timp, după o scădere a scorului Z în anul 2009 în cazul băncilor
comerciale, în anul 2010 şi 2011 este înregistrată o creştere a acestuia, valoarea cea mai
ridicată fiind înregistrată în 2011, de aproximativ 14,11. Cu toate acestea, un an mai târziu în
2012, este înregistrată o scădere considerabilă a scorului Z în cadrul băncilor comerciale,
scădere care poate fi pusă pe seama numeroaselor pierderi înregistrate de acestea.
Dar noi nu am fost interesaţi doar de estimarea stabilităţii fianciare a celor două
categorii de bănci, mai mult, am vrut să evidenţiem care sunt principalii factori care afectează
această influenţă şi dacă există factori comuni de influenţă în cazul ambelor categorii de
bănci. În acest sens am estimat două categorii de modele, o primă categorie pentru băncile
cooperatiste (tabelul 4), iar a doua categorie pentru băncile comerciale (tabelul 5).
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Putem vedea cu uşurinţă faptul că creşterea PIB şi ROBOR la termen de trei luni sunt
doi factori semnificativi care au un impact pozitiv asupra stabilităţii financiare în cazul
băncilor cooperatiste. Cu toate că rata indicelui BET, care poate fi un proxy pentru situaţia
pieţei financiare nu are un impact semnificativ, putem vedea că direcţia de influenţare este
una negativă.
Tabel 4. Modelele estimate pentru băncile cooperatiste
Variabile Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
***
Constantă 36.3204 36.1658*** 35.6918***
a
(0.8421) (0.8844) (1.0895)
**
Creştere PIB 41.9864 39.3938** 35.8897*
(16.6355) (17.3102) (18.1171)
***
ROBOR 3M 53.2580 55.3356*** 50.9974***
(9.2138) (9.8368) (11.4660)
Rata BET -22.4002 -19.6800
(32.8278) (33.4282)
Inflaţia 14.5753
(19.0866)
R2 0.6961 0.7042 0.7146
2
R (adj) 0.6623 0.6520 0.6432
b b
Ljung-Box Q-statistics 1.6388 1.7324 2.2655b
Testul Jarque-Bera 4.3379c 5.3457c 2.4205c
d d
Testul White 0.2454 0.5245 0.6302d
a
– (deviaţia standard este în paranteze) b – Nu există autocorelaţie în erori, c –Erorile
sunt normal distribuite
d
– Erorile nu sunt heteroscedastice * , ** , *** - Semnificant la nivelul de 10%, 5% şi
1%
Mai mult, putem vedea faptul că toate cele trei modele în cazul băncilor cooperatiste
sunt bine specificate, conform celor trei teste: Ljung-Box Q statistics care ne arată că nu
există autocorelare în erori, testul Jarque-Bera care ne arată că erorile în cazul celor trei
modele sunt normal distribuite şi testul White care ne confirmă faptul că erorile sunt
consistente din punct de vedere heretoscedastic.
Situaţia este total diferită în momentul în care discutăm despre băncile comerciale. Pe
baza rezultatelor prezentate în tabelul 5, putem observa că aceleaşi modele folosite în cazul
băncilor cooperatiste nu sunt bine specificate în cazul băncilor comerciale şi niciun factor
dintre cei utilizaţi nu are un impact semnificativ asupra stabilităţii financiare a băncilor
comerciale.
Tabel 5. Modelele estimate pentru băncile comerciale
Variabile Model 1 Model 2 Model 3
***
Constantă 14.7919 14.8346*** 14.5918***
a
(0.2350) (0.2469) (0.2907)
Creştere PIB 2.5802 3.2959 1.5003
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(4.6428) (4.8325) (4.8345)
ROBOR 3M -3.4090 -3.9826 -6.2056*
(2.5715) (2.7462) (3.0597)
Rata BET 6.1836 7.5779
(9.1647) (8.9203)
Inflaţia 7.4687
(5.0932)
2
R 0.1001 0.1235 0.2273
2
R (adj) 0.0000 -0.0311 0.0342
Ljung-Box Q-statistics 12.511 11.146 8.7182
c c
Testul Jarque-Bera 1.4838 1.1936 0.5974c
Testul White 1.8240d 2.2251d 2.4132
a
– (deviaţia standard este în paranteze) – Nu există autocorelaţie în erori, c –Erorile
b
sunt normal distribuite
d
– Erorile nu sunt heteroscedastice * , ** , *** - Semnificant la nivelul de 10%, 5% şi
1%
Mai mult în momentul în care am aplicat aceleaşi teste şi pentru aceste modele, se pare
că erorile sunt corelate, iar în cazul modelului 3, erorile sunt heteroscedastice.
5. Concluzii
În cercetarea efectuată am dorit să analizăm evoluția stabilității financiare, precum și
principalii determinanți ai stabilității financiare a băncilor cooperatiste prin comparație cu cele
comerciale.
În acest sens am obţinut rezultate similare cu Groeneveld şi De Vries (2009), deoarece
am remarcat faptul că băncile cooperatiste sunt mult mai stabile decât cele comerciale din
punct de vedere financiar. Cu toate că există o diferenţă semnificativă între economia de scală
a afacerilor realizate de cele două categorii de bănci, am arătat faptul că în perioada crizei
financiare, băncile cooperatiste nu au înregistrat pierderi, fapt ce nu poate fi spus şi în cazul
băncile comerciale, care au înregistrat pierderi semnificative, în special în anii 2011 – 2012.
Deşi, teoretic, băncile comerciale desfăşoară o activitate mult mai amplă şi diversificată
comparativ cu băncile cooperatiste, acest lucru nu înseamnă o reducere a riscului.
Însă, noi nu ne-am oprit doar la compararea stabilităţii fiannciare a celor două
categorii de bănci, deoarece mai departe am fost interesaţi să vedem dacă există vreo diferenţă
în ceea ce priveşte factorii care inflenţează stabilitatea financiară a băncilor comerciale,
respectiv a băncilor cooperatiste. În acest sens am estimat două categorii de modele, o primă
categorie pentru băncile cooperatiste, iar a doua categorie pentru băncile comerciale.
Am sesizat cu uşurinţă faptul că rata de creşterea PIB şi ROBOR la termen de trei luni
sunt doi factori semnificativi care au un impact pozitiv asupra stabilităţii financiare în cazul
băncilor cooperatiste. Cu toate că rata indicelui BET, care poate fi un proxy pentru situaţia
pieţei financiare, nu are un impact semnificativ, putem vedea că direcţia de influenţare este
una negativă.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Mai mult, am evidenţiat faptul că toate cele trei modele în cazul băncilor cooperatiste
sunt bine specificate, conform celor trei teste: Ljung-Box Q statistics, testul Jarque-Bera şi
testul White.
Situaţia este total diferită în momentul în care discutăm despre băncile comerciale. Pe
baza rezultatelor am evidenţiat că aceleaşi modele folosite în cazul băncilor cooperatiste nu
sunt bine specificate în cazul băncilor comerciale şi niciun factor dintre cei utilizaţi nu are un
impact semnificativ asupra stabilităţiii financiare a băncilor comerciale.
Această cercetare amplă reprezintă un început în aprofundarea tematicii privind
profitabilitatea şi stabilitatea băncilor cooperatiste, cu aplicabilitate pe România, cât şi
Uniunea Europeană. Rezultatele obţinute au o importanţă aplicativă extraordinară, întrucât pe
baza identificării principalilor determinanţi interni ai profitabilităţii, băncile cooperatiste pot
aplica politici şi strategii manageriale pentru influenţarea pozitivă a acestor determinanţi cu
scopul maximizării profitabilităţii.
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A REVIEW OF THE CORPORATE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK APPLIED
TO ROMANIAN INVESTMENT FIRMS
Ioan-Ovidiu Spătăcean, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu
Mureș
Abstract: Romanian investment firms have the status of public interest entities authorized,
regulated and supervised by a public authority (FSA) and the scope of their commercial
business relates to financial investment services offered for investors. Consequently, we
believe that the general principles of corporate governance as defined by the OECD (2004) is
the essential foundation to identify and implement effective corporate governance model by
investment firms in Romania. This paper focuses on best practices of corporate governance
recommended for European investment firms, as adapted from "The EU Corporate
Governance Framework - Green Paper" issued by the European Commission in 2011.
However, our attention is directed to the views and recommendations of the European
Securities and Markets (ESMA) on best practices, with respect to some controversy or
limitations arising from the implementation of the EU Corporate Governance Framework.
The main objective of our research is to process and adapt these results to the Romanian
financial intermediation industry, where investment firms are subject to our empirical
investigations.
Keywords: investment firms, corporate governance, financial investment services, best
practice, compliance.
1 Introduction
The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance have become ―an international
benchmark for policy makers, investors, corporations and other stakeholders worldwide‖ and
―have provided specific guidance for legislative and regulatory initiatives […] as one of the
12 key standards for sound financial systems‖. ―Policy makers are now aware of the
contribution good corporate governance makes to financial market stability, investment and
economic growth. Companies better understand how good corporate governance contributes
to their competitiveness. Investors, especially collective investment institutions and pension
funds acting in a fiduciary capacity, realize they have a role to play in ensuring good
corporate governance practices, thereby underpinning the value of their investments. The
Principles are a living instrument offering non-binding standards and good practices as well
as guidance on implementation, which can be adapted to the specific circumstances of
individual countries and regions.1‖ Based on these assumptions we focused our research on
assessing the general corporate governance framework applied for Romanian investment
1
OECD Principles of Corporate Governance, OECD Publications Services, Paris, France, 2004, pp. 3 - 4.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
firms, in connection with: (i) the rules and practices announced by OECD Principles, and (ii)
the EU Corporate Governance Framework.
2 Research methodology
The main objective of this paper is to obtain sufficient and adequate knowledge
regarding the Romanian legislative and regulatory framework applied to investment firms, in
order to assess the compliance level with international corporate governance standards and
practices. Relevant research activities consisted in: (i) reviewing international literature on the
matter of corporate governance; (ii) analyzing OECD Corporate Governance Principles; (iii)
examining relevant deficiencies and barriers in implementing EU Corporate Governance
Framework; (iv) reviewing national laws and regulations that govern the activities of
investment firms; (v) assessing the national framework‘s level of harmonization with
international corporate governance principles and European best practices.
3 A critical review of the EU Corporate Governance Framework
As explained in the EU Corporate Governance Framework2 ―major developments in
capital markets in recent decades, including innovative products and technical change,
mostly focused on the trading function of the capital markets and facilitated faster and more
efficient trading. […] At the same time, intermediation of investments has increased,
amplifying the importance of the agency relationship between long-term investors and their
asset managers‖. We expect therefore a major interest in developing and enforcing
regulations and internal procedures to enhance efficiency of corporate governance structures
within investment firms, as regard sensitive areas, such are: safekeeping of client assets,
segregation of funds, IT compliance, financial reporting integrity, remuneration practices and
board of directors‘ responsibilities.
Surveys conducted3 among listed companies and investors put in value the ―Comply or
Explain4‖ statement as an effective instrument to assess compliance with corporate
governance principles and best practices, widely supported by regulators, companies and
investors. This statement is designed to make entities more responsible by encouraging them
to consider whether their corporate governance practices are appropriate and by offering them
a target to meet. However, the study we referred above showed that in over 60% of cases
where companies chose not to apply recommendations, they did not provide sufficient
explanations. The entities subject to empirical investigations simply stated that they had
departed from a recommendation, without any detailed explanation, or provided only a
general or limited explanation. Therefore, we agree that further improvement could be
achieved by introducing more detailed requirements for the information to be published by
companies departing from the recommendations. These requirements should be clear and
2
Green Paper - The EU Corporate Governance Framework, European Commission, Brussels, 2011, pp. 12 - 19.
3
Study on Monitoring and Enforcement practices in Corporate Governance in the Member States, available at
http://ec.europa.eu//internal_market/company/ecgforum/studies_en.htm
4
Under this ―Comply or Explain‖ statement, an entity which chooses to depart from a corporate governance code
recommendation must provide detailed, specific and concrete reasons for such a departure.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
precise, since many of the present difficulties are due to misunderstanding of the nature of the
explanations required.
The Green Paper refers also to a better monitoring of corporate governance, admitting
that in most Member States, the responsibility for enforcing the obligation to publish
corporate governance statements is left to investors who, depending on the culture and
traditions in their Member State, often take little actions. In most cases, financial market
authorities have only a formal role of verifying whether the corporate governance statements
have been published, or the completeness of information provided (in particular, the
explanations). The ―Comply or Explain‖ statement could be more effective provided that
securities regulators, stock exchanges or other authorities were authorized to check whether
available information is sufficiently comprehensive and adequate, without interfering with the
content of the information disclosed or making business judgments on the solutions chosen by
the entity. The authorities could make the monitoring results publicly available in order to
highlight best practices and to push companies towards more complete transparency. The use
of formal sanctions in the most serious cases of non-compliance could also be envisaged.
The European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA)5 has considered the EU
Corporate Governance Framework (the Green Paper) and concluded that many of the
questions raised are within the remit of corporate law, rather than securities law.
Consequently, it was established that ESMA and national securities regulators have little or
no jurisdiction on matters regarding corporate governance. However, in pursuing its
objectives, ESMA has enrolled to contribute its views on the corporate governance issues
raised in the Green Paper, based on its and European competent authorities‘ knowledge and
experience as securities regulators. ESMA agreed that the corporate governance framework in
Europe varies significantly between Member States depending upon the interaction between
company law, listing rules and codes. Consequently, codes on their own cannot work without
regulation and the challenge is to obtain the right mix of the various options available.
European securities regulators recognize that there could be value in developing a common
set of minimum corporate governance principles for listed companies across the EU. Member
States would be at liberty to implement more stringent requirements, where appropriate6.
A summary description of ESMA‘s responses to the questions emerging from the EU
Green Paper on corporate governance framework is further presented:
■ Promote uniform application of corporate governance standards for listed entities;
■ Promote the voluntary application of corporate governance codes by non-listed
entities;
5
ESMA is an independent EU Authority that contributes to safeguarding the stability of the European Union‘s financial
system by ensuring the integrity, transparency, efficiency and orderly functioning of securities markets, as well as by
enhancing investor protection. ESMA has been invested in accordance with (EU) Regulation no. 1095/2010 (Article 1,
paragraph 3) to carry out activities relating to corporate governance, auditing and financial reporting, to the extent that such
activities are necessary to ensure the consistent and effective enforcement of applicable regulations.
6
Official letter RE: Green Paper – The EU Corporate Governance Framework, signed by Mr. Steven Maijoor, Chair of
ESMA, on 20 July 2011, available at http://www.esma.europa.eu/system/files/2011_219.pdf
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■ Enforce a clear separation of functions and responsibilities between the Chairman of
the Board and the Chief Executive Officer;
■ Submit internal policies to recruit members of the Board of Directors;
■ Enforce periodic external evaluation of the members of the Board of Directors;
■ Require disclosure of the remuneration policy for executive and non-executive
members of the Board of Directors, including the option for shareholders to vote on
remuneration policy;
■ Define corporate profile and "appetite for risk" strategies, as well as procedures to
effectively monitor risk exposures;
■ Define the role of institutional investors in strengthening corporate governance
processes, including for financial incentives allocated to fund managers;
■ Facilitate cooperation / consultation between shareholders, subject to regulations
against market abuse generated by concerted actions;
■ Avoid conflict of interest in the provision of investment advisory services;
■ Protect minority shareholders' rights, particularly against related party transactions;
■ Provide detailed explanations of each situation where there is a lack of compliance
with corporate governance principles.
4 Insight Analysis of Romanian Corporate Governance Framework
The major areas of corporate governance are subject of enforcement by two
fundamental Romanian laws, respectively The Company Law no. 31/1990 and The Capital
Market Law no. 297/2004. These fundamental laws are subject to application for Romanian
investment firms, as well. Furthermore, the secondary legislative tier applicable for
investment firms consist of rules and regulations issued by the Financial Supervision
Authority (FSA). However, a distinctive enforcement of corporate governance principles was
firstly prescribed in 2008 by the Bucharest Stock Exchange (BSE) Corporate Governance
Code, referring to Romanian companies listed on the BSE regulated market. These principles
have been structured into the following areas of interest for corporate governance:
■ Protect the rights of shareholders and ensure a fair treatment, especially for minority
shareholders;
■ Effective communication with shareholders;
■ Decision-making process and the responsibilities of the members in the Board of
Directors;
■ The balance between executive and non-executive members or independent members
in the Board of Directors;
■ Appointment of Board members and the role of the Nomination Committee;
■ Remuneration policy of directors and senior executives and the role of the
Remuneration Committee;
■ Financial and non-financial reporting and the role of the Audit Committee;
■ Internal control and risk management;
■ Avoidance of conflicts of interest among the members of the Board of Directors;
■ Procedures for the identification and reporting of transactions with related parties;
■ Corporate information treatment, between confidentiality and disclosure obligations;
■ Corporate Social Responsibility;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
■ Corporate governance models and structures.
The BSE Institute of Corporate Governance issued in March 2010 the Corporate
Governance Code Implementation Guide, containing some recommendations subject to the
preparation of "Comply or Explain" Statement by securities issuers. This guide identifies
significant areas of interest in evaluating the effectiveness of the corporate governance
process and structures.
5 Empirical results
Our approach was based on a pyramidal analysis of the level of harmonization
regarding the legislative and regulatory framework applied to Romanian investment firms
(RIF CG Framework), starting with international corporate governance standards (OECD
Principles), continuing with European framework (EU CG Framework) and finishing with the
Bucharest Stock Exchange Corporate Governance Code (BSE CG Code) applied to Romanian
listed entities. We focused on determining whether the Romanian legislative and regulatory
framework applied to investment firms is consistent with the relevant corporate governance
requirements, as identified in the top of the pyramid. The empirical results are detailed as it
follows:
(a) Ensuring the Basis for an Effective Corporate Governance Framework: ―The
corporate governance framework should promote transparent and efficient markets,
be consistent with the rule of law and clearly articulate the division of responsibilities
among different supervisory, regulatory and enforcement authorities‖. The
correspondent requirements are detailed in Table 1.
Table 1 Ensuring the Basis for an Effective Corporate Governance Framework
COECD Principles EU CG BSE CG RIF CG Framework
ode Framework Code
1Market integrity n/a n/a Law 297/2004
NSC Regulation 32/2006
2Rule of law n/a n/a Law 297/2004
NSC Regulation 32/2006
3Division of n/a n/a n/a
responsibilities
4Supervisory authorities n/a n/a n/a
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: An effective Corporate Governance Framework is assured for
Romanian Investment Firms, as they are supervised entities and subject to FSA regulations.
Subsequent principles (3) and (4), related to the supervisory authority (FSA) are not relevant
to the corporate governance framework applied to investment firms.
(b) The Rights of Shareholders and Key Ownership Functions: ―The corporate
governance framework should protect and facilitate the exercise of shareholders‘
rights‖. The correspondent requirements are detailed in Table 2.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Table 2 The Rights of Shareholders and Key Ownership Functions
COECD Principles EU CG Framework BSE CG RIF CG
ode Code Framework
1Basic shareholder rights Minority shareholder Law 31/1990
protection √ NSC Regulation
2/2009
2Sufficiently informed Proxy advisors √ NSC Regulation
4/2011
3General Shareholder Cross-border voting Law 31/1990
Meetings √ NSC Regulation
6/2009
4Corporate Control Additional rights for Law 297/2004
minority shareholders n/a NSC Regulation
2/2009
5Exercise of ownership Proxy advisors Law 31/1990
rights √ NSC Regulation
2/2009
6Shareholders‘ Shareholder √ n/a
cooperation identification
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: Except for subsequent principle (6), we obtained a reasonable
assurance regarding the compliance level of the corporate governance framework applied to
investment firms with international OECD Principles. However, subsequent principles (2) and
(3) as described in EU CG Framework are not covered by the RIF CG Framework.
(c) The Equitable Treatment of Shareholders: ―The corporate governance framework
should ensure the equitable treatment of all shareholders, including minority and
foreign shareholders. All shareholders should have the opportunity to obtain effective
redress for violation of their rights‖. The correspondent requirements are detailed in
Table 3.
Table 3 The Equitable Treatment of Shareholders
Code OECD EU CG Framework BSE CG RIF CG Framework
Principles Code
1 Equal treatment The agency relations Law 297/2004
Transparency in voting √ NSC Regulation
policies 1/2006
NSC Regulation
6/2009
2 Abusive self- Protection against Law 297/2004
dealing potential abuse √ NSC Regulation
1/2006
3 Conflict of Asset managers vs. Law 297/2004
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
interests Institutional Investors √ NSC Regulation
32/2006
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: We obtained a reasonable assurance regarding the compliance
level of the corporate governance framework applied to investment firms with international
OECD Principles. However, subsequent principles (1) and (3) as described in EU CG
Framework are not covered by the RIF CG Framework.
(d) The Role of Stakeholders in Corporate Governance ―The corporate governance
framework should recognize the rights of stakeholders established by law or through
mutual agreements and encourage active co-operation between corporations and
stakeholders in crating wealth, jobs, and the sustainability of financially sound
enterprise‖. The correspondent requirements are detailed in Table 4.
Table 4 The Role of Stakeholders in Corporate Governance
Cod OECD Principles EU CG Framework BSE RIF CG Framework
e CG Code
1 Rights of Better monitoring of n/a Law 297/2004
Stakeholders corporate governance NSC Regulation 32/2006
2 Effective Redress n/a n/a Law 297/2004
NSC Regulation 3/2006
3 Performance – Shareholder √ n/a
enhancing engagement
4 Access to Improving quality of n/a Law 297/2004
information explanations NSC Regulation 1/2006
NSC Regulation 4/2011
5 Freely Shareholder √ n/a
Communication cooperation
6 Efficient n/a n/a Law 297/2004
insolvency framework NSC Regulation 11/2010
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: We obtained a reasonable assurance regarding the compliance
level of the corporate governance framework applied to investment firms with international
OECD Principles. However, subsequent principles (3) and (5) as described in EU CG
Framework are not covered by the RIF CG Framework. Furthermore, we observed a poor
compliance of the BSE CG Code with the general OECD Principle regarding the role of
stakeholders, since only shareholders are subject to application. Another relevant finding
refers to a poor compliance of RIF CG Framework to subsequent principles (2) and (6),
provided that different legislative framework is applicable.
(e) Disclosure and Transparency: ―The corporate governance framework should ensure
that timely and accurate disclosure is made on all material matters regarding the
corporation, including the financial situation, performance, ownership, and
governance of the company‖. The correspondent requirements are detailed in Table 5.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Table 5 Disclosure and Transparency
Code OECD Principles EU CG Framework B RIF CG
SE CG Framework
Code
1 Disclosures Related parties √ NSC Regulation
Remuneration policy 4/2011
Relevant societal risks FSA Regulation
no. 4/2014
2 High quality IFRS reporting √ NSC Instruction
accounting standards (Regulation (EC) no. 6/2011
1606/2002)
3 External audit Directive on Statutory n/ NSC Regulation
Audit (2006/43/EC) a 4/2011
4 Auditor due Role of the auditor n/ NSC Regulation
professional care a 4/2011
5 Dissemination Comply or Explain √ NSC Regulation
channels Approach 3/2006
6 Analysts, brokers n/a
and rating agencies Proxy advisors √
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: We obtained a reasonable assurance regarding the compliance
level of the corporate governance framework applied to investment firms with international
OECD Principles. However, subsequent principle (6) as described in EU CG Framework is
not covered by the RIF CG Framework. Furthermore, we observed a poor compliance of the
BSE CG Code with external audit matters.
(f) The Responsibilities of the Board ―The corporate governance framework should
ensure the strategic guidance of the company, the effective monitoring of management
by the board and the board‘s accountability to the company and the shareholders‖.
The correspondent requirements are detailed in Table 6.
Table 6 The Responsibilities of the Board
Cod OECD Principles EU CG BSE CG RIF CG Framework
e Framework Code
1 Due diligence and care Availability and √ Law 31/1990
time commitment NSC Regulation 32/2006
2 Fairly treatment Conflict of interest √ Law 31/1990
NSC Regulation 32/2006
3 High ethical standards Directors‘ √ Law 31/1990
remuneration FSA Regulation no.
4/2014
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
4 Key functions Risk management √ NSC Regulation 32/2006
5 Independent judgment Board evaluation √ Law 31/1990
6 Accurate, relevant and Board evaluation √ NSC Regulation 32/2006
timely information
Source: authors‘ projection
Relevant findings: We obtained a reasonable assurance regarding the compliance
level of the corporate governance framework applied to investment firms with all relevant
international OECD subsequent principles, as described above.
6 Conclusions
The research we conducted allowed us to reach the conclusion according to which
there is an overall satisfactory compliance of the corporate governance framework applied to
Romanian investment firms in comparison with OECD Principles and European best
practices, in all relevant aspects. This conclusion should provide a reasonable assurance that
stakeholders‘ interests in a Romanian sound financial intermediation system are satisfied,
offering credibility and protection against abusive market practices. Future research will
provide a basis for conclusion regarding the effective compliance level of the Romanian
investment firms with relevant corporate governance practices and the regulations that support
them.
Acknowledgement
The research presented in this paper was supported by the European Social Fund under
the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Operational Programme for
Human Resources Development, as part of the grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652.
Bibliography
1. Alan Calder, Corporate Governance. A Practical Guide to the Legal Frameworks and
International Codes of Practice, MPG Books Ltd., Cornwall, Great Britain, 2008;
2. Christine A. Mallin, Handbook on International Corporate Governance. Country
Analyses, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, Cheltenham, UK, 2006;
3. Jill Solomon, Aris Solomon, Corporate Governance and Accountability, John
Wiley&Sons Ltd., West Sussex, England, 2004;
4. Lutgart Van den Berghe, Corporate Governance in a Globalizing World:
Convergence or Divergence? A European Perspective, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
New York, 2002;
5. Sanjay Anand, Essentials of Corporate Governance, John Wiley&Sons Inc., New
Jersey, 2008;
6. Zabihollah Rezaee, Corporate Governance Role in Financial Reporting, Elsevier Ltd.,
2004;
7. OECD Principles of Corporate Governance, OECD Publications Services, Paris,
France, 2004 (www.oecd.org);
8. Green Paper - The EU Corporate Governance Framework, European Commission,
Brussels, 2011 (http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/company/docs/modern/com2011-
164_en.pdf);
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
9. ESMA comment letter on the EU Commission Green Paper - The EU Corporate
Governance Framework, 2011 (www.esma.europa.eu);
10. Study on Monitoring and Enforcement practices in Corporate Governance in the
Member States, 2009
(http://ec.europa.eu//internal_market/company/ecgforum/studies_en.htm);
11. Company Law no. 31/1990, republished in M.O. Part I no. 1066 of 17/11/2004, with
subsequent modifications;
12. Capital Market Law no. 297/2004, published in M.O. Part I no. 571 of 29/06/2004,
with subsequent modifications;
13. NSC Regulation no. 32/2006 regarding financial services, published in M.O. Part I no.
103 of 12/02/2007, with subsequent modifications;
14. NSC Regulation no. 3/2006 regarding authorization, organization and functioning of
Investors‘ Compensation Fund, published in M.O. Part I no. 124 of 09/02/2006, with
subsequent modifications;
15. NSC Regulation no. 1/2006 regarding issuers and securities transactions, published in
M.O. Part I no. 312 of 06/04/2006, with subsequent modifications;
16. NSC Regulation no. 2/2009 regarding the criteria applicable for prudent appraisal of
holdings within an investment firm, published in M.O. Part I no. 183 of 24/03/2009;
17. NSC Regulation no. 6/2009 regarding the exercise of certain shareholders‘ rights
within General Shareholders‘ Meetings, published in M.O. Part I no. 588 of
25/08/2009;
18. NSC Regulation no. 11/2010 regarding the special administration of NSC authorized
entities, published in M.O. Part I no. 288 of 03/05/2010;
19. NSC Regulation no. 4/2011 regarding the accounting regulations applied for entities
that are authorized, supervised and regulated by National Securities Commission,
published in M.O. Part I no. 185 of 16/03/2011;
20. NSC Instruction no. 6/2011 regarding IFRS application for entities authorized,
regulated and supervised by NSC;
21. FSA Regulation no. 4/2014 regarding the implementation of ESMA Guide on
remuneration policies and practices.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
USE OF CFD/CAE IN ECONOMICAL OFFSHORE PROJECTS
Ionuț-Cristian Scurtu, PhD Student, Constanța Maritime University
Abstract: In this article are proposed some new solutions for economical study of offshore
projects/construction using CFD/CAE software. The considered reasons for the solutions
were to exactly satisfy the boundary conditions and are compared to those found in the
literature. Also, a complex comparative study for modern and economical solutions is
presented.
Keywords: economical study ,CFD, offshore projects.
Introduction
The planet‘s population is experiencing rapid improvements of living standards with
concomitant increase of energy consumption. If we want more energy from conventional oil
reserves or from unconventional reserves as wind power and wave energy , we have to make
investments in renewable sources of offshore energy. Marine engineers will find different
solutions regarding structure stiffness, elasticity, capability to withstand forces of nature but
they will never asses the cost of the offshore project. This paper is intended to compare with
CFD software different models in order to determine the smallest cost of construction and
installation for offshore jacket structures. CFD/CAE software used into all calculations is
Ansys Fluent and Solidworks, and the collected results are plotted and compared with
Microsoft Office Excel.
New solutions for study of offshore projects
The solution is based on a coupled software analysis using Ansys Fluent and
Solidworks. A CFD-computational fluid dinamics software, Ansys Fluent, is designed to
evaluate forces and fluid interaction based on Navier-Stokes equations presented below:
1 p 2 v x 2 v x 2 v x v x v x v v
Fx 2 2
vx x v y x vz
x x y 2
z t x y z
,
1 p v y v y v y v y v y
2 2 2
v y v y
Fy 2 v v vz
y x y 2 z 2 t x
x
y
y
z
and
1 p v2
v z v z v z v z
2 2
v v
Fz 2z 2
vx z v y z vz
z x y 2
z t x y z
.
where: v-speed field, p-pressure field and Fx, Fy, Fz –external force components.
This system has 6 unknown values and only 3 equations and we need more additional
equations in order to solve the system. Flow modeling needs supplementary conditions to
obtain the values of speed and pressure. According to the criterion we can use different
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
turbulent models: Spalart Alarmas, RANS(Reynolds Averaging Navier-Stokes),
SKE(Standard k-epsilon), k-omega, DNS-direct numeric simulation and Large Eddy
Simulation (LES). We will use in our fluid simulation the SKE model. Using the CFD
software we can evaluate the force acting on jacket structures and the CAE software like
Solidworks can evaluate component mass and so the expected cost of construction and
installation.
The CFD evaluation must be adequate to environmental conditions from the
installation site, in this paper we will use data from Black Sea environmental conditions and
dimensions from Gloria platform: water depth 90 m, maximum wave amplitude 12 m, wave
period 10 s, maximum wind speed 164 km/h, maximum force acting on the jacket structure
2300 tones, structure length 121,9 m. The configuration and the cost analysis will be done on
different models presented the table below:
Model Solidworks No.1. details:
Construction material: Alloy Steel
Mass:240.172 kg
Volume:31.19 m^3
Density:7700 kg/m^3
Weight:2353kN
ECP:4.80 mil$
Fig.1.Model Solidworks No.1.
Construction material: Alloy Steel
Mass:252.22 kg
Volume:32.72 m^3
Density:7700 kg/m^3
Weight:2471kN
ECP:5.04 mil$
Fig.2.Model Solidworks No.2.
Construction material: Alloy Steel
Mass:288.37 kg
Volume:37.40 m^3
Density:7700 kg/m^3
Weight:2826kN
ECP:5.76 mil$
Fig.3.Model Solidworks No.3.
Ansys Fluent software allows analyzing the fluid flow around different shapes and
bodies and it is an important tool in reducing experimental costs and it can accurate determine
forces acting on each offshore studied model. Pressures determined with Ansys Fluent will be
used in SimulationXpress Study to determine material stress and total forces acting on each
case.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fig.5. Pressures in Ansys Fluent
Fig.6. Speeds in Ansys Fluent
All pressures and values from Ansys will be used on Solidworks Simulation and this
software can determine the capable force of the studied model. The model is no subjected to
known forces and pressures and it will calculate in each poin of the structure the
displacements and the stress.
In fig no.7. is shown the model based on two different software combined with the
main purpose to make easier to analyze the structure dimensions. In fig.7. is presented the
load scheme according to Black Sea environmental conditions: Hwater=90 m, Hwave=12m,
Twave=10 sec, vcurent=2 m/s, v max vânt= 44,72 m/s.
The combine scheme of structure evaluation will determine in each case the
ECP(estimated cost of production and installation) based on the steel mass used to build the
model in a real shipyard. So each model will be resized by a scale near to 1 in order to verify
if the project is well dimensioned and we will choose the most economic project.
Results from each resized model, where k is defined as coefficient of geometrical
resizing are plotted below for each studied case. The mass of the modified project is plotted
and discarding any other operation related to cost we calculated the estimated cost of the
structure using a material cost of 20000$/ton. Used models from fig.1,2 and 3 were resized
using the k coefficient shown on the horizontal axis in figures:10,11 and 12.
We defined in SimulationXpress Study all fixed points and the forces as follows:
green for fixed points, red for Ansys Fluent forces, purple for structure weight. All results for
all different models used in this paper were encouraging because the displacement was not
higher than 150 mm in each case according to ABS rules according the static strength
calculus.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fig.7. Mechanical loads simulated in Solidworks
Solutions discussion using CFD/CAE software
Forces acting on structures are different in each case and are increasing as coefficient
k increase, FoS-Factor of Safety is not constant and it is established to value of 1.25, the
mass, the external acting force and the external capable force is expressed in each graphic
from figures 10,11 and 12. All of runs regarding the FoS for each model determined the
capable exterior force for each model according to the resizing coefficient, k, and all results
were plotted in figures 10,11 and 12. FoS monitoring is possible in Solidworks software with
SimulationXpress Study. The results, shown in fig 8 and 9, are according to the technical
literature from ABS rules and the FoS value used can be modified if necessary in a future
work to determine a stronger structure.
Fig.8. FoS determination with Solidworks
Fig.9. Stress values in Solidworks
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
This solution of comparing offshore projects using cost markers related to structure
characteristics is presented in graphics 10, 11 and 12. Model no.1 is capable to withstand
force simulated with Ansys software at k=0.92 with a FoS=1.25. In this particular situation
we have a different production cost smaller than the original project.
Fig.10. Model 1 mass and forces
Fig.11. Model 2 mass and forces
Model no.2, shown in fig.2. is responding different to this complex analysis Ansys-
Solidworks and for FoS=1.25 we need a k=1.05 to reach the point of intersection between the
external capable force and the acting force on the structure.
Model no.3, shown in fig.3. is responding different to this complex analysis Ansys-
Solidworks and for FoS=1.25 we need a k=0.95 to reach the point of intersection between the
external capable force and the acting force on the structure.
Fig.12. Model 3 mass and forces
All models react different to environmental loads as expected, and these structures are
able to withstand forces at different k numbers even if the original project is based on real
data from operating rig.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Comparative study
All models presented could be used for a estimated price of 4.80mil$, 5.04mil$ and
5.74mil$ and the difference of almost 1mil$ is huge related to a single parameter of
construction. The model no.1 is more likely to be used in offshore construction because the
cost is important in the business environment. Expected cost are presented in fig.13 and the
lowest values are registered for model no.1 at a value k=0.92 at a corresponding cost of
4.80mil$. This type of study is useful in economical departments and is likely to be handled
by a combined team of engineers and economists. For a modified FoS to 1.5 we will choose
the first superior value of k and this will be enough to strengthen the structure. Also, in fig.13,
we aligned optimized values according k factor to compare costs in all three different
situations, all calculated costs are expressed in the table below.
Fig.13. Compared costs in 10 cases presented in fig.10.11 and 12
Conclusion
The new coupled analysis for simplified economical offshore projects is relevant in
deciding which model or type of structure to use to obtain the lowest cost of construction. It is
a relevant study because solutions can be verified according to exactly boundary conditions
and are compared to those found in the literature of register rules. The comparative study for
all presented models give the right information regarding the costs related to economical
construction of each case. Optimized values shown are closely related to the actual value of
k=1, so the initial calculated project is close to the result value. In some cases, as presented,
we can obtain a better ratio between cost and project.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
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[13] Wolfgang MerzKirch,Fluid Mechanics of Flow Metering, Springer, 2005, ISBN
3-540-2242- 1
***INCDM Study on the wave and wind climate close the Romanian littoral.
Technical report, The Marine Research Institute Grigore Antipa, Constanta (in Romanian)
*** OFFSHORE STANDARD DNV-OS-C101 Design of offshore steel structures,
general (LRFD method), April 2011
*** American Bureau of Shipping, Mobile offshore drilling units, 2012.
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ASPECTS REGARDING THE INTERNAL CONTROL ON THE LEVEL OF
PUBLIC ENTITIES IN ROMANIA
Gabriela Ignat, Assist. Prof., PhD, George Ungureanu, University of Agricultural
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași
Abstract: Internal control has become a vital integral part of the modern management system.
That is why the managers of public entities have to adopt an entire array of measures
concerning the organization and management of their activities, which in fact represents
implementing their own system of internal control. In Romania, internal control represents
the ensemble of the forms of control exercised at the level of the public entity, including
internal audit, established by the management according to their objectives and the legal
framework. According to the International Audit Standards, internal control is defined as
―the process which is conceived, implemented and maintained by the persons commissioned
with management, leadership and other personnel categories with the purpose of delivering a
reasonable assurance regarding fulfilling the objectives of an entity as far as the credibility of
financial statements and the efficiency of the operations are concerned, as well as their
conformity to applicable laws and rules.‖. In the present paper the authors have tried to
pinpoint the importance of internal control in public institutions.
Keywords: internal control, audit, management, international audit standards, management
control.
Introduction
Semantically speaking, control means ―a permanent or periodical analysis of an
activity or of a situation, in order to observe its course and be able to take the necessary
measures for improvement‖. At the same time, control signifies a continuous moral and
material surveillance, as well as mastering a certain activity or situation.
However, in the specialty literature there are more definitions of control:
- In the French-speaking countries, control represents carefully checking or
inspecting the correctness of an act;
- In Anglo-Saxon frameworks, control means the activity of observing an individual
or a thing, a minute examination done with the purpose of knowing or improving
the functionality of a mechanism.
Within the Romanian legal framework, internal control is defined as being the
assembly of all forms of control exercised at the level of public entity, including internal
audit, established by the management in accord with its objectives and the legal provisions, in
order to ensure the management of public funds in an economic and efficient manner; this
also includes the organizational structures, methods and procedures.
According to the International Audit Standards, issued by the International Auditing
and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB) of the International Federation of Accountants
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(IFAC), internal control is defined as being ―the process conceived, implemented and
maintained by those charged with governance, management and other categories of personnel
with the purpose of providing reasonable regarding the fulfillment of the objectives of an
entity regarding the credibility of financial reporting, the efficiency of operations and the
conformity with applicable laws and regulations‖.
Material and method
The present paper is the result of the careful processing of information gathered after
having taken into consideration a series of works acknowledged as relevant for the chosen
topic, as well as the careful examination of the regulations regarding internal control at the
level of public entities
Results and discussions
The notion of internal control is understood differently in various European countries.
While in some countries there are specialized institutions for internal control, independent
from those controlled, in other countries the responsibility of internal control falls upon the
respective administrative entities. Some countries have a system of internal control integrated
within the system of governance. The need to establish internal control, to report on it and to
apply an approach on managing the risk can be formulated distinctively in laws and
regulations, or it could derive from an existing legal framework. Within decentralized
systems, the managers in top management have the duty to report on the functionality of
internal control systems.
More and more countries demand from such managers the application of management
systems that can diminish the risk of not fulfilling the established objectives. In Luxembourg
and Spain, the notion of internal control is regarded as being the whole public administration
control system and the sum of all institutions taking part in the management of public funds.
These countries also have specific control organisms, like Intervención General de la
Administración del Estado (IGAE) in Spain or Inspection Générale des Finances in
Luxembourg, which are independent from the authorities and entities that they control,
economically and financially.
Especially in countries like Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden or the United
Kingdom, the public internal control system is understood as the conceptually comprehensive
approach harmonized by the government to ensure the establishment, maintenance and
monitoring by the managers of all public entities of all integrated management processes. In
these countries, internal control has the goal of managing risks and supplies a reasonable
insurance regarding the meeting of general objectives, while following the entity‘s mission.
These objectives refer to the adequate execution, ethically, economically and efficiently, of
activities; liability obligations; conforming to the applicable laws and regulations; protecting
the sources that need not be wasted, but adequately used, without being deteriorated.
In France and Portugal, where there once were powerful instutions specialized in
control, one has begun to decentralize the ex ante control in particular, and through this to
increase the responsibility and accountability of public managers.
Internal financial and accounting control of the entity is to be applied in order to
ensure the accounting management and a financial monitoring of the company‘s actions, so
that the defined goals can be achieved. This control has in view the assembly of process for
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
obtaining and communicating accounting and financial information and contributes to the
delivery of coherent information, in conformity with the legal provisions.
Through control, the public entity ensures the dynamic information, real and
preventive, that raises the value and quality of decisions. The main models of control,
recognized internationally, conceived in order to organize the internal control system so that it
corresponds to the demands of management are: the COSO model in the US and the COCO
model in Canada.
Comparing the two models for internal control one can draw the following
conclusions:
a) According to the COCO model, internal control is a process implemented by
all the employees of an entity and has a relative character, offering a
satisfactory assurance regarding the fulfilment of objectives.
b) According to the COCO model, internal control places a stronger focus on the
means implemented than on employees, without offering absolute assurance
that ―it helps to reach objectives‖.
In order to promote efficient management, in the public sector one implements the
public internal financial control, which includes the management/ internal control system,
internal audit, coordination and centralized harmonization of all components.
Public internal control has always existed in all countries, and lately it has been
developed as a concept recognized and used on a large scale, reaching the status of a basic
element of the modern management system. In the European Union we find the following
forms of public internal control:
The French public administration has a long tradition of public-affairs control,
notably based on the principles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man17 and enshrined in
the Constitution18, which is also reflected in the legal rules set out, for instance, in general
and specific civil service regulations and in the Public Procurement Contracts Code.
Against the background of an accounting and financial organization of the
French State structured around a centralized accounting network, which guarantees the
financial uniformity of the French administration and the separation of the functions and tasks
assigned to the authorizing officer and the accounting officer, the French public
administration relies on a robust internal control environment .Internal control has thus been
centred on the accounting and financial function, at the initiative of the Directorate General
for Public Finance as a part of its responsibilities related to the keeping of State accounts. The
financial control reform was conceived with the aim of developing internal budgetary control.
Instead of a control performed systematically during the operations, which may slow down
the implementation of expenditure and, consequently, affect the efficiency and the
effectiveness of public action, financial control encourages the authorizing officers to equip
themselves with tools and methods in order to control their operations.
In Germany, top managers assume their responsibility for establishing an adequate
internal control system by setting up and supporting an organizational control unit called the
‗Interne Revision‘, hereafter internal audit. Managerial accountability is carried out by the
head of the authority. The internal audit unit reports directly to the management, which cannot
transfer its competence to other offices in the authority
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
In Greece, the internal control system ensures compliance with Administration
policies, it safeguards the agency‘s assets and resources by certifying the completeness and
accuracy of accounting documents and it provides timely and reliable information on healthy
(sound) fiscal management.
The roots of the Hungarian regulation of the public control system go back to 1989.
The essence of the internal control system as an integrated approach to corporate governance
is that it covers regulations, procedures, functional methods and organizational structures
aiming to achieve the objectives of management. Internal control shall prevent, detect and/or
correct events which endanger such objectives. The internal control system is an integral
process that is designed to obtain reasonable assurance and to ensure assessing risks.
In Ireland the principles of the current system of accountability and control are mainly
derived from the Constitution and from the institutional and financial relationships between
parliament and the executive which have developed over the years.Internal financial control
includes a system of delegation and accountability; proper authority for the making of
payments, segregation of duties, particularly where the processing of transactions is involved;
careful selection of officers with responsibility for money, including ensuring that they have
the skills commensurate with their responsibilities and that they are appropriately monitored;
documentary and physical controls to safeguard assets;
information and reporting arrangements to management;
documented financial policies and procedures, including ensuring that they are
available throughout the department;
systems to ensure budgetary control;
systems to review and evaluate controls
Internal controls in the Italian public administration date back to the early years of the
new Italian state, to Law No 5026 of 1869 on public accounts In order to make the tools for
controlling public finances more effective, the practice used hitherto of covering each new
legislative initiative with three balances has been put on an institutional footing, making
implementation of the cover required by the constitution consistent with the criteria and
parameters adopted by the European Union.
The Dutch public sector is basically decentralized, based on historical tradition. The
regional governments (provinces) and the local governments (municipalities) conduct their
own household, including an independent financial management. The external control is
applied by their own democratic councils. Supervision by central government is limited and
indirect.
The State Internal Control System in Spain was developed by the General Government
Audit Office, an institution that has been established for 140 years.
The control model takes as its starting point a series of constitutional principles, which
include the following: the principles of legality and budgetary specification and the principles
of budgetary unity and universality‘s.; the guiding principles governing both aspects of public
spending: an equitable allocation of public resources and the planning and implementation of
public spending in accordance with criteria of efficiency.
The internal control environment in the UK operates within a framework of
governance and financial discipline designed specifically for the central government
environment. It is allied to the corporate governance requirements that operate in the private
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
sector, but has been adapted to reflect the unique accountability structures in the government
sector. The duty to safeguard public funds is central to this.
In all these countries, budgets and administrative laws usually give managers a free
hand when it comes to using public funds. From this point of view, we can underline the fact
that in the countries where public managers possess a high level of executive power a great
deal of attention is given to the proper functioning of internal control systems. In the field of
internal control, the community acquis is delineated by general principles of proper
management, accepted especially in the European Union, so that the notion of control is
associated to the management function. According to the legislation in use, in Romania,
internal control is regarded as the assembly of all forms of control exercised in a public entity,
established by the management team in accordance with objectives, having as purpose the
efficient management of public funds.
The public character of heritage and especially the funds managed by public entities
imposes the development of a perfected control system, so that it can ensure the Chief
Authorization Office has the most adequate vision of all the activities undertaken by the
entity.
The management team has the duty to track the material, human and financial
resources available to the public entity which allow for fulfilling the specific objectives. The
analyses run by the entire team will lead to the identification of the instruments for internal
control that help implementing the right correlation between the objectives and the financial
means.
The main instruments of internal control are represented by:
- The interpretation and rigorous analysis of the degree to which real needs are
covered, at the level of the entire entity, with the existing resources;
- Applying check-lists to ensure the compliance with the procedures for public
acquisition contracts;
- Identifying the nature, structure and characteristics of the resources in order to
acquire them, using the available funds.
With the help of these tools, through internal control in public institutions, one is able
to compare results with objectives, and to find the causes for negative deviations from the
plan; also, to take the necessary measures for prevention or correction.
Internal management control standards are characteristic for a minimum category of
guidelines and management rules that all public entities need to implement, through their own
resources or with the help of a company specialized in consulting. These standards have the
purpose of creating a framework for constant and coherent internal management control.
The leaders of public entities take the necessary measures to elaborate and/or develop
internal/ management control system within their own entities. They mainly consist of:
elaborating and bringing up to date the program for developing their own internal/
management control system; designing the structure with attributions of monitoring,
coordinating and methodological guidance of their own internal/ management control system;
elaborating and bringing up to date the procedures focused on activities; following the
measures comprised by the development program; running analyses regarding the
development of the internal/ management control system, as well as the actions concerned
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
with monitoring, coordinating and guiding, undertaken by the structure that has got these
roles.
CONCLUSIONS
The stage of implementation and development of management/ internal control
systems, as well as the special situations observed along the activities of monitoring,
coordination and methodological guidance run by the assembled structures, become the
subject of reporting, through quarterly/ yearly statements, which are transmitted to the
hierarchically superior public entities.
At a practical level, the internal control system functions within an environment that is
always changing, which imposes the adaptation of control to the level of each activity,
differently and integratively, designed according to the company‘s interests. This design has
to take into account the organization structure of the entity, the managers‘ style of leadership,
the influence of environmental factors and implicitly the risks that may affect the entity.
Bibliography
1. Ashbaugh-Skaife, 2009). The Effect of SOX Internal Control 12. Deficiencies on
Firm Risk and Cost of Equity, Journal of Accounting Research, vol. 47,
2. Dobre M., Hodgson A. (2010). Controlul intern si credibilitatea situatiilor financiare
- noi directii de cercetare pe plan international, Bucuresti, Revista Audit-Financiar, .
3. Simionescu M, 2013 Sistemul de control intern in obiectivele organizatiei,
Academica Sience Journal, Nr. 3 ,
4. ****Curtea de Conturi a Romaniei, 2011 Ghid de evaluare a sistemului de control
intern în entităţile publice, ,
5. ****European Commission, Compedium of the Public Internal Control Systems in
the EU Member States, Luxemburg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2012
6. ****OECD, Internal Control and Internal Audit: Ensuring Public SectorIntegrity
and Accountability, Report OECD Conference Centre France, 2011,
7. ****INTOSAI GOV 9110, Guidance for Reporting on the Effectiveness of Internal
Controls: SAI Experiences in Implementing and Evaluating Internal Controls,
8 *** Public Internal Control Systems in the EU Member States
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MISLEADING THE FINANCIAL SITUATION USERS BY FRAUDS
Isa Tak, Assist. Prof., PhD, Lumina - The University of South-East Europe
Abstract: This paper describes the techniques and methods used by the management of an
entity that tries and many times succeeds in influencing the financial situations that contain
representative fraud. Such methods and techniques that are used worldwide are described in
detail as: ‖creative accounting‖, ‖aggressive accounting‖, ‖big bath‖, fraudulent financial
situations and ‖income management‖. A distinct part of this paper represents the proposals
of improving the detection of such actions and the combat against these malefic techniques
that have a bad influence on us all, no matter of private users of financial situations or tax
and financial authorities.
Keywords: creative accounting, aggressive accounting, ‖big bath‖, fraud in financial
situations, ‖income management‖
Managers, shareholders, investors and employees have different expectations of
different entities, their assets and resources always representing a common interest for the
stakeholders above, and according with these assets and resources, different expectations
appear. These types of expectations represent the beginning of „made-up‖ financial situations
or that contain fraud.
I. Creative accounting
Accountants worldwide have been criticized so much and so many times for their lack
of imagination and rigid attitude insomuch that the term „creative accounting‖ seems a
veritable paradox. Creative accounting, as a concept, is used to describe the process were the
knowledge of the professional accountant is used in order to manipulate the amounts in the
balance of accounts1.
In the international literature we find many definitions of creative accounting and I
shall itemise the ones I find most important and that are possible to be applied in the
Romanian environment. M. Trotman defines creative accounting as a technique to
communicate a certain type of image of the entity to the investors 2. Collase’s opinion is that
„creative accounting collocation‖ represents „practices of accounting information of financial
users near the limit of illegality, applied by certain enterprises, that, taking advantage of the
rules imposed by the standards, seek to beautify the image of the their financial position and
their economic and financial performances‖.3
And yet, the most complete definition belongs to K. Naser according to whom
„creative accounting‖ represents:
1
Lungu Ionut Cosmin, Potecea G. Valeriu , Rotaru Viorel Horatiu - Techniques Used in Creative Accounting, Annals
of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings of the 20th International DAAAM Symposium, Vienna, 2009
2
M. Trotman, Comptabilite britannique, mode d‘emploi, Economica Publishing House, Paris, 1993
3
Feleaga, N., Feleaga. L. – Consolidated accounting, Bucharest, 2010.
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- The process that manipulates accounting figures due to breaches of rules, practices of
measurement and the application of information that permit the transformation of
documents from what they should be in what the management of the entity desires;
- The process where transactions are structured in such a manner that allows the desired
accounting result.
In his study about society collapse, Agenti linked the use of creative accounting
techniques with the incompetence of entity‘s management. Incompetent managers concentrate
their attention to some particular arrangements and neglect the accounting information system
and financial rates, that begin to deteriorate. An entity that is in this stage begins to use
creative accounting. The reason is evident, meaning that the entity did not obtain acceptable
performances or there might be another reason, that the suppliers do not credit the entity any
more, the creditors begin to lower the debts return, customers start working with other
entities. By using creative accounting, managers are situated in a defensive position. Their
denial of admitting failure is a possible component of a normal psychological attitude,
according with „the clouds are going to collide elsewhere‖.
The specialized literature presents the following reasons that make managers resort to
creative accounting:
- Artificial rise of public emitted shares of the entity; if incomes or future cash-in are to
follow it is obvious that entity‘s public emitted shares are going to rise as value;
- Effect of debt costs; if a entity reports high incomes / assets the more trust the banks
are showing towards to confer a loan and also low credit rates are to be negotiated
by the entity;
- Many times entities remunerate their management according with the achieved
financial results; the management is interested in artificially growing these results.
Most of the indicators that influence the management remuneration are presented in
the financial situations of the entity they manage. This is the reason why managers
are always interested in putting pressure on these indicators in order to achieve the
desired remuneration or supplementary bonuses.
In this context, managerial accounting tried to develop a theory that limits the
influence of management pressure on the financial indicators such as profit, assets, debt and
so on. Trying to diversify these values with a series of non-financial indicators, so that reports
that are harder to manipulate or create the ways to penalise the management by the investors
represents a partial achieve of the objective of „making-up‖ the financial information.
Other factors that increase the opportunities of creative accounting to manifest are:
management incompetence, incertitude, risk, variety of economic activities and attitude of
financial information users. The common attribute of the definition above is that creative
accounting is a practice that tries to manipulate the financial users.
Creative accounting has a long and remarkable history. It determined the authors of
the accounting standards to be in a continuous process of revising them, due to the increasing
abuses of accounting regulations that are used in creative accounting. According with O.
Amat and J. Blake the usage of creative accounting techniques will have the following effect:
- Rise or decrease of costs and incomes; asset diminishing; rise or diminish of debts;
rearrangement of assets or debts; manipulation of information presented in
supplementary notes of the financial situations.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- The effects are summed up in the figure below:
Rise or Rise or Rearrangement of Manipulation of
diminution of diminution of debs or assets presented
costs and debts information
incomes
Result Asset and debt
variation variation
Modification of liquidity, debt, financial independence and
rentability indicators
Modification of entity‘s value, its borrowing capacity and management
remuneration and supplementary bonuses
Figure no. 1 – Effects of creative accounting4
Creative accounting practices may play an important role of relaxing the restrictive
nature of financial agreements. Actions in order to increase the incomes will bring a greater
profit, increased current assets and shareholders interest, and in some cases will lower the
debts. Because creative accounting is used in order to improve the financial position of an
entity and to create protection of current financial agreements, some financial agreements will
be less restrictive.5
Taking in concern the elements presented, creative accounting assumes that the entity
takes advantage of the existent breaches in the standards and of the flexibility of the
regulations in order to distort the presented information. Though there is a clear difference
between creative accounting and illegality (fraud), both phenomena appear in conditions
of financial difficulty and have as main objective to deceive the financial situation users.
In conclusion, even if creative accounting is not illegal it shows that management, under
financial pressure, seeks solutions without regard to ethical standards.
II. Aggressive accounting
Aggressive accounting is generally used in order to obtain a rise of profit in a certain
period by applying the accounting standards at the interest of the management. An entity
issues invoices but does not deliver the goods or services yet to the buyer and the costs
regarding those goods or services are transferred to the following tax period. Accordingly, the
entity‘s incomes rise in the current tax period without any kind of costs.
4
Ibdem.
5
Charles W. Mulford, Eugene E. Comiskey , ―The Financial Numbers Game‖ „Detecting Creative Accounting Practices‖,
JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. Rosewood Drive, Danvers, 2010.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
An example of this king of technique used is represented Texun Corporation that, in
its annual report announced a corporative restructuration, more precise details about a future
economic growth. The stage of cutting costs of the plan included consolidation of
administrative positions and reducing the product offer and of inventory conservation. The
company also announced the externalisation of commercial activities that were not considered
essential any more. The company also registered a pre-taxation of gains for 337.6 billion $ in
the fourth trimester of 2009.
A restructuration plan represents a positive event. If this action succeeds it means
operation acceleration and cost control being a positive sign for the future of the company.
According with GAAP, in the restructuration year, the company should register a
restructuration tax and incorporate the anticipated costs of applying this process. Apparently
Texsun did so, yet the company intentionally overestimated costs implied in restructuration,
fact that brought diminished results in 2009 to greater results in the following tax periods.
Texsun applied the principles of aggressive accounting.
In 2009 Texsun due to restructuration tax reported a loss of 285.2 billion $. In 2010,
before restatement, the company reported a profit of current activity of 199.4 $. The company
was so proud of the reported turnover in 2010 that the Executive Manager, Albert Dunlop had
as introduction in his letter addressed to the shareholders the following statement: „We had a
great 2010. In the last 12 months we broke new records almost in every aspect of the
transactions developed by the company. We registered a significant growth of sales and in the
same time of incomes and gross margin. Indeed, the most important aspect is that we
succeeded in improving every transaction in the commercial activity‖6. After the results for
that period were rearranged meaning the restructuration tax was removed along with practices
of aggressive income recognition, the current gain before tax for 2010 was reduced at 104.1
billion $.
III. „Big bath” practices
The so called „big bath‖ technique is easy to understand. In the year the entity reports
a loss, the management increases that loss by including all future possible losses, that would
mean higher gains for the following years. According with an economic perspective, one
would be tempted to delay a loss as long as possible and to report a gain as early as possible.
The empirical studies have proved that, in some cases, subject are prepared to pay more in
order to avoid an unpleasant event rather than the same event in the near future and chose to
delay the consumption, meaning more payments for future consumption. Prudence can be
valuable because by cancelling it, value could be created.
Restructuring entities „falsify‖ their financial situations by cancelling assets and by
creating substantial debts and irreversible depreciation reserves. The reason behind this
technique is that the market ignores cancellation and sometimes observes them as a traditional
mean. Exaggerated losses create a shield for future gains. „Big Bath‖ technique Is applied
when there is a change in management and the later management cancels the assets that do
not bring profit, registering those assets as costs, in one way to show the lack of competence
of the old management and on the other side trying to create a positive and profitable image
regarding the future periods of the new management.
6
Pedneault, S., Fraud 101: Techniques and Strategies for Understanding Fraud, 3rd Edition. Wiley, 2011.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
A study developed in the United Kingdom highlighted that 91% of the financial
auditors interviewed consider creative accounting as a problem that will never be solved. This
means that no matter of the degree of details contained in the standards there will always be a
way to „defeat‖ the system. Consequently, the mission of the standards developers and
accounting profession representatives is not a simple one. Even if they are not sure they will
win the war against creative accounting, they must make efforts in order to answer to
imagination (creative accounting) with imagination (improved standards).
IV. Fraudulent financial reporting
Fraudulent financial reporting implies intentional misrepresentation, including
omissions of information contained in the financial situations in order to deceive the financial
statements users. The term „fraudulent financial reporting‖ is used after the fact has been
proven by the authorities, in civil or penal law trial7.
KnowledgeWare Inc., an established Atlanta-based software company was accused by
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission that has fraudulent reported incomes. This
company has granted certain clients prolonged payment periods that have doubted the
collecting action of its incomes. Those transactions have not been registered in accounting as
an income. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission has mentioned that KnowledgeWare
Inc. had as main objective to deceive the financial users by omitting the registration of selling
transactions and other documents prepared by the company such as supplementary lists meant
to eliminate the possibility for those certain clients to pay.
Fraudulent financial reporting can be achieved by:
- Manipulation, falsification or alteration of accounting information or documents that
support the financial situations;
- Misrepresentation or intentional omission of events and transactions that should be
contained in the financial statements;
Fraudulent financial reporting most of the time implies avoiding the management
controls, in this way internal controls seeming to be efficient. Fraud can be committed by
management by avoiding controls using techniques such as8:
- Fictive registration of acquisitions in the accounting journals, especially near the
end of a period, in order to manipulate current result and to achieve other
objectives;
- Adjusting inadequately the forecasts and modifying the judgement used to
determine the balance account;
- Omission or delaying the recognition of events and transactions of financial
situations that have appeared in the current tax period;
- Hiding or not presenting facts that could affect amounts registered in the financial
statements;
- Engaging in complex transactions that are structured in such a manner in order to
misrepresent the financial performance of the entity;
- Altering transactions registered or terms regarding significant and unusual events.
7
Mulford C. W. - Comiskey E. E., The Financial Numbers Game, Detecting Creative Accounting Practices‘, John Wiley &
Sons., 2011.
8
Peterson, B. H., P. Smedegaard, W. G. Heninger, M. B. Romney, Managing multiple identities. Discussion of the
benefits, risks, leading practices and audit considerations of both identity and access management, Journal of Accountancy
Septembrie, pag. 38-43, 2011.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
V. Income management
Income management represents an active manipulation of accounting results with the
main objective to create a wrong impression of the economic activity developed. Taking in
account that managers can chose which accounting policies to apply of a set of standards,
normally one should expect that the management should chose the necessary policies in order
to minimise the profit and/or the value of the entity on the market. This technique is „income
management‖ that can be defined as „taking reasonable and legal decisions for financial
reporting in order to obtain reliable and predictable financial results‖. This technique must not
be mistaken with illegal activities of fraudulent financial reporting of results that do not
reflect the economic reality. These types of activities are known as „fraudulent activities‖ and
imply a wrong presentation of financial statements9.
The authorities did not reach a conclusion regarding „income management‖.
According to U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission the financial fraud has a larger
meaning. Usually, one understands by income management that managers are trying to
present the financial situation other than it is, through remaining in the limits of the laws and
standards. Though managers are within the limits of law and accounting standards, income
management can be converted to fraud according with the management of the entity
intentions. There is a thin distinction between fraud and income management, in this context
we present;
Specification Accounting alternatives according with Real alternatives –
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles cash flow
Traditional • constitutional elements and reserves at a high • income registration
accounting level; delay;
• each entity can increase the cost level for • increase marketing
research, according with legal standards; and research costs.
• cancelling asset registration at a value greater
than the real one and restructuration costs.
Neutral Profit / gain resulted as a normal commercial
incomes activity is developed.
Aggressive • constitutive elements registered at a lower level • delaying costs of
accounting than the standards recommend; marketing and the ones for
research.
• income acceleration.
Fraudulent (No not meet the recommendations of GAAP)
accounting • registering incomes for sales that have never
took place;
• registering fictive transactions and customers;
• changing the information of a transaction of
invoices to a prior period;
• registering fictive inventory
9
Post James, Lawrence Anne T., Weber, James, Business and Society: Corporate Strategy, Public Policy, Ethics,
McGraw – Hill International Editions, Management and Organization Series, pag. 88, 2011.
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Figure no. 2 – Difference between fraud and income management
It is obvious that this kind of application is against the accounting standards, with the
clear intention of misleading the financial statements users. Dechow şi Skinner 10 highlight
that the academic research did not demonstrate that income management has a significant
effect of the mean of reported incomes. U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission is
concerned about income management because some investors are relying on the amounts
reported concerning incomes.
VI. Indications that reveal accounting fraud
Recent research regarding fraudulent financial reports that lead to the collapse of stock
market have highlighted the importance that financial reports have but also the understanding
of reasons that could lead to appearance of accounting scandals. The collapse of important
entities such as Enron (2001), Worldcom (2002), Global Crossing (2002), Parmalat (2003),
Societe Generale (2007) have had a negative impression from the public regarding effective
corporative management, quality of financial reporting and financial audit functions
credibility. These so called fraudulent financial reports have generated major concerns
regarding: efficiency of corporate management, integrity and ethical attitude of entity‘s
management, mostly when CEO and CFO are accused of falsifying the accounting registries,
acceptibility and efficiency of internal controls; financial audit quality11.
There are some signs that make one suspect fraud. Some of these are: detection of
abnormal situation in case of a detailed investigation; loss of financial documents; appearance
of new registered transactions that should not be normally registered or the raise of living
standards of some employees. The elements presented above do not represent relevant
evidence but represent the beginning of evidence.
The most important factors that influence the risk of fraud appearance and errors are12:
a. deficiencies in projecting and functioning of accounting system and internal
control as I have presented above; that it the reason why these systems represent
such a great importance for the financial audit;
b. management integrity and competence: the financial auditor analyses a series
of conditions that may rise the risk of fraud and errors appearance, such as:
- management is represented by a sole person or a small group, the administration
committee functioning inefficiently;
- a fast rhythm of personnel change belonging to accounting and finance departments;
- the prolonged and relevant underestimation of the number of employees belonging to
the accounting department.
c. Unusual pressure in the entity audited also represents a factor that raises the risk
of fraud and error appearance manifested in the following ways:
- the existence of a representative need of profit growth in order to sustain the public
emitted stock value;
- investments made in an environment characterised by fast changes;
- entity‘s dependence in a major way on one or few products or customers;
10
Dechow P. M., Skinner D. J., Earnings Management: Reconciling the Views of Accounting Academics, Practitioners and
Regulators, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 14, Nr. 2, 2011.
11
Zabihollah Rezaee, „Causes, consequences, and deterence of financial statement fraud‖ page 293., The University of
Memphis, Memphis, USA, 2010.
12
Power M, The Audit Society: Rituals of Verification, Oxford University Press, 2009.
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d. Unusual economic transaction is a factor that can increase the risk of fraud and
error appearance and is manifested in the following way:
- the existence of unusual transactions especially at the end of the tax period that
influences considerably the accounting and tax profit;
- complex economic transactions developed with affiliated parties;
- payments for services that are expensive in comparison with other services on the
same market.
e. Difficulty in obtaining sufficient and corresponding audit evidence is a factor that
raises the risk of fraud or error appearance; in this context the auditor has to follow:
- existence of inadequate transaction registration, such as: incomplete folders,
excessive modification of balance accounts and accounting registries, transactions that are not
registered according with the legal requirements;
- registering the economic transaction without an adequate set of documents in order
to sustain that transaction, for example: lack of certain authorisations, of accounting
documents, documents modification, and so on;
- an exaggerated number of differences between accounting transactions and third
parties confirmation.
In the end the financial auditor can also be faced with the situation where the
accounting system is digitalised and again the risk of fraud or error appearance is high. The
alteration of the accounting software is also possible due to lack of fiscal modification, the
software is not approved or tested and also the impossibility to obtain information contained
in the files and folders of the software due to a lack of documentation belonging to the
software or transaction registration.
Fraud investigation can be very costly and to block fraud is a more serious problem.
Generally, people commit fraud due to the following reasons:
- Pressure, for example: financial objectives are difficult to achieve, covering both
personal and entity‘s objectives. The employees or management are under pressure
when difficult tax periods appear and it is impossible for them to achieve the set
objectives. This is the reason for personnel decrease and those that are under pressure
because they feel threatened of losing their jobs;
- Opportunities, favourable occasions, for example: the personnel cut means there
shall be less resources engaged in internal control; financial difficulties, in the context
of an economic crises force entities to reduce their costs and explore the segments that
generate efficiency. Personnel cut is a way of cutting costs but also weakens the
internal control that favours the appearance of fraud;
- Justification represents the internal dialogue of the criminal that explains to himself /
herself his / her actions. The author of the fraud convinces himself / herself that the
employer owes this remuneration.
VII. Opinions, conclusions and proposals
In each entity the success rate of fraud or error detection methods is not 100%. The
management of the entity should not even try to offer the chance of financial situations
manipulation or corruption to be developed by managers or employees. Fraud cannot be
eradicated totally but can be prevented. The more pressure the manipulator has the more
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excuses he should have. As I mentioned in this paper, the entities should reduce the cost of
fraud appearance otherwise there will be problems.
Fraud or errors that manipulate the financial reports have as causes the following
elements:
- Lack of entity‘s management responsibility;
- Inadequate internal control;
- Lack of accounting knowledge of the management;
- Inadequate internal control functions;
- Constant change of external financial auditors or inadequate financial auditors;
- Insufficient credit (both commercial and bank)
- Inadequate economic conditions;
- Lack of cash-in in order to increase the profit;
- Large investments and losses;
- Dependency to more clients.
One can claim that fraud disappearance is an ideal. The final purpose of internal
control systems is to reduce the risk of fraud appearance to a certain level that is considered
acceptable by the governance or by the owner of the business. In this context I would like to
highlight that in order for a financial audit to be successful it must respect the independence
principle, meaning that the financial auditor is not responsible for financial situation
preparation or internal control application, because, respecting this assumption future
misunderstanding with entity‘s management is to be avoided and they also understand their
responsibility in preparing the financial situations and the way the internal control functions,
in the same time applying the fair image principle13.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Charles W. Mulford, Eugene E. Comiskey , ―The Financial Numbers Game‖
„Detecting Creative Accounting Practices‖, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, 2010
2. Dechow P. M., Skinner D. J., Earnings Management: Reconciling the Views of
Accounting Academics, Practitioners and Regulators, Accounting Horizons, Vol. 14,
Nr. 2, 2011.
3. Feleaga, N., Feleaga. L. – Consolidated accounting, Bucharest, 2010.
4. Lungu Ionut Cosmin, Potecea G. Valeriu , Rotaru Viorel Horatiu - Techniques
Used in Creative Accounting, Annals of DAAAM for 2009 & Proceedings of the 20th
International DAAAM Symposium, Vienna, 2009
5. M. Trotman, Comptabilite britannique, mode d‘emploi, Economica Publishing
House, Paris, 1993
6. Mulford C. W. - Comiskey E. E., The Financial Numbers Game, Detecting Creative
Accounting Practices‘, John Wiley & Sons., 2011.
7. Pedneault, S., Fraud 101: Techniques and Strategies for Understanding Fraud, 3rd
Edition. Wiley, 2011
8. Peterson, B. H., P. Smedegaard, W. G. Heninger, M. B. Romney, Managing
multiple identities. Discussion of the benefits, risks, leading practices and audit
13
Ramos, M., Risk-based audit best practices. Journal of Accountancy, December, pages 32-39, 2011.
555
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considerations of both identity and access management, Journal of Accountancy
September, page 38-43, 2011.
9. Post James, Lawrence Anne T., Weber, James, Business and Society: Corporate
Strategy, Public Policy, Ethics, McGraw – Hill International Editions, Management
and Organization Series, page 88, 2011
10. Power M, The Audit Society: Rituals of Verification, Oxford University Press, 2009.
11. Ramos, M., Risk-based audit best practices. Journal of Accountancy, December,
pages 32-39, 2011;
12. Zabihollah Rezaee, „Causes, consequences, and deterrence of financial statement
fraud‖ page 293, The University of Memphis, Memphis, USA, 2010.
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MULTIPOLARITY VS. MULTILATERALISM IN THE RISING EMERGING
ECONOMIES CONTEXT
Sebastian-Andrei Labeș, PhD Fellow, SOPHRD/159/1.5/133675 Project, PhD
Student, Romanian Academy, Iași Branch
Abstract: Nowadays there is an increasingly current spread of terms such as multipolarism,
multipolarity, interpolarism, global governance, multilateralism – all trying to capture the
changing nature of power in international relations and even the structure of global power.
Trends that wish to summarize these concepts are directly related to deepening
interdependence multiplication and sophistication. The emergence of an increasingly obvious
multipolarism is flexible with different configurations depending on the criteria of defining
the concept of power.
The need for an effective multilateral system, complex and at the same time flexible is
undeniable. Despite many critics or skeptics, rather disillusioned under maximal expectations
or beliefs of realistic inspiration, international organizations and international law remain
relevant and current. Delaying efficient processes and reform with universal multilateralism
led to proliferation, since 1990, of a ‗new multilateralism‘ characterized by three types:
regional multilateralism, informal multilateralism and functional multilateralism.
This ‗new multilateralism‘ must not replace the traditional one, but to supplement and even to
facilitate adaptation and reform of the latter. The temptation to return to a system based on
the balance of power, multipolarity without multilateralism, it can be observed in some
current developments. The rise of emerging economies is a manifestation of this trend.
Keywords: multipolarity, multilateralism, emerging economies, power, poles.
1. Introduction
The concept of polarity was developed in the literature of international relations and
defined as any of the various ways in which power is distributed within the international
system. Polarity, as a feature of international relations was raised by Waltz (1979) in the new
version of structural realism. He argues that in order to understand the world order one should
look closely towards the configuration of the international system. This configuration is
characterized precisely in terms of the distribution of power between states involving
large/strong states (known as "Poles"), middle powers and/or minor. What are the
characteristics that make a country to be strong? For Waltz, all that matters are capabilities –
material markers of international power such as economic strength of a country doubled by its
size in terms of geography, military and population. There are four types of international
systems: unipolar, bipolar, tripolar and multipolar (four or more centers of power). This
classification takes into account only the distribution of power and influence of states in a
particular region or globally.
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In international relations it is widely accepted the idea that the post-Cold War
international system is unipolar: the hegemony of the United States is still provided by key
features such as high level of defense spending (nearly half of global military spending) or the
force and economic influence in shaping the structure of the present world organizations
(International Monetary Fund, G-8, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development, World Bank, World Trade Organization, Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries, NATO, United Nations). However, in recent years, new poles of competitiveness
with regional spheres of influence such as China, India, Japan and European Union threaten
with success the hegemony of the United States.
Multilateralism has its roots in international relations and features in several countries
working together to solve a certain problem/crisis. Multilateralism was defined by Miles
Kahler as the "international governance of the many". International multilateralism is seen as
the "opposition to discriminatory bilateral agreements that were designed to increase the
strong leverage over the weak and increase international conflict" (Kahler, 1992). In 1990,
Robert Keohane defined multilateralism as "the practice of coordinating national policies in
groups of three or more states" (Keohane, 1990). In an article from 1992, John Ruggie
proposed a concise definition of multilateralism, which states that "multilateralism refers to
coordinating relations among three or more states, in accordance with certain principles"
(Ruggie, 1992).
International organizations such as United Nations (UN) and World Trade
Organization (WTO) are well-known examples of institutions that are based on
multilateralism. The main supporters of multilateralism have traditionally been the middle
powers like Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Benelux and the Scandinavian nations. Larger
states often act unilaterally, while the smallest ones have little direct power in international
affairs, in addition to participation in the United Nations (for instance participating in a voting
bloc with other nations). Multilateralism may involve several nations acting together, such as
the UN or regional alliances, military pacts or groups such as NATO. Multilateral institutions
were not imposed by states but were created and widely accepted in order to enhance the
ability to reach their interests by coordinating their policies.
Global multilateralism is currently disputed, especially in terms of trade by developing
regional agreements such as the EU or NAFTA, but not inconsistent with global multilateral
agreements. Moreover, the main promoter of multilateralism postwar economic regimes, the
United States often resorted to unilateral and bilateral confrontation regarding trade and
beyond, resulting consensus frustrations of multilateral forums. Although the most powerful
member of the international community, the United States are the least to lose by abandoning
multilateralism, while the poorest nations would have the most to lose and the overall cost
would be huge for all its participants.
2. Shaping a new international power hierarchy
Upon the end the Cold War, a number of developing countries have become a
challenge to the dominance position of the old powers that are slowly declining in recent
years. In economic terms, the so-called countries of the "South" accumulate nowadays more
than half of global GDP, are world leaders in terms of annual growth rates of over 11%
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(China) and 9% (India) and at the same time consume more than half of the world's energy
resources. The balance of power in the world is complex and contradictory in nature, while
making economic forecasts including is obsolete. Nobody expected the fall of the Berlin Wall,
decreasing the influence of Japanese economy in international arena, terrorist attacks of
September 11th 2001, Islamic fundamentalism and ―Arab Spring‖ momentum. Given the
current situation as a starting point, the international system can be characterized by two
general trends:
- A new international order that is both single and multi-polar;
- Economic growth in Asia (India, China, Japan), which could dominate the XXI
century;
2.1. New uni- and multi-polar international order
The current constellation of forces and alliances worldwide is much less clear than it
was in the two stages of the international system after the Second World War: (1) the
ideological confrontation between the two superpowers (USA vs. USSR) and (2) The
tripartite system dominated by Europe, USA and Japan. In this third stage scholars are talking
about a new world order that is uni- and multi-polar simultaneously. There is room for both –
old and new powers – and old and new alliances. The world is unipolar in the clear military
dominance of the United States point of view, and multi-polar in all other spheres of
international relations. Therefore, a new economic order that includes China and India is
growing under a system which is not as well reflected in the international political order and
continues to be dominated by the traditional powers.
2.2. The rise of Asia as an economic powerhouse in the XXI century
The three Asian countries: China, India and Japan are part of the reduced circle of
great powers. Because of its size, economic growth and military budget, China is already a
world power, even if it has not yet reached that status in international politics. India's position
is still somewhat less clear, although had rapidly grow in international power hierarchy.
Therefore, it conveys the idea that this century will belong to Asia, under the joint leadership
or challenge of China and India, followed by Japan. The appointment of South Korean Ban
Ki-moon as Secretary-General of the United Nations is also a growing recognition of the role
that Asia plays in the world. Faced with the growing importance of the Asian continent,
Europe and especially the United States of America might get diminished relevance in the
international arena. It is estimated that by 2050, Europe and Japan will constitute together
only 5% of the world population, compared to nearly 30% in 1950 (Hurrell, 2007).
3. The background of global multipolarity
3.1. The main coordinates of the concept of multipolarity
Multipolarity can be defined as a distribution of power in which more than two nation-
states have nearly equal amounts of military, cultural and economic influence. The views on
multipolarity differ. Classical theorists such as Hans Morgenthau and E. H. Carr argue that
multipolar systems are more stable than bipolar systems. States can gain power through
alliances and petty wars that do not directly challenge the powers which in bipolar systems,
classical realists argue that it is not possible. On the other hand, neorealist theory focuses on
security issues and reverses the formula: the members of a multipolar system can focus in
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terms of security concerns on a large number of other powers and by wrongly interpreting the
intentions of other states may compromise unnecessarily the safety of the entire system.
Furthermore Singer & Deutsch (Deutsch, Singer, 1964) argue that a multi-polar system is
actually more stable because the great powers have more incentives and opportunities for
cooperation and are more likely to have diffused attention instead of focusing only on an
antagonist pole.
One of the most powerful expressions of neorealist position towards multipolarity is
Mearsheimer's article Back to the Future (Mearsheimer, 1990). He reiterates neorealist
skepticism not only about stability in Europe more than that he argues that "the most likely
scenario in Europe is a possible exit from the stage of the United States coupled with the
emergence of Germany as a dominant state. Indeed, the region will probably move from the
present bipolarity (United States and Russia as poles) to unbalanced multipolarity, which will
lead to more intense security competition between European powers"(Mearsheimer, 2001).
Mearsheimer‘s scenario is not far from today‘s reality. One of the most important
implications of a multipolar international system, with any number of poles, is that
international decisions will be based on strategic reasons rather than ideological or historical,
to maintain a balance of power.
3.2. Multipolar international order
Disappearance of the bipolar international order was a turning point in the multilateral
system as a whole, marked, on the one hand, by the logic like end of the "Cold War" and, on
the other hand, by the emergence of the new poles of power. Political, economic and social
developments at the end of the twentieth century have led, among others, and initiating the
long and often arduous process of adaptation and reform of most international organizations,
almost without exception that still continues today. If the Cold War and its effects were the
proximate causes of change in international organizations, from the perspective of medium
and long-term cases, these processes were inseparable from globalization. The increasing
trend of globalization at the beginning of the twenty first century produces consequences from
the bottom level of personal privacy to the international political and economic system.
Nowadays there is currently an increasingly spread in terms such as multipolarism,
interpolarism or global governance all trying to capture the changing nature of power relations
and even the structure of global power. Trends that wish to summarize these concepts are
directly related to deepening, multiplication and sophistication of interdependencies, as well
as emerging of an increasingly obvious flexible multipolarism with different configurations
depending on the criteria for defining power. Multiplication interdependencies and their
variable overlapping together is a phenomenon, not incidentally, of more diversified process
of regional integration and even (re) defining regional identity. All these factors are sources of
pressure on multilateral institutions, as it characterizes their emphasized outdoor action
environment.
In the short and medium term, the global environment will remain marked by the
global crisis, which causes substantial challenges but also new opportunities for action and
possible reconfiguration of global positions (either by states opting for closer cooperation to
eliminate the effects of the crisis, either ultimately a unilateral choice of solutions). Causes
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and extent of the crisis have brought into focus the challenge that globalization brings to states
a diminishing of their impact on the economies and societies, against which the states must
find a faster way to accommodate more efficient.
The need for an effective multilateral system, complex and at the same time flexible is
undeniable. Despite many critic or skeptic voices, rather disillusioned under maximal
expectations or beliefs of realistic inspiration, international organizations and international
law remain relevant and current. Moreover, they must also have the potential to become the
main tools that mankind has handy to understand and manage the main aspects of
globalization for its benefit. Of course, international organizations need to engage effectively
in the process of adjustment, reform and even organizational learning in relation to the new
realities of their external environment and those resulted from their internal dynamics. The
trend should be to better reflect the existing interdependencies focusing on proper solutions to
new type of problems on the agenda of the organization and the global one but also taking
into account the new international distribution of power.
Delaying efficient processes and reforming universal vocation of multilateralism led to
proliferation, since 1990, of a "new multilateralism", characterized by three types:
Regional multilateralism (for instance organizations and regional structures /processes,
free trade regional agreements);
Informal multilateralism (for instance G-20, G-8);
Functional multilateralism (such as coalitions of the willing: the Alliance of Civilizations,
the Community of Democracies).
This "new multilateralism" must not replace the traditional one but to supplement and
even to facilitate the adaptation and reform of the latter. The temptation to return to a system
based on the balance of power, that means multipolarity without multilateralism, it can be
observed in some current developments. The BRICS group of states (Brazil, Russian
Federation, India, China and South Africa) is one of the forms of manifestation of this trend.
This represents a risk for the current world order and requires decisions and explicit measures,
both state and multilateral, to encourage the alternative: the reconstruction of multilateralism
of universal jurisdiction and linking it in an intelligent manner with the "new multilateralism".
4. The rise of multipolarity
In April 2010, Robert Zoellick, the World Bank President at that time, gave a speech
hailed by some as the most important speech of a President of World Bank since Robert
McNamara in 1973, when McNamara established poverty reduction as the new World Bank
mission. The main point of Zoellick's speech was the end of the Third World, the end of
distinction between the developed countries and developing ones.
Zoellick argues that the distribution of material power in the international system
became more fluid in the last decade than at any time since the beginning of the Cold War,
and we're finally at the end of Truman Era (which began in the early postwar years, when
President Truman urged the West to accept the challenge of using knowledge and resources of
the United States to provide development for the rest of the non-communist world). From a
largely unipolar world, with the United States as a hegemon, now we can talk about a "new
global economy, rapidly evolving in a multipolar way" as the share of economic and political
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power flowed to the global East and global South. Zoellick goes on to show how this
multipolar world economy requires changes in the governance and operations of the World
Bank to make it more multilateral and less dominated by Western states (Zoellick, 2010).
Following Robert Wade (Wade, 2011) the rise of multipolarity (from the standpoint of
global economy) involves a decrease in the concentration of economic activity from the core
of the international system and a growth within its non-core concentrations. This trend is
actually measured by several indicators:
1. The share of G7 (12% of world population) in global GDP: in 2000, G7 share was
72%, by 2011 it decreased to 53%, according to IMF (measured at market exchange rates);
2. The rise of China: the output per capita of China unlike the United States increased
from about 6% to 22% between 1980 and 2008 (the proportion in 2008 was approximately
similar to that of Japan in the late 1940s);
3. Monetary Policy: Ten years ago, world was paying attention to the USA and EU's
monetary policy and no care was given to China's monetary policy. Today, China's monetary
policy is closely watched, especially in New York, Washington D.C. and London;
4. The share of developing countries in world‘s output: between 2000 and 2009, the
share of these countries in global output increased by 10%, from 23% to 33% (measured at
market exchange rates) and from 40% to 50% (measured in purchasing power parity - PPP
dollars);
5. South-South trade: in 1997, the ten largest exporters in Asia (excluding Japan)
exported 46% of total exports to the United States, European Union and Japan in 2009; only
36% of the difference goes to countries developing and oil exporting countries. China is now
the largest trading partner of Brazil, outpacing the United States;
6. EU and the euro: EU is slowly becoming a power with a higher cohesion than in the
past, and the euro is the second major international reserve currency worldwide. The share of
the euro in world foreign exchange reserves increased from 18% in 1999 to 27% in 2009.
Furthermore economic growth in European Union along with its economic weight makes it an
important source of pressure in the international economy and global economic governance
framework.
5. Multilateralism in a multipolar world
In 2011, World Bank chief economist Dr. Justin Yifu Lin conducted a study
about multipolarity (World Bank, 2011). Rebalancing the global power with increasing
emerging markets over the past 30 years has created what Nobel laureate in 2001, Michael
Spence, called the "New Convergence". He speaks about "two parallel revolutions that
interact: the continuity of the industrial revolution in the advanced countries and unexpected
and spectacular growth pattern of developing and emerging economies – known as the
Revolution of Inclusion. After two centuries of great divergence a new pattern of convergence
was adopted" (Spence, 2011).
World Bank report points out that the share of emerging markets in world trade
increased from 26% in 1995 to 42% in 2010 and is still expanding. Specifically, by 2025, the
World Bank estimated that six major economies – Brazil, Russia, India, China (BRIC) plus
Indonesia and South Korea – will represent more than half of global growth. The World Bank
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believes that in terms of actual multipolarity challenges for emerging markets to get to
rebalance the international world order will have to improve technological innovation ability
(productivity of factors of production) and to shift from export-led demand to the one based
on internal engines of growth. A second trend is that multinational companies from emerging
countries will become a powerful force in shaping global industrialization. The third trend is
that financial markets now dominated by the United States will become more multipolar, with
a greater role of the euro and in the long term, the yuan (World Bank, 2011).
One of the findings of the report states that a "multipolar global economy will weigh
positive for developing countries as a whole though not necessarily for each of them
individually". The current reality is that the European debt crisis continues slow growth in the
USA and created a situation in which multilateral trade and investment regime which brought
prosperity to the world is waiting. Current multilateral regime is a system of agreements
between several countries working on common standards in security, trade and finance.
International agencies such as United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund and
World Trade Organization are all institutions that support multilateralism.
Multilateralism in the area of international trade has been one of the foundations of
global prosperity, which allowed developing countries to access global markets as tariff
barriers fell and supply chains have become truly global. Multinational companies from
developed countries fear that a multilateral system can promote greater competition from
multinational companies in emerging markets, which are often state-owned or state-
guaranteed, and that the new game cannot be at the same level as before. Therefore, there is
greater support for bilateral arrangements through bilateral concessions regarding open
markets that are perceived with more commercial results than obtaining the same effects by
complex multilateral negotiations (Sheng, 2013).
The current deadlock of multilateralism is complex due to the debate on how to share
the costs and responsibilities of maintaining the global system. If emerging markets want
more power, they must be willing to share the costs of providing more global public goods.
6. Concluding remarks
Currently there is an increasingly spread in academia of significant terms such as
multipolarism, multipolarity, interpolarism, global governance, multilateralism. All these
concepts are trying to capture the changing nature of power in international relations and even
the global power structure itself. Trends that want to summarize these concepts are directly
related to the deepening interdependence multiplication and sophistication. The emergence of
the increasingly obvious multipolarism is flexible, with different configurations, depending on
the criteria for defining the concept of power. The need for an effective multilateral system,
complex and at the same time flexible is undeniable. Despite many critics or skeptics, rather
disillusioned below expectations or beliefs of maximum realistic inspiration, international
organizations and international law remain relevant and current. Delaying effective processes
and reform with universal multilateralism led to proliferation, since 1990, a "new
multilateralism", characterized by three types: regional multilateralism, informal
multilateralism and functional multilateralism.
563
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
This "new multilateralism" should not replace the traditional but complete and even
facilitate adaptation and reform of the latter. The temptation to return to a system based on the
balance of power, multipolarity without multilateralism can be seen in some current
developments. The growth in economic global relevance of emerging economies is one of the
manifestations of this trend.
References
Deutsch, K., Singer, J. D. (1964) Multipolar Systems and International Stability,
World Politics, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 390-406
Hurrell, A. (2007) On Global Order: Power, Values and the Constitution of
International Society, Oxford University Press
Kahler, M. (1992) Multilateralism with Small and Large Numbers, International
Organization, 46, (3), 681
Keohane, R. O. (1991) Multilateralism: An Agenda for Research, International
Journal, 45, pp. 731-743
Mearsheimer, J. (1990) Back to the Future: Instability in Europe after the Cold War,
International Security, Vol. 15. No. 1, pp. 5-56
Mearsheimer, J. (2001) The Future of the American Pacifier, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 80,
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Sheng, A. (2013) Does a multipolar world support multilateralism?, The Nation,
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multilateralism-30201311.html
Spence, M. (2011) The Next Convergence: The Future of Economic Growth in a
Multispeed World, Farrar, Straus and Giroux Press, New York
Ruggie, J. (1992) Multilateralism: The Anatomy of an Institution, International
Organization, 46, 3, pp. 566-68
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2010, pp. 40-43
Waltz, K. N. (1986)
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hane (ed.), Neorealism and Its Critics. New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 322‐45.
Wade, R. (2011) Emerging World Order? From Multipolarity to Multilateralism in the
G20, the World Bank and the IMF, Politics & Society 39: 347
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Economy, Washington D.C.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European
Social Fund and the Romanian Government under the contract number
POSDRU/159/1.5/133675
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MARKETING COMMUNICATION, VECTOR OF INCREASING THE
AWARENESS OF THE MILITARY HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN
THE EDUCATIONAL SERVICES MARKET IN ROMANIA
Laurenţiu Stoenică, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: The military higher education institutions operate in a competitive market, using
extensively marketing tools and techniques to communicate about and promote their
educational products and services.
Marketing communication is an essential activity which provides customers with the
information regarding the educational offer of the specialized institutions and contributes to
their differentiation in terms of marketing in a particularly challenging context.
The paper brings in the attention a potential answer to the question concerning the most
appropriate media and supports to be employed in order to achieve the most effective results
in the communication and promotion of the educational offer provided by the military higher
education institutions.
Keywords: marketing communication, awareness, military, higher education, Romania
Introduction
In this ever-changing society, that traverses a period with quick and significant
changes, the educational field must not be neglected. The profound transformations that take
place nowadays impose educational institutions new demands in the process of training the
new generation. By assuming the responsibility to teach citizens, educational institutions must
permanently adapt by reforming their curricula, the economic and social changes strongly
influencing the conception concerning the role of the educational system (Popescu, 2012).
Higher standards and the educational services market dynamics have compelled
universities to rethink their strategies in order to maintain their competitiveness. Future
students can choose where to study based on their preferences and degree of wishes
satisfaction. Thus, students‘ opinion is important when it comes to educational services
quality evaluation because they are the real consumers of these services and this is the reason
why they are considered to be the most appropriate subjects for a fair assessment (Olteanu
2011).
The military higher education system is a part of the national education system, being
unique through its results in the Romanian academic education.
The particularities of this domain require that military higher education institutions
comply with multiple requirements and standards: on one hand being the academic harshness
and on the other hand the rules imposed by the military domain. The entire activity of these
institutions is aimed at developing an educational product that meets the requirements of the
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beneficiaries from the defense, public order and national security system and at ensuring that
graduates can successfully fit on the job market.
The process of promoting a new European security culture through military education
at all levels of the military career will require a joint approach. In the national education
systems, as well as in the European education systems we can observe a clear preference for
teaching and learning based on skills as well as an approach oriented towards the results of
the learning process that explicitly express the real needs of the beneficiaries. The military
higher education system is based on innovation and diversification and it promotes a
qualitative educational process, individual and institutional autonomy and participation of all
educational actors in order to obtain excellent results by ensuring the valorization of the
human resource which should meet the future needs of the beneficiaries (Stănică, 2014).
Military higher education institutions organize each year an admission exam aimed at
filling the vacancies to undergraduate training put up for admission and approved by the
Ministry of National Defense for every beneficiary and for each category of candidates
(boys/girls).
The goal of the admission exam is to establish a candidate‘s hierarchy for each field of
study in order to allow candidates to accede to the specific educational programs organized in
the higher military education institutions.
Candidates must choose only one beneficiary and one educational field they want to
sit the admission examination for. If there are any candidates that were recruited and selected
by multiple beneficiaries, they will have to make their choice prior to taking the admission
exam.
The educational offer of the military higher education institutions ensures training of
officers through undergraduate studies and obtaining a diploma in fields like military sciences
and intelligence, engineering sciences and medical or administrative sciences.
Experts in the field (Prutianu and others, 1998) define communication as a complex
process which transfers the ideas of a person's mind to another mind. In the context of
marketing, the process of transferring messages to the audience is called marketing
communication and it implies multiple stages for the customer: product or service awareness,
preference, acquisition and satisfaction.
Marketing communications is constantly changing, it is a new theory and technique
according to which cultural changes and technological developments are combined in order to
create a dynamic environment where marketers try to make sure that their messages reach the
target audience (Blythe, 2006).
According to Shimp and Andrews (2013), marketing communication involves
combining all the elements of the marketing mix in order to facilitate the exchange and to
establish a common language with consumers.
Through marketing communications, one tries to inform consumers, persuade them
and bring to their attention-by direct or indirect means-promoted products and educational
services. Marketing communication can be viewed as „the voice‖ of the brand and a method
of discussing and building relationships with consumers (Kotler and Keller, 2008).
By means of communications, educational institutions find out from the customers
what they like or dislike regarding the brand and the products offered, the experience
customers have with the institution and how could the institution improve this experience, the
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goal of communication being the construction and maintenance of a good relationship
between the educational institution and its consumers. An efficient communication implies
more than just informing the target audience. The amount of messages that consumers are
exposed to on the educational services market and the lack of time increases the importance of
marketing communication (Ivanov, 2012).
Marketing communication of educational institutions has met an important
development due to the advent of the Internet, the online environment facilitating their
communication using an unusual mean of communication that implies more transmitters and
more receivers. Moreover, the information exchanges in both directions thus encouraging
feedback and interactivity between suppliers and consumers. Nevertheless, the audience is
increased and using the online environment for marketing communication allows the
interaction with a large number of Internet users that can become potential clients (Orzan and
Macovei, 2012).
According to some authors (Ray, 1982 cited by Popescu 2003), marketing
communication is as a mix of four elements (advertising, personal selling, sales promotion
and public relations) or specific messages developed to express opinions, feelings or
behaviors; marketing communication is part of the marketing mix along with product, price
and distribution.
Marketing communication mix is made of a specific blend of advertising, public
relations, personal selling, sales promotions and direct marketing instruments that the
institution uses to provide value to the clients and to build relationships with them (Kotler and
Keller, 2008).
In a different approach (Shimp and Andrews, 2013) marketing communication
instruments are: advertising, public relations, direct marketing, sales promotion, personal
selling and online marketing/social media.
According to Kotler and Keller (2008) advertising can be defined as any form of
impersonal presentation and promotion of some ideas, assets or services, financed by a
nominee holder.
In the context of fierce competition on the market that requires deep customers and
potential customers knowledge as well as gaining their trust, educational institutions admit
that advertising cannot be the only answer to the complex matter of marketing. Public
relations constitute a specific branch of the institution, whose purpose is to probe the needs
and attitude of the audience, to work towards meeting those needs, an effort to influence the
audience in a positive way (Şerbănică, 2003).
Sales promotion, an instrument of marketing communication constitutes a main
component of the promotional activity that can be defined as the amount of techniques
specialized, designed and made by the institution in a certain period of time (usually a short
one), aimed at causing an increase in sales on both extensive and intensive ways (Anghel,
2009).
Personal selling involves an immediate and interactive interaction between two or
more persons, each participant having the opportunity to observe the behavior and reactions
of the others. Moreover, it allows the development of relations between the participants that
can evolve from dialogue to friendly relationships, the customer being somehow forced to
listen and accept the offer (Kotler and Keller, 2008).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Direct marketing can be defined as an interactive marketing system that uses one or
more communication media to determine a favorable reaction of the consumer to the proposed
offer (Smith, 1999, cited by Popescu, 2003).
In order for the marketing communication of the higher military institutions to be
successful good knowledge of both marketing communication concepts and operation and use
of its specific instruments is necessary so that the organization and development of a
promotion campaign for the educational offer to be effective and to determine a better
recruiting process, the target audience to be able to identify the sent message, to assign it to
their own needs and to choose one of the military higher education institutions study
programs so that all the approved places are occupied by candidates.
Methodological notes
In order to establish the role of marketing communication in the increase of brand
awareness for the military higher education institutions on the Romanian educational services
market, there have been considered the statistical data concerning the educational offer of the
military universities between 2009 and 2014 as well as information concerning the levels of
audience registered by the main communication methods (written media, radio, television,
online).
Based on these data, there have been evaluated the demographic characteristics of the
target audience of the military education higher education institutions with the purpose to
identify the profile of the potential customer as well as how Romanians consumers use the
main communication methods and media, in order to find the communication mix able to
determine a significant impact of the educational offer promotion campaigns.
Main findings of the research
Through the educational offer, higher education military institutions meet the needs
and desires of consumers of educational services, young people aged up to 24 years, both girls
and boys, promoting the image of higher military education locally, nationally and
internationally.
For 2014-2015 academic year, the educational offer of the military higher education
system contains 62 places for girls. The Military Medicine Institute, the other structures that
are part of the defense, public order and national security system, and tuition fee system do
not stipulate separate places in the educational offer, and at the admission exam both genders
can participate, their delimitation being made in descending order of their averages.
Figure1. The educational of the military higher education system for 2014-2015
academic year
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(Source: Ministry of National Defence)
For initial recruitment and selection of candidates, the Ministry of Defence has
specialized structures in territory, information offices, recruitment and selection as well as
three regional centers and national orientation centers (Alba-Iulia, Breaza, Campulung
Moldovenesc), which promotes educational offer and ensure real and correct information
about the study programs of military educational institutions.
This ensured the accurate and timely information to potential candidates concerning
the educational offer of military education institutions and selection of the candidates by
testing their physical, psychological and medical abilities, based on standards and criteria
established by the Ministry of National Defense.
Between 2009 and 2014 the educational offer has consisted both of budged-funded
places and tuition places. Naval Academy is distinguished from the other military education
institutions through a considerable number of tuition places for the candidates of the Marine
Civil Department.
Figure 2. The evolution of the educational offer of the military higher education
institutions between 2009-2014
(Source: Ministry of National Defense)
From the total number of registered candidates for admission to the military higher
education institutions in 2014, graduates of military high schools represent 16.02%. This
finding is determined by the number of students attending the military high schools.
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In 2014, according to the statistics, 315 teenagers (58 girls and 257 boys) have
graduated a military high school. These people have been informed about the educational
offer of the military higher education institutions, both through the communication channels
used by these institutions to promote their offer and through the information and advice given
in the military high schools.
The educational offer concerning the curricula of the military higher education
institutions is made known public at least six months before admission through promotion
activities in country‘s schools and high schools, but the military high schools represent the
basis for the selection of candidates.
A great importance is given to the activities allow the military higher education
institutions to present their educational offer and in this regard students from regional high
schools and from military high schools can visit these institutions.
The educational offer and the image of the military higher education institutions are
being promoted by teachers and students through their participation to educational fairs.
Informing the potential candidates for admission is also possible through the media
(local radio and television stations, local press), through the regional centers of selection and
guidance and through district military centers.
The Internet represents a valuable tool of communication in which information
reaches millions of consumers in real time. It has a fundamental impact on how institutions
communicate with their customers and suppliers and on how consumers find information and
services (Orzan, 2007).
The communication environment is commonly used by military higher education
institutions to increase awareness concerning their educational curricula, the results obtained
by the candidates and students, and other information that the target audience can easily
access.
Through their websites or web pages, military higher education institutions make
available information about their curricula, the offered diplomas, academic and research staff,
facilities for students and any other aspects for the interested public.
The presence of these institutions in the virtual market is an effective and easy means
of communicationwith the clients or potential clients and the interest for the Internet
expressed both by the population and especially by the institutions is growing continuously
(Popescu, 2008).
The number of Internet users from Romania increased from 1.7 million, in 2002, to
nearly 6.5 million, in 2013.
According to a study made by the Romanian Audit and Circulation Bureau (BRAT),
Romanians spend an average of about 4 hours online (230 minutes). The same study indicates
that people spend more time online than watching TV, which is used during an average of 202
minutes per day, while the radio is used less, about 112 minutes per day.
According to the results presented, 45 % of the Internet users are aged between 25 and
44 years and 19 % are aged between 14 and 24 years. 49% of Internet users in Romania are
male, while the remaining 51% are women.
According to the study of Monitoring Investment in Advertising (MIA) for press,
radio, online media and all visual environments encountered outside the house, which are
outdoors or other public spaces (the classic advertising panels, advertising in common
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transportation means, subway stations, buses, exhibition spaces inside a store, TV screens
places in intersections), made by the Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit (BRAT) in 2012,
the total advertising for the four means was worth about EUR 656 million.
In comparison, in 2013, about 580 million euros were invested in advertising using
press, radio, online environment or outdoor visual environments.
The standard advertising accounted for about 71% of the total advertising, while
promoting media products (press, websites, radio or TV stations) by self-promotion or cross-
promotion generated approximately 19% of the total volume of advertising.
Classified advertising are about 4% of the total obtained in 2012, and media
partnerships and pro-bono campaigns totaled an approximate value of 6%.
In 2013, standard advertising represented about 74% of the total volume of
advertising, while promoting the media products (newspapers, websites, radio or television
stations) by self-promotion or cross-promotion has been about 18% of the total volume of
advertising.
An analysis of the International Advertising Association, citing Zenith Romania
report, estimates that local advertising market will grow with 2.8% by the end of 2014, mainly
as a result of expansion of the digital environment (+12%). It is expected that, by the end of
this year, the total investment in the media to reach the amount of $ 394 million.
According to the source (Zenith Optimedia report - Advertising Expenditure
Forecasts), the Internet remains the only type of media found increasing in Romania, the
media performance segment making a major contribution to this increase, because in 2013 the
Internet reached a rate of 12 % of the total advertising consumption in Romania.
Figure 3. Advertising in 2013
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
According to Ilie (2014), at the beginning of 2013 there was a decrease in the volume
of advertising, comparing to the last six months of 2012, respectively 12%.
The second half, instead, generated an increase of 48% compared to the first half,
reaching to 112.9 million lei (EUR 25.7 million), according to the data contained in the study
of ROADS (Romanian Online Advertising Study).
From the study elaborated by Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit in 2013 one can
observe the seasonal evolution of the investments in advertising on each communication
environment, with maximum values recorded in July, for online environments radio and
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press. In this period the military higher education institutions organize and conduct the
admission examination.
High values of the investments in advertising have been recorded also in November,
when military higher education institutions, after the opening of a new academic year, start a
new campaign to promote their educational offer to the public consuming educational
services.
Regarding the volumes invested in advertising on each environment monitored by
Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit in 2013, the press amounted about 38% of total
volumes, the online environment 21%, radio communications 31%, and OOH (out-of-home)
advertising 10%.
Figure 4. Advertising in 2013 depending on means of communications
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
Concerning the press, Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit states that the
publication that drew the greatest amount of advertising from the advertisers in 2012 was The
Financial Newspaper (Ziarul Financiar). The first 10 publications regarding the volume of
advertising can be analyzed in the table below. These publications have drawn together about
31% of the total amount of advertising found in the press.
Table1. The distribution volume of press advertising in 2012
Amountinve Amounti
Publication
sted EUR nvested %
ZIARUL FINANCIAR 9.130.768 5,46%
GAZETA SPORTURILOR 6.904.082 4,13%
ADEVARUL - EDITIE
6.030.052 3,60%
NATIONALA
CLICK 5.500.470 3,29%
LIBERTATEA - EDITIE
5.497.480 3,29%
NATIONALA
ROMANIA LIBERA 4.946.135 2,96%
PRO SPORT 3.392.365 2,03%
EVENIMENTUL ZILEI -
3.308.174 1,98%
EDITIE NATIONALA
JURNALUL NATIONAL 3.294.203 1,97%
ELLE 3.172.201 1,90%
OTHER PUBLICATIONS 116.145.833 69,41%
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
For 2013, the same source, Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit, concerning the
press, ranks first the newspaper Libertatea, as the publication that drew the greatest amount of
advertising from customers. Compared with 2012, in 2013, the newspaper called Libertatea,
along with its additional publications reported an increase of 183% in advertising
investments.
Graphically, the distribution volume of advertising in press, in 2013, is as follows:
Figure 5. The distribution volume of press advertising in 2013
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
Regarding the radio advertising in 2012, the advertising distribution volume drawn by
the most important eight radio stations in the country is as follows:
Table 2. The distribution volume of radio advertising in 2012
Amountinves Amountinve
Radio stations
ted (EUR) sted (%)
KISS FM 26.749.407 31,34%
RADIO ZU 21.863.025 25,61%
EUROPA FM 11.535.903 13,52%
PROFM 11.424.986 13,39%
MAGIC FM 7.188.833 8,42%
RADIO ROMANIA
3.573.971 4,19%
ACTUALITATI
RADIO 21 1.552.208 1,82%
ROCK FM 1.466.782 1,72%
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
In 2013, all radio stations reported an increase concerning the advertising volume;
Radio 21 and Romania Actualitati doubled their advertising volumes, but KissFM remains the
radio station that drew the biggest advertising volume.
Figure 6. The distribution volume of radio advertising in 2013
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
Data presented by Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit in their study for
monitoring the advertising investments in the online environment during 2013, indicates that,
in case of websites, the first two positions, regarding the advertising volume drawn from the
customers, are occupied by libertatea.ro and evz.ro, followed by ziare.com and realitatea.net.
Figure 7. The distribution volume of online advertising in 2013
(Source: Romanian Bureau of Transmedia Audit)
Conclusions
An efficient marketing communication of the military higher education institutions
allows potential consumers to choose freely, it inspires them gives them the possibility to
accomplish their wishes regarding their studies and professional career.
The conducted research shows that the target audience of the military higher education
institutions is represented by young people, boys and girls from the entire country, military or
civilian high-schools graduates.
The most effective channels or media for promoting the educational offer of the
military higher education institutions are the online environment, written media and radio.
Although the information presented in the external evaluation of the academic quality
reports in the military higher education institutions and in the annual reports presented by the
rectors show that the communication media used by these institutions are local radio and
television stations, local media and the online environment, data provided by the research of
the transmission media and the evolution of the advertising consumption registered by
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Transmedia Romanian Audit Bureau, recommends the use of media that benefits from a high
volume of advertising: written media such as Libertatea newspaper-18% of all advertising
space in 2013 and the Ziarul Financiar newspaper-9.130.768 EUR-consumed advertising
space in 2012, Radio stations such as Kiss FM 26.749.407 EUR-consumed advertising space
and the online environment-website Libertatea.ro-9% of all advertising space.
The main reason in this direction is represented by the high number of consumers to
whom one can send messages related to the educational offer of the military higher education
institutions. On the other hand, the overall audience of communications media and vehicles
must be considered in close relation to the demographic profile of the target for these
institutions so that, ultimately, marketing communication mix will include those environments
or those carriers, which are able to resonate with the target audiences suited to the mission and
to the marketing objectives pursued by the military institutions of higher education on the
educational services market.
In conclusion, a promotion campaign that aims at promoting the educational offer of
the military higher education institutions, the military career and the image of the military
educational system should use communications media and vehicles by combining promotion
through written media-Libertatea, radio stations-Kiss FM and the online environment-
adevarul.ro and by choosing the right timings for delivering messages and capturing the
targeted audiences.
„ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled „SOCERT.
Knowledge society, dynamism through research”, contract number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through
Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing
in people!‖
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DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND THEIR
RELEVANCE IN DECISION - MAKING PROCESS
Lenuţa Carp (Ceka), PhD Student, Maria-Ramona Sârbu, PhD Student, ”Al.
Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: Understanding the complex mechanisms of the decision - making process in the
international investments, involves a good knowledge of the factors which exert influence on
the foreign direct investment (FDI) transactions. The purpose of the paper is to analyze the
fundamental determinants of FDI in some Central and Eastern European countries,
emphasizing their importance in the investment process. In the selected economies, there will
be highlighted which are the relevant factors that enhance the volume of FDI flows and how
they exert their influence. Besides that, we will focus on identifying the possibilities to
improve some factors influence on the dynamic of FDI inflows.
Keywords: determinants, FDI inflows, Least Square Method, influence, economic growth
JEL: C21, E22, F21
a) Introduction
The importance of FDI inflows into the internal markets has continuously increased
over the last decades. Although many studies have carried out empirical studies to prove the
economic implications of foreign flows into selected countries in the sample, an important
role is played by the major factors which influence the dynamic of FDI inflows.
Internal macroeconomic conditions exert a major influence on the volume of FDI
inflows in national markets. Their degree of attractiveness for foreign capital flows highlight
the stability of the national business environment, as well the potential benefits the internal
market might have to offer to foreign investors.
As demonstrated the presence of FDI in different countries, FDI are moving to those
areas / regions that can provide factors for increasing the efficiency of investment: specialized
and qualified labor in the areas of investors, suppliers of materials and components they need,
educational and research institutions, administrative institutions opened in order to facilitate
the foreign investors' presence in the regions and even the partnerships with them (Barsan,
Masca, 2012, pp.82).
The paper is structured in the following sections: the second part focusses on the
factors which exert influence on the degree of FDI attractiveness of Central and Eastern
European countries based on previous relevant papers on the topic, followed by the
econometric analysis on the FDI determinants in selected CEE countries and the presentation
and discution of the findings. The paper ends with the relevant conclusions for the current
analysis.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
b) Factors influencing the attractiveness of Central and Eastern
European (CEE) economies
Past theoretical and empirical papers have provided the scientific support for
identifying the key factors which exert a significant influence on the attractiveness of CEE
economies for FDI. FDI have been mostly considered an important channel facilitating the
CEE countries‘ access to the EU integration. In this respect, FDI has demonstrated its
relevance as fundamental tool in providing to the beneficiary country positive externalities by
introducing new techniques and technologies, managerial and organizational abilities.
During the transition period of CEE countries, their performance has been
significantly constructed on the availability of FDI inflows. Besides the new opportunities the
foreign inflows provide in the beneficiary economy, transition reforms, privatization of
previously state – owned enterprises, have increased the possibilities for developing new
projects, joint – ventures or mergers and acquisitions.
The driving forces of FDI inflows into CEEC have benefited of increased attention in
the economic literature, focusing on describing the specific role of different groups of factors:
transition factors (Mateev, 2012); economic development, exchange rate regime (Aubin, et.
Al.2006), announcements related to the EU accession (Bevan and Estrin, 2004; Hansson and
Olofsdotter, 2010). CEE countries present different characteristics than other developing and
industrially advanced economies. These countries emphasized their ability to develop and
implement market – oriented policies and strategies along with the legal reforms which
encourage their improvement and their progress on their way to the EU accession, stimulation
FDI attraction and economic growth.
Sectorial distribution of FDI indicates the significance of privatization process in the
early FDI flows, in utilities and infrastructure, as well the importance of resource investments
early after 2000 (Estrin, Meyer, 2011).
Empirical analysis of Serbu (2007) on the determinants of FDI in Romania, Bulgaria,
Hungary and Slovenia during the period 2000-2004 confirmed the author's insights on the
importance of policies that prevail over traditional factors. The author underlines the
transaction costs (proxied by distance) as significant, validating again the performance on
gravitational approach. Satisfactory performance in attracting FDI in the future are foreseen
given that the political factor is improved (especially for Romania and Hungary). In this way,
governments can influence the actual performance in absolute terms of attracting FDI,
because the state transition process is under the control of policy makers.
In the host country there are several determinants that may affect the decision of firms
to invest abroad, as (Matei, 2004, pp. 24):
1) The general framework for FDI provides: economic and political stability,
economic agents treat foreign market operation treaties bi / multilateral FDI, privatization
policy, trade policy, fiscal and monetary policy, economic policy, in general.
Most private capital flows are attracted to countries with economic and political
stability, countries that have made progress in terms of economic reform, restructuring,
including restructuring the financial sector. The best example in this regard is the differential
in attracting FDI by CEE countries, depending on progress made in the transition to a market
economy.
2) Economic determinants provide issues related to:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- market: market size and per capita income, market opportunities for growth, access
in regional and global markets, country-specific preferences, market structure;
- use of resources: raw materials, low-cost labor, skilled labor, infrastructure
development, assets;
- efficiency: cost of resources and assets linked to labor productivity and other costs -
transportation and communication, the existence of regional integration agreement that favor
establishment of a regional corporate networks.
3) Business determinants including investment promotion, investment incentives,
related costs: corruption, administrative efficiency, social facilities (bilingual schools, quality
of life), post - investment services.
The factors influencing investment in CEE economy were analyzed by researchers
Julia Robert Manea and Pearce (2004). Using survey evidence where 33 TNC headquarters
provided information on the investment motivations for each of their individual CEE affiliates
the article characterizes the transnational corporations‘ strategic positioning in central and
eastern European economies in terms of the relative status of seven motives for investing and
the degree of use of seven sources of technology. The seven reasons for investing in CEE
countries were defined as: 1) HOSTMARKET - "to establish a strong position in the market
of the host country"; 2 ) CEEMARKET - "to achieve better access to a new regional market
(that is other CEE countries)"; 3) EFFSEEK - "to improve our TNC group‘s competitiveness
in supplying its established markets (e.g. EU)"; 4) LOWCOST - "availability of low-cost
input factors (e.g. cheap labour; energy; raw materials)"; 5) LABSKILL - "the skill quality of
production labour"; 6) SCIENCEINPUT - "availability of scientific inputs". 7) NATRES -
"access to particular national research and technological expertise".
Based on the findings that the CEE transition economies attract a small part of FDI
flows, part that is unevenly distributed in the region, Mike Pournaraskis and Nikos C.
Varsakelis (2004) examines that institutional factors such as civil rights and
internationalization of the national economy are critical in explaining the behavior of foreign
direct investment inflows in the economies in transition. The author's findings showed that
market size and degree of internationalization of the host economy explain a significant part
of the cross-country variation of foreign direct investment. Institutional factors related to
investment decisions strengthen these location advantages and help a country become an
attractive location for such investment inflows in the economies in transition.
Focusing on the role of FDI inflows in CEE countries, Janicki and Wunnava (2004)
have succeeded in presenting the common features of the host and source country, as well as
revealing the most relevant strategies through which FDI can improve capital accumulation.
The authors appreciate that FDI is a key catalyst for achieving and accelerating economic
growth and development in the economies they have included in their analysis. This has been
demonstrated previously by other studies and the dynamic of FDI inflows in CEE countries
highlight their increased importance in the worldwide economy. The most important
determinants were market size, host country risk, lower costs for investors into host country
and trade openness.
It is widely known and recognized the role that the privatization process has had in
these economies. The evolution of FDI inflows has been highly stimulated by the
privatization of the state-owned companies. During the period with centralized system in
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
these countries, the increased vertical integration has lead to the creation of monopolies. The
market liberalization has required division of the production chain to smaller and competitive
companies by privatizing (Barrell, Holland, 2000). Privatization process has been one of the
most important factors for FDI inflows market – seeking, due to the fact that these foreign
capital flows are not driven by the lower costs of production, but by the opportunity to gain a
superior market share. Mukherjee and Sinha (2007) claimed that privatization of domestic
companies can decrease FDI if the internal firms reduce costs and encourage foreign investor
to chose export.
Recent dynamic of foreign direct investments, during the economic crisis, has
provided strong evidence on the importance of internal conditions in ensuring the host
country‘s wealth and boosting economic growth. Gentvilaite (2010) has studied the impact of
the macroeconomic conditions and perspectives on the determinants of FDI inflows in ten
CEEC. However, even if at first sight, these economies have similar features, the author has
identified significant differences between them.
Negative evolution of the global market has determined a strong decrease in the FDI
inflows in CEEC. The worldwide slowdown of economic activity had reduced the access to
finance and collapsing export markets have determined FDI retirement and have increased the
CEE vulnerability. Their impressive growth in 2000 has been highly dependent on the
external market economies of Western Europe and increased volume of FDI inflows (Sakali,
2013).
c) Empirical analysis on the determinants of FDI in CEE countries
Central and Eastern European Countries have become over the past decades attraction
business centers for foreign investors. These economies have succeeded in achieving higher
rates of economic growth in their catching-up process to developed economies. The volume
of the FDI flows in the selected economies is highly dependent on the internal features of
these countries. The dynamic of FDI inflows in selected countries from CEEC is represented
in the figure below.
Fig. no. 1 Dynamic of FDI inflows in selected CEEC, 2000 - 2012
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Source: authors contribution; made using data from World Bank Database
The figure above confirmes the ascending evolution FDI inflows has had in CEEC
during their way the EU market. The volume of foreign capitals in these countries has
recorded a significant increase, mainly in Romania, Poland and Hungary. The policies and
incentives they have used were successful in attracting foreign investors, but the perspectives
for development they bring in front for them also have had a strong effect on their decision.
The macroeconomic instability in the worldwide environment has led to a general
decrease in FDI inflows to overall beneficiaries. After reaching their peak in 2007, these
selected countries have recorded a strong negative dynamic of FDI, due to investors‘ strong
adversion to risk and lack of trust in the market efficiency.
The analysis of FDI determinants has been carried out for four CEEC – Romania,
Bulgaria, Czech Republic and Hungary. The aim of the analysis is to emphasize which are the
determinants of FDI volume in these economies, highlighting if the economic internal
characteristics influence significantly or not, the investors decision process.
We have selected the following variables to achieve the goal of our paper, over the
period 2000 – 2012, using the World Bank database and we have constructed the below
regression equation:
FDI it =α+ 1 EXP
*
it
2
it
Inflation
3*pop
_
urban
4
it*
GDP
_
cap
5
it*
wag
it
(1),
where:
1. FDI inflows – the volume of the FDI inflows in these economies;
2. Export – we consider this indicator relevant to measure the influence of the economy in
the worldwide markets; the high volume of the exports emphasize the increased
participation of the country in the foreign markets;
3. Inflation rate – as a relevant indicator to macroeconomic stability. Recent dynamic of
foreign markets, during the current economic and financial crisis, has proved the increased
volatility of worldwide markets and become a key determinant for the foreign investors
decision to expand their activity.
4. Urban population – is representative for the degree of urbanization of the selected country,
as a social determinant of FDI.
5. GDP per capita – measures the economic development of the selected country and should
highlight that the increased level of this indicator in one country will enhance the volume
of FDI attracted
6. Wage level, per total population – is an important determinant in the decision making
process of foreign investors. Foreign capitals are generally allocated in those economies,
which can ensure them an improved level of the infrastructure. However, the countries
with lower levels of wage represent attractive destinations for foreign flows. To achieve
the purpose of our article, first of all, we have tested the stationary of the variables
included in the analysis using Augmented Dickey – Fuller Test.
d) Results and discussion
The econometric analysis of FDI determinants in selected countries – Romania,
Bulgaria and Hungary has been carried out using Eviews. The method used is Least Square
Method, based on data from World Bank Data Base, over the period 2000 – 2013.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The results of the Augmented Dickey – Fuller test are presented in Tabel 1 from the
Anexe 1. The value in the table emphasize that most of the variables included in the
econometric analysis are stationary at first and second difference, only few exceptions of
indicators are stationary at level: export and wage (Romania), FDI (Hungary).
Table 1. Augmented Dickey Fuller test results
Variable Romania Bulgaria Hungary
lnFDI -3.412197*/ (0.0345) -3.385505**/ (0.0419) -2.936240/ (0.0727)
Export -5.051812/ (0.0035) -3.524213*/ (0.03425) -3.769944**/ (0.0217)
lnGDP_cap -4.992110*/ (0.0031) -4.309748*/ (0.00825) -2.157342*/ (0.0024)
Inflation -3.706112*/ (0.0217) -3.950681**/ (0.0190) -4.278663**/ (0.0103)
lnUrban -4.155764*/ (0.0107) -3.370003*/ (0.0395) -6.797693*/ (0.0006)
population
School -3.411780/ (0.0376) -5.191341*/ (0.0029) -3.278866*/ (0.0425)
Wage -6.822128/ (0.0003) -3.209289*/ (0.0503) -3.572609*/ (0.0322)
Source: authors calculation in Eviews
Note: *, ** - significant at first difference, respectively at second difference at a
level of significance of 5 %
The Least Square Method has been developed to determine which the main
determinants of FDI inflows in those three economies. The dependent variable is FDI,
meanwhile the others are independent variables. The results of the econometric test are
provided in the table 2.
Table 2. Least Square Method Results
Source: authors calculation in Eviews
Variable Romania Bulgaria Hungary
Coefficient Prob. Coefficient Prob. Coefficient Prob.
GDP_CAP 37418.03 0.0300 26147.23 0.5329 608744.9 0.0641
urban_pop 1208350 0.4234 -100533.5 0.3402 -22231401 0.3043
Exports 22902.09 0.3955 7656.144 0.6206 -469043.8 0.0288
Inflation 52984.05 0.0583 8041.619 0.8608 1185508 0.0260
wage 102256.7 0.1347 234751.7 0.2028 3035618 0.0815
C -8192748 0.1171 771104.83 0.3447 10210799 0.3103
The results in table 2 emphasize in the case of Romania a strong interdependence
between the volume of FDI inflows and the GDP per capita. FDI inflows in Romania are
significantly determined by the level of macroeconomic development in our country. This
shows that, the policies and decisions taken by policy makers to increase national
attractiveness to foreign flows, using various incentives have achieved their goal.
At a 10 % level of significance, the inflation rate exerts a direct influence on the FDI
inflows. Using inflation rate as an indicator for macroeconomic stability, the findings
emphasize that, during times characterized by instability and vulnerability in the internal
markets, foreign investors decide not to invest in countries having an increased inflation rate.
In the case of Bulgaria, the foreign investors decision is not determined by the
variables included in this analysis. However, FDI inflows in Bulgaria might be driven by
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
other economic, socio – cultural or political factors, which may represent the topic for further
analysis.
For Hungary, the analysis has revealed, at 5 % level of significance that FDI inflows
are strongly and positive influenced by the inflation rate. This correlation confirms that a
stable macroeconomic environment is a catalyst for attracting a higher volume of foreign
capital flows. The volume of exports is negatively influencing the FDI inflows, meanwhile,
for a 10 % level of significance internal wages and GDP per capita become important
variables in the decision making process.
e) Conclusion
The decision to invest in a particular country is based on detailed and complex
analysis of various factors, economic, social and political that meet the requirements of
companies wishing to expand their business abroad through FDI. Determinants of FDI are
intensively studied in theoretical and empirical literature. Various past studies have focused
on different samples of countries, developing studies using modern econometric techniques –
cross sectional analyses, panel data methods.
The purpose of the paper is to analyze the fundamental determinants of FDI in some
Central and Eastern European countries, emphasizing their importance in the investment
process.
There was shown, using Least Square method that FDI inflows are influenced by the
internal stability, measured by inflation rate, in Romania and Hungary. There was
demonstrated the strong correlation between FDI inflows and GDP per capita, in the case of
Romania and Hungary. However, the empirical analysis has not proved any connection
between FDI and selected variables in the case of Bulgaria.
Further analysis will be developed including an expanded sample of countries, both
members of the EU and candidates, for different periods of time to make relevant
comparations in their evolution and on the factors exerting influence in certain times.
Reference
Aubin, C., Berdot, J.P., Goyeau, D., Leonard, J..(2006) Investissements directs
americains et eurpeens dans les PECOs: Quel role des effets de change? Revue economique,
57(4), 771 – 792
Barrell, R., Holland, D. (2000) Foreign Direct Investment and Enterprise
Restructuring in Central Europe, Economics of Transition, Vol. 8, p. 477-504
Barsan, M., Masca, S., G. (2012) Investitiile straine directe. De la paradigma eclectica
(OLI) la paradigma evolutiei investitiilor (IDP), Ed. Universitatii "Alexandru Ioan Cuza" Iasi
2012
Bevan, A., Estrin, S. (2004) Foreign investment location and institutional development
in transition economies, International Business Review, 13(1): 43 – 64
Estrin, S., Meyer, K. E. (2011) Foreign direct investment in transition economies:
strengthening the gains from integration. In: Vos, R., and Koparanova. M. (Ed.), Transition
and Diversification: Globalization and Policy Challenges for Economies in Transition.
Oriental Longman and Zed Hope, Chapter 7
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Gentvilaite, R. (2010) Determinants of FDI and its Motives in Central and Eastern
European Countries, Bachelor thesis.
Hansson, A.Olofsdotter, K. (2010) Tax differences and foreign direct investment in
EU 27. Scandinavian Working Papers in Economics, Department of Economics, Lund
University, Sweden
Janicki, H.P., Wunnava, P.V (2004) Determinants of foreign direct investment:
empirical evidence from EU accession candidates, Applied Economics, 36, p. 505-509
Manea, J. Pearce, R. (2004) Industrial restructuring in economies in transition and
TNCs' investment motivations at unctad.org/en/docs/iteiit20045a2_en.pdf
Mateev, M. (2012) Country risk and foreign direct investment in transition economies:
a panel data analysis, International Journal of Management Accounting Research, Fall,
forthcoming
Matei, L. (2004) Investitiile straine directe - Functii si evolutii. 1990 - 2000, Ed.
Expert, Bucuresti, Romania
Mukherjee A., Sinha, U.B. (2007) Welfare- reducing domestic cost reduction, Review
of International Economic, Vol. 15, no.2, p. 294-301
Pournarakis, M., Varsakelis, N. (2004) Institutions, internalization and FDI: the case
of economies in transition at http://unctad.org/en/docs/iteiit20045a5_en.pdf
Sakali, C. (2013) Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Bulgaria,
Journal of Economics and Business, Vol. XVI – 2013, No. 1 (73 – 97)
Serbu, S., G. (2007) Investitiile straine directe. Determinanti, Efecte si Politici de
Promovare, Editura Casa Cartii de Stiinta, Cluj Napoca
Acknowledgement
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral
research in Romanian economics science domain‖.
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THE PLACE AND THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ROMANIAN TAX
SYSTEM WITHIN THE EUROPEAN FISCAL AREA
Leonida Ionel, Dr., Centre for Financial and Monetary Research ”Victor
Slăvescu”
Abstract: The tax culture, a concept that expresses more than the interaction authority -
taxpayer, going beyond the fiscal behavior itself, managing to bring together knowledge,
belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits accumulated by man as
a member of society and as a taxpayer, may represent a complex instrument for assessment
and positioning a tax system within a group of tax systems with which it tends to be
convergent. In the proposed paper, we intend to identify, using the methodological tools,
interdisciplinary and comparative analysis, the place and characteristics of local tax culture
in relation to the guidelines of tax cultures manifested in European area. The anticipated
results may be constituted in theoretical contributions within a scientific field placed at the
beginning for Romanian society, which can consolidate "the status" of the fiscal culture at
national level.
Keywords: taxation system, fiscal culture, authority, taxpayer, tax education
Despre crearea culturii fiscale
Fiscalitatea este un subiect frecvent dezbătut în conversaţiile contribuabililor, care, în
acest mod, încearcă să înţeleagă anumite aspecte legate de impozitare, de dimensiunea
impozitelor şi taxelor, despre modalităţile de plata ale acestora, despre cheltuielile efectuate
de Guvern şi beneficiile rezultate din furnizarea bunurilor publice, dar şi despre interacţiunea
lor cu autorităţile fiscale. Astfel, contribuabili, evaluează, cu instrumente proprii, politica
fiscală şi incidenţele acesteia asupra nivelului lor de trai şi asupra economiei naţionale, în
general. Evaluarea, la nivelul contribuabililor, nu este unitară, ea îmbracă, adeseori, forme
individuale care se diferenţiază prin nivelul de cunoaştere a fiscalităţii, nivelul cultural,
credinţa, moralitatea, obiceiurile şi capacităţile evaluatorului de a interpreta legea, generând
astfel, propria percepţie despre sistemul fiscal. Ulterior, contribuabilii socializează în
grupurile lor, şi, funcţie de tipologia acestora1, îşi „omogenizează‖ sau nu comportamentul
fiscal.
La rândul lor, autorităţile fiscale, care implementează sistemul fiscal şi supraveghează
respectarea obligaţiilor fiscale, au anumite obiective de atins legate de eficienţa şi eficacitatea
1
În literatura de specialitate, se disting mai multe tipologii de contribuabili, respectiv: a) contribuabili oneşti, cooperează în
mod constant, nu caută căi de diminuare a impozitelor, se comportă cinstit pe baza normelor lor etice absolute, iar dorinţa lor
de a coopera depinde de condiţiile instituţionale, nu de comportamentul celorlalţi contribuabili; b) contribuabili sociali sunt
preocupaţi de evaluarea efectelor sociale ale descoperirii neconformării fiscale, iar motivaţia acestei tipologii de
contribuabili este dată de normele sociale ale grupului din care fac parte, fiind caracterizaţi ca având un comportament „de
turmă‖; contribuabili antagonişti reflectă o orientare negativă îndreptată împotriva autorităţilor fiscale.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
colectării impozitelor şi taxelor datorate de contribuabili. Acestea proiectează strategia
politicii fiscale pe termen mediu şi lung, orientează sistemul fiscal funcţie de obiectivele
guvernamentale, spre impozitarea directă sau indirectă și stabilesc numărul de impozite şi
taxe. Pe lângă strategiile de implementare a politicii fiscale, autorităţile proiectează şi strategii
de monitorizare şi control a respectării sistemului fiscal, a conformării fiscale a
contribuabililor la plata impozitelor şi taxelor datorate.
Pe baza permanentei interacţiunii dintre autorităţile fiscale şi contribuabili s-au
dobândit experienţe reciproce pozitive, dar şi unele convingeri negative, uneori subiective,
atât la nivelul contribuabililor (cum s-a descris în paragraful anterior), cât şi la nivelul
autorităţilor fiscale, în speţă, în rândul unor inspectori fiscali, conturându-se anumite percepţii
despre comportamentul contribuabililor. Una dintre acestea şi cea mai importantă, este sau ar
trebui să fie aceea că majoritatea contribuabililor sunt oneşti, cooperează şi respectă
obligaţiile fiscale din considerente etice. O altă percepţie, uneori excesivă, este aceea că
plătitorii de impozite şi taxe au comportamentul îndreptat exclusiv pe maximizarea venitului
prin evitarea sau reducerea plăţii impozitelor datorate şi acţionează în consecinţă. Pe acest
fond de neîncredere reciprocă, când instrumentele şi modalităţile de stimulare a conformării la
plata impozitelor aplicate de autorităţile fiscale sunt, în mod predominant de constrâgere şi
pedeapsă, reacţia contribuabililor este una de adversitate, ceea ce face dificilă stabilirea unei
relaţii cooperante ce poate fi privită din perspectiva unui aşa numit contract social sau
contract psihologic, prin care să se întărească şi să consolideze conformarea voluntară.
Istoria sistemului fiscal, stabilitatea sau instabilitatea acestuia, incidenţele sale asupra
vieţii contribuabililor şi a societăţii, manifestările individuale şi sociale ale contribuabililor
faţa de tot ceea ce înseamnă fiscalitate şi experienţele dobândite în cadrul interacţiunii
tradiţionale dintre autorităţile fiscale şi contribuabili, multitudinea percepţiilor şi a credinţelor
legate de fiscalitate şi intersectarea acestora cu alte caracteristicii ale existenţei
contribuabililor şi ale orientării autorităţilor fiscale către un anumit tip de impozitarea, crează
un mediu interdisciplinar în jurul fiscalităţii.
Unele caracteristici ale culturii fiscale autohtone
Ajungem, cum spuneam şi în pragraful anterior, în mod inevitabil, la un complex de
elemente interdisciplinare izvorâte, atât din incidenţa fiscalităţii asupra fiecărui contribuabil,
cât şi din caracteristicile personale ale acestuia legate de nivel de educaţie, de orientările
religioase, de onestitate şi simţ civic, de distanţa sau apropierea creată între contribuabil şi
autoritatea fiscală civic etc. Acumulările fiscale istorice legate de caracteristicile menţionate,
se stratifică şi consolidează la nivelul fiecărui contribuabil, dar şi la nivel autorităţilor, se
suprapun cu parcursul orânduirii istorice şi contemporane a societăţii, cu evoluţia economico-
socială şi culturală a acesteia, şi se constituie într-o anumită cultură legată de fiscalitate.
Modul frecvent de schimbare a organizării statului român, în general, şi lunga perioadă
de regim comunist, au afectat conştientizarea existenţei sistemului fiscal şi a incidenţei
efective a acestuia şi, pe cale de consecinţă, au afectat consolidarea acumulărilor fiscale la
nivelul contribubaililor, la nivelul autorităţilor fiscale şi a interacţiunii dintre cele două părţi.
După înlăturarea regimului comunist şi începerea procesului de instaurarea a unui regim
democratic în România, sistemul fiscal a fost aşezat, cel puţin la nivel teoretic, pe principii şi
fundamente convergente cu stimularea şi instaurarea economiei de piaţa. În procesul de
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
aplicare a noului sistem fiscal, aflat într-o formă embrională, au apărut în mod firesc,
deficienţe de organizare, implementare şi de comportament fiscal, manifestate, atât la nivelul
autorităţilor, provenite din necesitatea implementării şi adecvării sistemului fiscal la dinamica
şi profunzimea transformărilor economice intervenite în societatea românească, cât şi la
nivelul contribuabililor, prin manifestarea libertăţii tocmai dobândite, prin specularea
momentelor de aşezare şi reglare a sistemului fiscal dar, mai ales, la nivelul interacţiunii
dintre autorităţile fiscale şi contribuabili, unde se conturau şi se perpetuau fapte de corupţie
reciprocă.
Pe fondul unor îndemnuri tradiţionale româneşti, izvorâte din notorietatea baladelor
autohtone2, care constituiau repere ale educaţiei preşcolare şi primare şi îndeamnau, încă din
fragedă vârstă, la înşelăciune, ură şi minciună, dar şi pe fundamentele antagoniste descrise,
create încă de la începutul implementării sistemului fiscal democratic, atât la nivelul
autorităţilor, cât şi la nivelul contribuabililor, evoluţia sistemului fiscal românesc a fost lentă,
netransparentă, conjuncturală şi frecvent întreruptă de modificări legislative.
Această conduită a sistemului fiscal românesc a indus în viaţa fiscală practică o
anumită perpetuare a comportamentului de neconformare fiscală, la nivel individual şi social,
contribuabilii împărtăşindu-şi reciproc posibilitatea manifestării unui comportament de
neconformare ca urmare a disponibilităţii unor inspectori fiscali care, în timpul efectuării
controalelor fiscale, constrâng contribuabilii în a negocia în folosul ambelor părţi. Această
inabilitatea a autorităților fiscale de administrare defectuoasă a relațiilor cu contribuabilii,
desfășurarea unor acțiuni netransparente și încercările uneori exclusive de falsă acuzare a
contribuabililor de sustrageri sau nerespectarea unor prevederi fiscale cu scopul constrângerii
în efectuarea unor acete de corupție, au condus la diluarea încrederii contribuabililor în
instituţia fiscală, ca factor important în înţelegerea originilor angajamentului civic, a
cooperării cu autorităţile şi a respectării obligaţiilor fiscale.
Cultura fiscală românească în peisajul fiscal european
Pentru a poziționa cultura fiscală autohtonă în peisajul fiscal european, vom analiza un
set de indicatori comuni, pe care îi apreciem relevanți în ceea ce privește consolidarea culturii
fiscale, pentru țări din mai multe regiuni ale Uniunii Europene.
Setul indicatorilor pe care îi apreciem relevanți pentru a aprecia consolidarea culturii
fiscaele cuprinde: poziția geografică, regimul politic, orientarea religioasă, încrederea în
autorități, orientarea fiscalității, moralitatea fiscală, tipologia interacțiunii dintre autorități și
contribuabili, dimensiunea economiei subterane, percepția corupției și libertatea afacerilor.
Tabel.nr.1 Indicatori de evaluare a culturii fiscale în unele țări ale Uniunii Europene
în
Indicele de percepție
Tipologia interacțiunii
Orientarea fiscalității
Orientarea religioasă
Libertatea afacerilor
Economia subterană
Moralitatea fiscală
Poziția geografică
Regimul politic
Încrederea
Nr.crt
asupra corupției
Țara
Spre
Creștinism
autorități
Rep.
Ieşire la 28% impozitarea 7,8%
1 Polonia Parlamentară. Rgim
catolic Antagonist 25% 58 5,3
Marea Baltică indirectă
democratic din 1989
2
Mioriţa
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Spre
Intra Rep.
2 Ungaria Creștinism 21% impozitarea 6,4% Antagonist 23% 55 8
continentală
Parlamentară.
indirectă
Orientare
Intra Rep.federală Creștinism relativ
48% echilibrată, cu
3 Austria 11,6% Sinergistic 8% 69 9,1
continentală
parlamentară. catolic tendințe spre
impozitarea indirectă
Rep.
Ieşire Spre
constituţională semi- Creștinism
4 Franţa
oceanul Atlantic și la 31% impozitarea 15,5% Sinergistic 11% 71 8,6
prezidenţială stabilă din
catolic
Marea Mediterană indirectă
1958
Peninsulă cu Rep. Spre
Creștinism
ieșiri la Marea Parlamentară impozitarea 10,4%
5 Grecia ortodox 6% Antagonist 24,3% 36 5,7
Mediterană, Egee cu democraţie
și stabilă din indirectă, cu tendințe
Ionică 1975 de echilibrare
Rep.
Spre
Portugali La oceanul Parlamentară
6 Creștinism 17% impozitarea 8,7% Antagonist 19,4% 63 7,2
a Atlantic cu democraţie stabilă din
indirectă
1974
Monarhie
Ieşiri la
constituţională și Nivel Spre
Marea
7 Suedia republic parlamentară
ridicatcude ateism impozitarea
62% directă 8,7% Sinergistic 14,7% 88 8
Baltică și a
democraţie stabilă din
Nordului
1917
Rep.
constituţională semi- Spre
Ieşire la Creștinism
8 România prezidenţială cu 27% impozitarea 14,2% Antagonist 32% 44 5,2
Marea Neagră ortodox
democraţie stabilă din indirectă
1990
Peninsulă cu
Rep.
ieşiri la Marea Creștinism
Parlamentară Orientare
9 Adriatică,
Italia Ionică, catolic 31% 9% Antagonist 21,2% 42 6,8
cu democraţie stabilă din relativ echilibrată
Tireniană și
1980
Mediteraneană
Sursa: Prelucrare proprie a autorului
Poziționarea georgafică capătă importanță în condițiile în care manifestarea
concurenței fiscale regionale, pentru atragerea investițiilor străine, capătă nuanțe de
competiție, ceea ce poate induce în vecinătatea imediată, atât elemente pozitive, cât și
negative asupra unui sistem fiscal. În același timp, o poziție georgafică cu deschidere mare la
puncte de tranzit maritim sau la granița unei anumite uniuni economice, cu reguli proprii,
poate deveni o zonă interesantă din punct de vedere fiscal, prin pătrunderea în piața uniunii
economice respective, ceea ce poate constituii o presiune asupra securității sistemului fiscal.
Acest indicator, analizat în corelație cu regimul politic al fiecărui stat, poate releva o anumită
înclinație a cetățenilor unui stat spre evaziune și fraudă fiscală sau, dimpotrivă, poate
demonstra un nivel ridicat de moralitate și cultură fiscală, prin neimplicarea și respingerea
unor oportunități de practicare a evaziunii și a fraudei fiscale. Analizând situațiile prezentate,
constatăm faptul că în țările cu regimuri democratice consolidate (―vechi‖) se înregistrează
valori mai ridicate ale acceptării sistemelor fiscale și ale conformării fiscale voluntare decât
regimurile democratice tinere, foste socialiste, unde acceptarea sistemelor fiscale este mai
întârziată, iar conformarea fiscală este predominant silită.
Orientarea religioasă este, de asemenea, un element relevant în poziționarea
contribuabililor față de fiscalitate. O orientarea religioasă puternică poate genera un
comportament fiscal extremist, fie de conformare voluntară, fie de refuz al conformării
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
fiscale. Orientarea religioasă se manifestă dinamic în societate, modelată fiind de nivelul
educațional și cultural al societății respective.
Orientarea politicii fiscale către fiscalitatea directă sau cea indirectă conferă statelor
avantaje şi dezavantaje la nivelul veniturilor generate de acestea și asupra costurile
administrative de modelare a comportamentului de neconformare fiscală. Se observă faptul că
în țările dezvoltate orientarea politicii fiscale este predominantă către impozitarea directă,
ceea ce oferă o stabilitate mai mare a veniturilor fiscale, fiscalitatea directă având baze de
impozitare relativ constante. În țările emergente, cu procese dinamice și rapide de dezvoltare,
orientarea fiscalității este îndreptată către fiscalitatea indirectă, asigurând o pondere mai mare
a veniturilor din taxe în totalul veniturilor fiscale.
Interacțiunea dintre autoritățile fiscale și contribuabili demonstrează faptul că în țările
cu tradiție democratică aceasta este bazată pe cooperare, consiliere și respect reciproc,
caracteristici specifice interacțiunii sinergice, ceea ce asigură și un nivel superior al moralității
fiscale. În țările cu democrație tânără, interacțiunea dintre autoritățile fiscale și contribuabili
este caracterizată de forță, de control și pedeapsă, trăsături specifice interacțiunii antagoniste,
ceea ce ridică și probleme de moralitate fiscală.
Dinamica economiei subterane şi a indicelui de percepție asupra corupţiei relevă, de
asemenea, aspecte pozitive sau negative legate de cultura fiscală a unui stat. Un nivel ridicat
al economiei subterane, corelat cu un indice scăzut de percepție a corupției relevă o legătură
strânsă între acestea și un nivel cultural fiscal mediocru. Pe de altă parte, un nivel scăzut al
economiei subterane, corelat cu un indice ridicat de percepție a corupției relevă divergența
dintre acestea și un nivel ridicat al culturii și moralității fiscale.
Unele concluzii privind "statutul" culturii fiscale autohtone
Istoria sistemului fiscal românesc nu este una foarte îndelungată, ceea ce s-a acumulat
înaintea perioadei socialiste, nu s-a conservat, iar perioada de regim comunist a creat o
anumită abstinență fiscală, contribuabilii, neconștientizând existența sistemului fiscal într-un
mod în care să asimileze elemente culturale legate de fiscalitate.
Instaurarea democrației la începutul anilor '90 a însemnat și conceperea unui sistem
fiscal prin care să se asigure mecanismele și pârghiile fiscale necesare dezvoltării economico-
sociale și a convegenței acesteia cu o economiei de piață. În acest timp, parcursul sistemului
sistemul fiscal a fost caracterizat de frecvente modificări, de conjuncturi nefavorabile,
generate de mediul politic și economic, ceea ce nu au permis o consolidare a elementelor
culturale pozitive în rândul contribuabililor ci, dimpotrivă, au perpetuat asimilarea unor
elemente negative despre fiscalitate în rândul contribuabililor.
Poziția geostrategică a României, cu deschidere la Marea Neagră și graniță de est a
Uniunii Europene la confluența euroasiatică nu este una favorabilă consolidării unui
comportament de conformare voluntară, existând oportunități frecvente de practicare a
evaziunii și fraudei fiscale.
Pe acest fond al unei democrații tinere, al unui sistem fiscal fără istorie și acumulări
consistente, al unei poziții geostrategice favorabile dezvoltării unor acte de evaziune și fraudă
fiscală, cu o economie subterană dinamică ce se bucură de suportul corupției, acumulările
pozitive în materia culturii fiscale nu sunt consistente și se constată faptul că „statutul‖
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
culturii fiscale autohtone, se află încă în căutarea propriei identităţi, neavând moşteniri şi
acumulări istorice consistente despre fiscalitate.
Se constată, de asemenea, faptul că un sistem fiscal modern nu presupune numai
însumarea unor norme şi a unor impozite, ci solicită o istorie îndelungată în care acesta să se
fi creat şi consolidat, în care să se contureze şi să se consolideze o anumită culturalizarea
fiscală a contribuabililor care să faciliteze buna funcţionare şi respectare a legilor în materia
fiscală.
Trecerea timpului este un element important, dar nu suficient. Autoritățile române
trebuie să reformeze stilul de interacțiune în relațiile cu contribuabilii, să reformeze sistemul
juridic și educațional prin care generațiile tinere să perceapă moralitatea sistemului fiscal. De
asemenea, există deficiențe la nivelul legislației fiscale care perturbă acumulările culturale în
materia fiscalității.
Bibliografie
1. Ashby, J. S., Webley, P., Haslam, A. S., (2009). ―The role of occupational taxpaying
cultures in taxpaying behavior and attitudes‖, Journal of Economic
Psychology, Volume 30, Issue 2.
2. Bruno, S., (2003) ‖Arts & Economics Analysis & Cultural Policy‖, Berlin, Springer.
3. Florescu, D., Coman, P. and Bălaşa, G., (2005). „Fiscalitity in Romania: doctrine,
regulations, jurisprudence‖, Bucharest, All Beck Publishing house.
4. Inceu, A.M., (2005). „Fiscal levers and their force for guidance‖, Cluj-Napoca,
Accent.
5. Leonida, I., (2013). ―Dynamics of fiscal behavior in the current socio-economic
context", paper presented at the conference "Financial and Monetary Economics‖-
FME 2013, organized by the Centre for Financial and Monetary Research "Victor
Slăvescu" and published in the conference proceedings FME – CD.
6. Leonida, I., (2013). ―Rigidities of interference between tax authorities and taxpayers‖,
Annals Economic Sciences Series Timişoara Vol. XIX.
7. Schumpeter, J.A., (1929) „Ökonomie und Soziologie der Einkommensteuer.‖ Der
Deutsche Volkswirt, 4.
8. Schmölders, G. (1970), „Survey Research in Public Finance: A Behavioral Approach
to Fiscal Theory‖ Public Finance 25.
9. Torgler , B., Schneider, F., (2009) ―The impact of tax morale and institutional quality
on the shadow economy‖, Journal of Economic Psychology, Volume 30, Issue 2.
10. Wenzel, M., (2007). ―The multiplicity of taxpayer identities and their implications for
tax ethics‖ Law and Policy, 29.
590
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE ORGANIZATION IN CAREER
DEVELOPMENT
Valeria-Liliana-Amelia Purda-Nicoară (Netotea-Suciu), PhD Student, University
of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: In the contemporary period, human capital development is a strategic choice for all
organizations, such as the evolution and success in the ever-changing environment is
becoming increasingly dependent on the quality of the personnel operating them. Under these
conditions, so that human resources should become an asset, organizations should be
concerned with providing a coherent program of career development for employees, offering
them opportunities for qualification, further training and promotion to posts in which
individual characteristics, job attributes and organization requirements balance one another,
helping to maximize the human resources the organization has.
Considering this, the present article aims to analyze the career management process in terms
of the roles of both the employee and the employer as well.
Keywords: career, career management, career planning, career development, career
development responsibility.
Introduction
Human resource development should be a priority for of all organizations that aspire
to develop, as recruitment, selection and integration of employees in the organization are
insufficient to ensure the development and adaptability to the changing environmental
conditions. Thus, special attention should be paid to a long term development of human
resources and organizations should address this issue as an investment, the results of which
will later materialize in a growth of labor productivity, in an increased stability of the staff
and in an improved organizational climate.
After 2000, organizations have paid increasing attention to the concept of talent
management or "war for talent", which aims "to increase reserves and high caliber staff and
exceptional performance with an unusually high impact on company performance". However,
there are some who disagree gain interest in talent management, considering that this
approach is wrong, because all people need incentives to succeed in their work, including the
ordinary and often employee performance is better when working in a team unless they work
individually. Given that "any member of a company has a certain degree of talent, although
some more than others," human resource management processes should not be restricted to a
group of "favorites" because ""unsung heroes" of performance Corporate people are actually
able to give stable results"1.
1
Armstrong, M., Human Resources Management. Practice Manual, Tenth Edition, Codecs Publishing House, Bucharest,
2009, p. 322
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
1. The Concept of Career
The concept of career is widely used and it has multiple meanings, currently there is
no definition unanimously accepted by specialists. Thus, the term career can designate2:
advancement within the organization or professional hierarchy;
a profession, from this point of view some occupations (managers, soldiers,
professionals) are associated with the term "career", while others (service personnel,
unskilled workers, waiters, vendors, etc.) are called "jobs";
a sequence of positions and functions in ascending order of prestige that an employee
passes through based on a default rule;
a succession of roles related to experience through which an individual passes
throughout their life;
an individual perception of the sequence of attitudes and behaviors related to
professional experience throughout life;
a dynamic framework in which a person perceives and interprets the meaning of life in
general and that of their different personal qualities, actions or events.
"Career is an evolutionary sequence of activities and professional positions that a
person meets in life, as well as their attitudes, knowledge and skills, which develop over
time"3.
Career includes both the professional life and the personal life of an individual, and
the links between them. Career development is an individual process that depends heavily on
individual characteristics (skills, values, preferences, needs), their career expectations
(expectations that are influenced by every experience lived), and the organization, manager or
position.
2. Career Development Responsibility
Career management is the process of planning and implementing strategies and plans
that enable organizations to provide the necessary human resources and individuals - to meet
their career goals.
Career planning is a complex process that involves a harmonious combination of
human resource needs and opportunities for individual career development offered by
organizations with the performance, potential and preferences of the employee.
The existence of effective career development programs is desirable by both
organizations and individuals. The responsibility for career development must therefore be
divided between the organization and its manager, on the one hand and the employees on the
other.
2
Manolescu, A., Lefter, V., Deaconu, A., (Eds.), Human Resource Management, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest,
2007, pp. 376-377
3
Lefter, V., Deaconu, A., (Eds.), Human Resources Management. Theory and practice. Second edition, Economic Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2008, p 287
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Nevertheless, the most important of the roles belongs to the organization. Given the
increasing complexity of present time duties to ensure the dedicated staff who work with
enthusiasm, the organization must be concerned with meeting the needs of employees, both
those related to their work, and those related to where they work. The status of "ideal
employer" where "it is good to work" is conditioned by creating a favorable climate which
should enhance quality work, as well as by the detailed planning of the activity of each
position. This is because people will want to work in the organization if they know that work
shall be in accordance with their needs and they have a career development perspective.
Obtaining more informed, skilled, and loyal to the organization employees can bring a
number of advantages, including4:
Higher quality of execution of activities;
Increased market competitiveness;
Increased prestige in the economic system;
Increased the possibility of extending, by incorporating weaker organizations;
Obtaining high quality goods and / or services;
Achieving superior financial and economic results;
Stability and uniformity of staff;
Reducing the number and severity of conflicts that may arise within the organization.
Despite this, organizations do not give due importance to staff career management and
career planning considering that it only concerns the interests of the employees and it is
therefore an unnecessary waste of time and resources. Organizations often make arbitrary
promotions, given the necessary human resources at some point, at the expense of
performance, and they support the so called undertraining, staff turnover between positions,
and migration between organizations. This is why planning and career management are
considered particularly useful for achieving organizational objectives.
In this context, the management of the organization must be concerned with
reinforcing these perceptions by providing a coherent program of employee career
development, providing opportunities for training, developing skills to maximize their
employees‘ full potential with a system of professional development and promotion based on
results, on the one hand and valuable managers who to listen to employees, give them
autonomy and support through mentoring and coaching, on the other hand.
However, the employee must use the time and other resources in relation to their own
aspirations, and the objectives of the organization. People who want to accelerate their career
development must be committed to increasing the level of skills and training, even outside the
organization, the more so as the results of a study by H. Wilenska regarding the role of the
individual in their career development revealed that most subjects (82%) were involved only
the process of choosing their career. The study also showed that the interest in career is more
prominent in women up to 35 years of age and men up to 38, and it decreases with age 5. In
other words, the employee and the organization have similar needs that they are trying to
satisfy, but they have different timeframes for this: while the organization's life is
theoretically unlimited, the employee shall have a relatively short time to pursue a career and
4
Craiovan M.P., Introduction to psychology human resources, University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2006, pp. 223-224
5
Craiovan M.P., Introduction to psychology human resources, University Publishing House, Bucharest, 2006, p. 224)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
its development life is theoretically unlimited, the employee shall have a relatively short time
to pursue a career and its development.
Finding a solution to harmonize personal development with the strategy of the
organization concerned many researchers over time, and to this purpose, some models have
been developed, one of which is shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 career Management
(Source: Manolescu, Lefter, Deaconu (Eds.), 2007, p. 378)
CAREER MANAGEMENT
Organizational career planning Individual career planning
integration of human resource needs in the assessing personal interest and abilities
short and long term recording the data on organizational
develop an individual career plan opportunities
establishing career goal
developing a strategy towards
achieving the career goals
Integration the organizational needs and
the individual career plans
career councilling
designing individual career paths
creating a strategy of development
Career development
implementing career plans
publishing available positions
assessing the employee performance
a complete development of the employee,
beyond the experience for the position
assessing career development
As it can be seen in the figure above, in order to talk about an effective career
management it is necessary that the factors involved in this process should work together
linking their responsibilities towards achieving the common goal.
Conclusions
An effective career management requires a harmonious combination of the needs and
aspirations of the end potential employees with the requirements of the organization.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Achieving this goal is, however, impossible without the contribution of all those involved in
this process namely the employee, the organization and the management.
Bibliography
[1] Armstrong, M., Human Resources Management. Practice Manual, Tenth Edition, Codecs
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2009;
[2] Manolescu, A., Lefter, V., Deaconu, A., (Eds.), Human Resource Management, Economic
Publishing House, Bucharest, 2007;
[3] Lefter, V., Deaconu, A., (Eds.), Human Resources Management. Theory and practice.
Second edition, Economic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2008;
[4] Craiovan M.P., Introduction to psychology human resources, University Publishing
House, Bucharest, 2006.
595
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT AND MARKET SHARE IN THE ROMANIAN
HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY
Lucica Armanca, Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Asset investment dynamics of companies operating in the Romanian tourism
industry count on the growth effect of the economic efficiency, while observing the legal
requirements for food and environmental safety. The purpose of the hospitality industry is to
grow and remain in a dynamic competition environment, in the corresponding market
segment as well as the global market share operated by the market leaders.
Evaluating the participants‘ competitive position is a complex activity that involves the use of
a whole range of information, methods and work instruments.
The study was made on a control group of tourism companies active on the Romanian market
during the period 2011-2013, which can be identified as national hospitality leaders and who
have as scope of activity ―Restaurants; Hotels and other similar accommodation facilities‖.
They dynamics of fixed asset growth rate, rates of economic profitability as well as dynamics
of indicators: turnover and market share, enable a comparative SWOT diagnosis of the
assessed objectives.
Keywords: investment, hospitality, tourism, market share, diagnosis.
Introduction
The social and economic mutations have created and developed tourism via the
hospitality industry as of late, that is, by the nature of activities developed and by the overall
services brought to market by it, as a distinctive branch of the national Romanian economy.
Even if tourism is based on hospitality services, however, the hospitality industry does not
entirely overlap tourism.
Hospitality positioning resorts to both elements of food industry and elements of
accommodation.
The management of accommodation infrastructure, namely accommodation
organisations or facilities aims to satisfy the needs of travellers. According to one of the
definitions given by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) ―Similar hotels or facilities are
distinguished by their room arrangement with a minimum number of rooms, by their unique
management team and their well defined services, including room service, preserving
cleanliness, sanitary facilities etc.‖
Another viewpoint introduces hotel as ―a facility where travellers can get
accommodation as well as eat and have fun, provided they pay for it‖ (WTO).
The accounting information, that is, the understanding of the investment process by its
―accounting dimension‖, defines fixed assets as ―any real or personal assets, tangible or
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
intangible assets, purchased or created by the organisation, designed to constantly remain
under the same form‖ (Marian, S. 2003).
Investments in the Romanian hospitality industry are seen as indicators characterising
projects by volume, structural elements, cost, time of performance, which are also considered
technical or technical/economic indicators. From another standpoint, indicators may reflect
the effort to effect ratio or effect to effort ratio of the investment project, in which case they
would be considered economic efficiency indicators. Often, both categories of the mentioned
indicators are considered economic efficiency indicators (Romanu I., Vasilescu L. 1997).
Investment in new company assets – in the industry of hotels and other
accommodation facilities, and the restaurant industry – residing in lands, constructions-
equipment, furniture-fixtures, causes costs that should be compensated in the future by
funding, that is, cash flow over the entire period of economic life of the investment objective
(Staicu F., 1995).
Promoting and observing the investment programme of economic entities in the
Romanian hospitality industry can meet a series of difficulties, among which the absence of
real funding sources as compared to those budgeted for.
Investment management is the managerial effort that, along with the offered services
and marketing, meets the intended goals.
Material and method
The annual financial statements of businesses in the national ―Hotels and restaurants‖
industry allow us to identify the economic and financial investment indicators, made concrete
by the investment effort or direct investment. With static indicators, the identification of
economic efficiency of investments as an expression of effort to effect ratio or effect to effort
ratio and the comparison of investment effort set in a business as compared to the effects
obtained in time from operation, are ―a new method of calculating the updates‖ (Romanu I.,
1975).
Market share, identified according to specific indicators (Hristea, 2013)
Absolute (global) market share:
CA
n 1
C abs CAi
i 1 . 100 (1)
where: CA1 - turnover of the assessed business
n
CA
i 1
- total turnover of the business sector/field
Relative market share:
CA1
C rel 3
100
CA1
C rel
CAL
100 CA
I 1
LI
(2)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
where: CAL – turnover of the largest competitor on the market (the leading
competitor)
3
i 1
CALI
- sales value (turnover) of the first three market competitors.
Specific (served) market share
CA1
Cs m
100 m
CAj
j 1
CAj
where: j 1 - turnover of the ―served‖ segment
Results and discussions
1. Investment and investment decisions in the practice of the Romanian hospitality
industry
Investment decisions in hospitality industry units are a general component of the
general company policy.
Increasing investments in developing regions of Romania
Table 1
(million lei)
Region 2009 2010 2011 2012
North West Region 333 294 370 268
Centre Region 371 298 451 341
North East Region 152 171 232 242
South East Region 300 356 270 391
South Region Muntenia 126 166 272 173
Bucharest Ilfov Region 644 619 601 499
South Region Oltenia 122 95 109 152
West Region 167 188 174 175
Source: author‘s research and INSSE Romania
The largest hospitality investments belong to the Bucharest-Ilfov Region, however a
17% decrease was recorded as compared to 2011. This Romanian development region holds
the majority in the total investments made in the Romanian hospitality industry.
The evolution of the number of Romanian hospitality units
Table 2
Period 200 20 201 201
9 10 1 2
Number of units 261 24 222 234
70 402 10 99
Source: INSSE Romania
In the year 2009, investments amounting to 2,215 million lei were operated by 26170
hospitality units. In 2010, 24402 units held investments amounting to 2,187 million lei; in the
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
same year, lower investment is caused by a 6.76% decrease of hospitality business rate. In
2011, investment value of operating businesses is of 2,479 million lei, which is operated by
22,210 units. In the same year, investments record a 13.35% increase as compared to the
previous year, even if the number of the units decreased by 8.98%. In 2012, total investment
of 2,241 million lei is operated by 23499 units, that is, a 9.6% decrease corresponds to a
5.80% increase rate of active business.
Investment made in restaurant businesses in 2013, selected according to a turnover of
over 15,000 thousand lei, is as follows:
The restaurant businesses control group assessed according to the turnover of over
15,000 thousand lei reunites a small number of units that made investment during 2013, and
the achieved turnover is higher than that achieved in the previous periods.
The dimension of economic profitability according to the turnover criterion in the
Romanian restaurant industry in 2013
Table 3
Turnover (thousand Economic Number of %
lei) profitability units
>30,000 11.29% 5 38.46
20,000-30,000 9.00% 5 38.46
15,000-20,000 11.21% 3 23.08
Source: author‘s research
Asset management in the assessed units yields an economic performance of about
10%, which indicates financial feasibility, even if there are higher interest rates in borrowed
capitals.
Investment in Hotel business and other accommodation facilities in 2013, selected
according to the over 20,000 thousand lei criterion, are:
The hotel business control assessed according to the over 20,000 thousand lei criterion
reunites a small number of units, that is 17, that made investments in 2013, and their achieved
turnover is higher than that achieved in the previous periods.
The dimension of economic profitability according to the turnover criterion in the
Romanian hotel industry in 2013
Table 4
Turnover (thousand Economic Number of %
lei) profitability units
>30,000 5.14% 9 52.94
20,000-30,000 27.81% 8 47.06
Source: author‘s research
The economic profitability rate is much lower for the highest business level, which
indicates a high level of accommodation coverage, however on short term and very
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inconsistent. Moreover, the management members of these units have a very good hotel
marketing training and the wish to be market leaders.
2. Market share in the Romanian hospitality industry
2.1. Romanian restaurant market share
The competitive position of restaurant-like businesses
Table 5
Company Turnover (thousand lei) -
year 2013
a) American Restaurant System SA - Bucharest 124,412
b) US Food Network SA - Bucharest 213,216
c) MacDonald‘s Romania SRL - Bucharest 414,972
Total sector – hospitality industry 11,497,000
Source: author‘s research
For company a) the global or absolute market share is 1.08%; the relative market share
as compared to the restaurant leader is of 29.98% in 2013, and the relative market share as
compared to the three leaders is 16.53%.
For company b) the global market share is 1.85%; the relative market share as
compared to the leader is of 51.38%, and the market share as compared to the three leaders is
55.14%.
Company b) holds half of the turnover belonging to market leaders, however the
second position of this business is vulnerable and, consequently, it will push harder on sales
management and sales quality.
2.2. Market share of hotels and other hospitality facilities in Romania
The competitive position of hotel-like businesses
Table 6
Company Turnover (thousand lei) -
year 2013
a) Bucuresti Turism SA - Bucharest 116,337
b) Confort Credit SRL - Bucharest 44,268
c)Tratament Balnear si Recuperarea capacitatii 62,683
de munca [Hot Springs Spa Treatment and Recovery of
Work Capacity] TBRCM SA - Bucharest
Total sector – hospitality industry 11,497,000
Source: author‘s research
For company b) the global or absolute market share is 0.39%; the relative market share
as compared to the restaurant leader is of 38.05% in 2013, and the relative market share as
compared to the three leaders is 19.83%.
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For company c) the global market share is 0.55%; the relative market share as
compared to the leader is 53.88%, and the share the market share as compared to the three
leaders is 28.07%.
Company a) sustains half of the turnover belonging to market leaders, however the
second position of this business is slightly vulnerable and, therefore, it will rely on
competition market analysis and will offer new hospitality packages.
Absolute market shares, with very low values for the mentioned leaders, emphasise the
fact that the analysed activity sector – the hospitality industry - is an extremely competitive
industry.
19%-plus relative market shares of leaders indicate the existence of a strong
competitor on the market.
Conclusions
Investment management in the Romanian hospitality industry implies:
- Not only economic and financial analyses of such businesses but also a physical
measurement of the products offered by such units, either restaurants or
accommodation units.
- Hospitality units in Romania imply long-time investment recovery, modernisation, an
aggressive marketing policy, but also natural or urban tourist attractions.
- The political and economic environment greatly influences the hotel industry as well
as the restaurant industry; customer planning has greatly diminished in hospitality –
most of them resort to ―last minutes‖, even if we talk about large tourist groups or
event organising.
- Competition is strong in Romanian hospitality and tourism in general, by promoting
business tourism, short visits, mountain, spa tourism, agritourism, pilgrimage etc. to
the detriment of least 10-day stays.
A SWOT analysis of investment management and market share in the Romanian
hospitality industry allows us to identify a few strong points and weak points:
Strong points:
- new investments start from a successful idea or an existing hotel or restaurant
business / their opening and expansion on a European/worldwide level.
- modernisation investments imply an existing technical and material ground –
maintaining or increasing the level of offered services is also based on achievable
physical indicators.
- permanent increase of accommodation/overnight accommodation, meals served, as
marketing performance indicators imply a greater workforce productivity.
- service consumption by customers knows a diversified evolution, differing from one
Romanian development region to another.
- Investors hurry to develop limited-service hotel units, All Inclusive resorts or
alternative accommodation units, such as hostels.
- entrepreneurs hurry to open new businesses close to airports and harbours.
- the business environment, the Hospitality Guild, work with tourism agencies to
whom they present their own programmes.
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Weak points:
- difficulties and restrictions in ensuring the resources necessary for new investments
or modernisation, eligibility criteria for non-refundable funds, as well as those for
bank credits, have minimum values, and cannot be fulfilled as such.
- an accurately made investment plan should also include investment recovery time by
good business forecasts, which, in time, no longer prove accurate for sustainability
and durability requirements.
- staff turnover, exchange rate fluctuation, and also unfair competition.
- making investments without an adequate source to the detriment of current asset, in
which case the goal can no longer be reached.
- physical indicators are no longer monitored in hotels or restaurants, such as the
number of overnight accommodation, number of arrivals, number of
accommodations, number of served meals, as indicators of informative data on the
entity activity, by the submitted annual Financial Statements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ivanof C.F., 2009 - Managementul unitatilor de turism, Metode financiar-contabile,
Editura Tehnopress, Iasi
2. Hristea A.M., 2013 - Analiza economico financiara a intreprinderii, Editura
Economica, Bucuresti
3. Lupu N., 2010 - Hotelul economie si management, Ed.a VI-a, Editura C.H.Beck,
Bucuresti
4. Romanu I., 1975 - Econometrie cu aplicatii la eficienta investitiilor, Editura Stiintifica,
Bucuresti
5. Romanu I., Vasilescu L., 1997 - Managementul investitiilor, Editura Margaritar
6. Staicu M.,Ene N., 2002- Practica gestiunii investitiilor, Editura ASE Bucuresti
7. Stanciulescu G., 1999 - Tehnica operatiunilor de turism, Editura All Beck, Bucuresti
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SOFTWARE APPLICATION STRUCTURE GENERATOR FOR MANAGEMENT
APPLICATION PORTALS
Florin Răzvan Lupşa-Tătaru, PhD Student, Vladimir Mărăscu-Klein, Prof., PhD,
”Transilvania” University of Brașov
Abstract: In management application portals, each software application has its own role and
fulfils specific functions for the purpose for which it was created. Meanwhile, it complies with
the general structure of the portal and must obey the operation rules of the portal. Each
application consists of items related to file structure and operation logic structure. Based on
this, one can create a standardized way of implementing any applications and more, a
software application with the role of applications structure generator. The paper aims to
present the logic behind creating such an application generator.
Keywords: software, generator, application, management, portal
1. Introduction
Management applications portals, by definition, include in addition to information,
applications designed to perform various functions. These applications must comply with the
general logic and file structure of the portal in order to contribute to the concepts of unified
and integrated portal. Create a portal without taking into account the evolution in time can
lead to the loss of these concepts. There aren't few situations in which portals were provided
with some applications required initially and subsequently, newer applications were hardly
integrated into the portal, compromising its integrity. On the other hand it is difficult to
predict in long term what information must the portal incorporate. However, the structure of a
management applications portal designed to be used over a long period of time should provide
a generic, standardized way to integrate new information and applications. And here comes
the role of an application structure generator. But this must not be misunderstood as a logic
generator for the newly created applications, but as a helper in developing applications and a
keeper of portals integrity.
2. Application structure generator
In creating a portal application structure generator one can start from identification of
the elements used by an application, generally databases and file structures. In terms of
application logic, they contain elements that are related to security of data and files and items
related to functionalities that the application fulfils.
If databases needed by the application are difficult to standardize because of their
variety and heterogeneity of a future application functions, file structure can be easily divided
into its components. Thus, any application uses configuration files, files related to internal
functions and third party files. An application structure can be outlined as in Figure 1.
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Figure 1. Generic application structure.
Includes directory consists of files that lead to the fulfilment of the back-end
application functionalities. Besides those that are specific to each application, there are some
that can be standardized, such as configuration files, files that contain parameters, and files
that contain custom user settings.
Languages directory consists of files that allow translation elements, localization of
the application. They must comply and do not conflict or be redundant with existing
localization files in the portal.
Libraries directory consists of files containing application-specific library functions
which can be standardized as name and content, according to the programming language used
to create the portal. For example, the file that refers to functions that allow the use of database
can be called database_access, those containing functions related to data display can be called
views and those who manage access control can be called access. The directory may contain
third party functions files.
Files directory consists of general files related to application without role in the
functioning of the application logic, such as pictures, documents, etc.
The application database contains tables related to application and in addition, if a
control system that uses database engine is implemented it may contain a table linked to an
access control system based on ACL lists.
Of course, such a structure generator requires rights to create databases and write the
necessary files. Also, the generator must give to any new application the possibility of access
to the configuration and parameterization files of the portal, to general available function files.
3. Application structure generator implementation simulation
In order to simulate an implementation of the generator logic above, assume the
existence of a portal of management applications created on web platform using programming
languages PHP, JavaScript, HTML, XML files and MySQL database engine. The portal has
the directory structure and files as presented in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Portal structure of directories and files.
All directories and files shown in Figure 2 contribute only to the operation of the
portal as an integrated system.
When the need arises for a new application, application 3, using generator structure,
this new application will be integrated in the applications directory of the portal, with the
structure shown in Figure 3.
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Figure 3. Application structure of directories and files.
4. Conclusions
Using this way of structuring management applications, the portal can be an integrated
one, reliable for a long time. Going forward with this logic, the portal can also be considered
as an application, with the same structure that it also fulfils its specific functions, those of
ensuring support for incorporating new information and integrating new applications.
Bibliography
[1] http://www.onextrapixel.com/2011/12/12/building-web-apps-file-and-directory-
structures/
[2] http://framework.zend.com/manual/1.12/en/project-structure.project.html
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID137516 financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government.
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METAPHORS THAT CAN TURN ACCOUNTING INTO A CAREER. AN
ANALYSIS OF PRESENTATION DISCOURSES IN ROMANIAN FACULTIES
OF ECONOMICS
Magdalena Danileţ, Assist. Prof., PhD, Claudia Petruşcă, Assoc. Assist., PhD, ”Al.
Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: Often, accounting is perceived as an abstract and arid area of language, a
language of numbers. The plasticity of metaphors seems difficult to associate with the rigor of
the accounting language. But this appearance is immediately destabilized by enshrined
accounting expressions, like: "faithful representation", "balance", "active", "passive" etc. In
accounting, the role of metaphor in facilitating understanding and in legitimating actions
remains as important as in any other field. Presentation discourses of accounting
specialization are all pleading for turning it into a career. This paper is a content analysis of
the accounting specialization text presentations in Romanian economics faculties. Its purpose
is to identify metaphors that support students' decision in favor of this field, for their
professional path. In our research, we use the model developed by Ana María Rojo María
Ángeles Orts Llopis and López (2010), adapted to the business field, from the taxonomies of
Lakoff and Turner (1989) and Moreno Lara (2008).
Highlighting and coding metaphors used in the presentation texts of accounting specialization
offers not only clues to the manner in which students are invited to choose the accounting
profession but also possible settings for practicing this profession.
Keywords: content analysis, metaphor, accounting, discourse
Introduction
Lakoff & Johnson (1980) proposed the approach of metaphors as figures of thought,
namely representations of the ways in which people reveal, develop and extend their thoughts.
A metaphor is a way of seeing something as if it is something else. It is an analogy. It is an
implicit or aggregate comparison, of which the compared term is missing. The metaphor
provides the link between the known and the unknown. It reveals the perceived relationship
between different things, between part and the whole. Metaphors involve the same process
that is reflected in the creation of relations: the process of establishing meaningful
connections between ideas or people, originally separate and distinct entities (Duck, 1994).
According to the theory of conceptual metaphor (Gibbs Jr., 2008: Lakoff & Johnson, 1980),
the metaphor is a cognitive tool that we use to understand abstract or difficult concepts (called
target domain) in terms of different concepts, but more concrete and understandable (called
source domain). Thus, in a phrase such as "Life is an obstacle course" or "The stock is a true
barometer of the Romanian economy", "life" and "stock" are the target areas and "obstacle
course" and "barometer" are source areas.
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Usually, accounting is perceived as an abstract and arid area of language, a language
of numbers and the plasticity of metaphors seems difficult to associate with the rigor of the
accounting language. In accounting, the role of metaphor in facilitating understanding and in
legitimating actions remains as important as in any other field. When we read or hear "faithful
representation", "balance sheet", "account active," "passive account", the information that we
receive is richer than the strictly technical description that can be found in the accounting
guidelines and, more importantly, it provides a first frame of understanding, even for the
layman. Therefore, in accounting language metaphors are not optional devices, but rather a
tool that allows us to understand or to experience an economic phenomenon or a specific
reality of an organization, with the help of our own terms of another known element or
process, more accessible.
Metaphor discourse in accounting
The studies on language specific to the economic domain, and more focused, on
metaphors, have trained linguists and economists and have generated models that are more or
less similar in conceptual mapping of metaphors (Peattie, Gruszka and Frischherz, 2012; Rojo
and Orts, 2010; Kövecses, 2010: White, 2004; Charteris-Black and Ennis, 2001).
The conceptual metaphor created by Lakoff and Johnson (1980), involves "the
mapping" of metaphors, of correspondences between the source and the target field.
"Business is war" is the metaphor that involves a correspondence between an abstract domain
(target domain - business) and a more known domain, apparently easier to understand (source
domain - war). So, we understand that business involves strategies, targets, confrontation,
attacks, losses, gains, weapons etc.
Often, the reading of an economic text offers the occasion to meet what we generally
call an abstract language, still language or technical language. The presented mathematical
formulas, economic models, arguments and explanations often suggest the ignorance of
analog language, of metaphors. But once we overcome the "too technical, too arid" stage, we
really enter the metaphorical universe. The market, homo economicus, the marginal utility, the
theories of equilibrium, assets, liabilities, balance, cash flow, volatility, goodwill, etc. are just
some examples of metaphors that we find in economics and accounting textbooks made for
the first year of study.
Some of them, by long use, are not recognized as metaphors anymore. We find them
in the specialty literature as dead metaphors, fossilized metaphors or transparent metaphors.
They are rather associated to the technical language, which is specific to the economic
domain. But at the beginning, the terms called today technical terms were metaphors or
sometimes even creative metaphors. It should be noted that models aren‘t metaphors in the
linguistic meaning of the term. Henderson (1982) solves this distinction by using the term of
extended metaphor (extended metaphors). In Solomon Marcus texts, the metaphor B of A
entity enters the stage when "some aspects of A can‘t be expressed with effect if we consider
the literal meaning of words" (Solomon Marcus, 2005, p. 244). W. Henderson (1982), D.
McCloskey (1983) and Mirowski (1989) were the first economist authors who opened the
subject of metaphors in economic discourse. Slightly sarcastic, McCloskey, D.N. (1995)
states that: "economists are poets without realizing it". Furthermore, the studies on metaphors
used in the economic field have multiplied long enough to already talk about a "Western
metaphormania" (Vasiloaia et al., 2011). True, these studies are rarely devoted to economic
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discourse, in general. But we can easily find explorations of the metaphorical language from
advertising, economic press, CSR-associated communication, CEO speeches, Premier Bank
Governors speeches, economic textbooks (including accounting textbooks: Gambling, T.,
1987, Walter-York, L.M., 1996, Cooper, C and Puxty, A., 1993, Armenia, J. and Craig, R.,
2009), the founding texts of economics (e.g. metaphors in the writings of Adam Smith -
McCloskey, D.N.), the training materials for different specializations of the economic domain
(e.g. metaphors used in training courses dedicated to sales staff). The approach of metaphors
in economics draws a distinction between societies of discourse. Alejo (2010, p.1138) notes
that economists, on one hand, and linguists, on the other hand, operate on different levels of
analysis of the metaphorical language present in economic texts. Economists tend to
understand metaphors in relation to the paradigm, rather than the language.
The still ongoing transition from the machine metaphor to the living organism
metaphor in economy is the transition from mechanistic thinking model of economic
phenomena to the homeostasis model and it is the result of a route with historical
determinations. This is also the reason why, often, the metaphors used by economists are not
recognized as such by linguists. Similarly, the dedicated metaphor in accounting,
ACCOUNTING IS AN INSTRUMENT (machine) is transformed to promote accounting
specialization programs in the specific metaphors category ACCOUNTING IS HUMAN
BEHAVIOR. Linguists, on the other hand, are favoring the issues related to the generation of
speech and to the aims and the functions of metaphors in economic texts. Attention is focused
on the communication situation, on the social and textual context where metaphors occur.
Metaphor is often seen as an illustrative teaching instrument which is rather poorly present in
economic texts. Thornton (1988), based on Noam Chomsky's assertion which states the fact
that discerning the hidden meanings of the language is an innate capacity of the human brain,
believes that accounting is actually a self-contained separate language, and it should be
encouraged the use of the metaphorical language and even the metaphorical thinking in
accounting. Thus, concepts as income, profit, surplus, adjustment, dividends, capital, financial
ratios, funds, cash or profit centers may receive additional interpretations and meanings when
they are presented through metaphors (Thornton, 1988, p. 2).
Another argument, that supports the use of metaphorical language in accounting, is
that the information contained in the accounting records may be understood through it by
other receptors too, who don‘t have training in accounting, who don‘t master the technical
language specific to the discipline. On the other hand, metaphorical language in accounting
involves a perpetual mediation between the subjective interpretations of the professional
accountant (when he proposes a metaphor), the subjectivity of the receiver (when he decodes
the metaphor) and the restrictions upon the uniform appearance of the technical accounting
text required by legislation, the rules and the internal accounting norms. In fact, it is an
invitation to communication.
In the scientific literature that analyzes the metaphors used in the texts of professional
accountants (Watson et. All, 2000; Walters, 2004; Labor, 2004; McGoun, Bettner, & Coyne,
2007) categories like "lenses" and "photographs" are established, that are subsumed (under
the umbrella) of fundamental conceptual metaphor ACCOUNTING IS AN INSTRUMENT.
But the image of accounting is also nuanced and by the non-traditional metaphors like ritual
(Gambling, 1987), games (Goldberg, 1997), magic (Gambling, 1977). The category "Scrabble
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game" (McGoun, Bettner, & Coyne, 2007), although it is relatively little raised, draws
attention by focusing on the perception of students on accounting. According to the authors,
"Financial Statements and Scrabble both rely upon symbols arranged systematically with
rules governing their usage. The elements of financial statements, like the game tiles of a
Scrabble board, are comprised of symbols with numbers assigned to them for the purpose of
measuring and scoring performance‖ (McGoun, Bettner, & Coyne, 2007, p. 11).
The metaphors mentioned above, including the "Scrabble game" category, are those
that students meet, students who have already chosen accounting as a possible career, and also
economists students who are undergoing the first introductory year in accounting bases. In
our research we aim at identifying the metaphors through which accounting is promoted as a
possible career. After a first reading of presentation discourses of accounting specialization in
Romanian faculties of economics, we discovered a variety of metaphors for which the
taxonomies of Lakoff and Turner (1989), Moreno Lara (2008) and Ana Marìa Rojo Marìa
Ángeles Orts Llopis and López (2010) offer a more appropriate classification system than the
mainstream ACCOUNTING IS AN INSTRUMENT conceptual metaphor.
Methodology
In our research we used the taxonomies of Lakoff and Turner (1989) and Moreno Lara
(2008), adapted to the economic field by Ana Marìa Rojo López and Marìa Ángeles Orts
Llopis (2010). The Rojo López and Orts Llopis model has three generic metaphors and 17
subcategories of specific metaphors.
Table no. 1 The Rojo López and Orts Llopis taxonomy
Generic-level metaphor Specific-level metaphor
Object
Building
Natural force
Supernatural force
Metaphors based on the Great Chain of
Human behaviour
Being
Illness
Celebration
Living being (animal or plant)
Machine
Verticality
Source–path–goal
Metaphors based on image-schemas
Container schema
Journey
War
Metaphors based on the metaphor Actions Competition game
Are Events Show business
Medieval tournament
Source: A.M.R. López, M.A´.O. Llopis, Journal of Pragmatics 42 (2010) pp. 3300–
3313
In this paper, a content analysis is conducted on a principal corpus of 14 texts
composed of presentations of accounting specialization in Romanian universities of
economics and on a secondary corpus, with a comparative role, consisting of 25 promoting
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messages of accounting companies in Iasi, which have a presentation site. We chose to use
this secondary corpus in order to highlight the differences that occur between metaphors used
in accounting textbooks and standard accounting texts, the so called metaphors that define
"the essence of accounting itself" (J. Amernic, R. Craig, 2009), the metaphors that support the
promotion of the "product" "Accounting as a possible career" (in universities) and the
metaphors that support the promotion of financial and accounting services provided by the
career accountants (for companies), respectively.
If "the essence of accounting itself" is encapsulated in metaphors such as
ACCOUNTING IS AN INSTRUMENT or ACCOUNTING IS A TELLING TRUTH LENS
in promotional texts, accounting seems to be associated with a living organism (the Great
Chain of Being), images (Image-schemas) or events (Actions has Events).
The following table summarizes the information regarding the texts analyzed,
presented in terms of technical elements, which are designed to provide an overview of
selected data.
Table no. 2 Structure of the analyzed corpus
T Total
N
Co Sourc A otal no. no. of
Description o.
rpus e rea of identified
texts
words metaphors
Presentation
Facult
Pri speeches of R 1 7
y of 98
ncipal accounting omania 4 075
Economics
specialization
Promotion Acco
Se I 2 5
messages posted on unting 55
condary aşi 5 035
sites Companies
To 3 1
153
tal 9 2110
The working protocol
All 39 texts were downloaded from the websites of Romanian economics faculties
which have personalized presentations for the accounting specialization, and then copied into
a Word document. The selection procedure consisted of initial analysis of all sites of
Romanian economics faculties. From a total of 23 sites of presentation only 14 were chosen
because they contain distinct promoting texts of accounting specialization. Also, for the
secondary analysis, we selected 25 promotion messages of financial and accounting services.
Of all companies that provide financial and accounting services in Iasi (164 companies
registered in the CECCAR1 Table), only 25 have their own presentation website.
The first stage of analysis involved individual work of the authors and consisted of
identifying metaphorical expressions in chosen corpuses and a first text coding using the Rojo
López and Orts Llopis (2010) taxonomy. As the interpretation and coding of metaphors are
inevitably subjective processes, the second stage involved confronting the obtained individual
1
The Body of Chartered Accountants and Licensed Accountants of Romania
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results and their validation by a third person, associate professor in accounting. It is true that
this validation, partially mediated, can be considered subjective as well. For example, the
expression "The Accounting and Management Information System program addresses
graduates" was enclosed within the subcategory "human behavior", which is part of the
generic metaphor of the human being, according to the Rojo López and Orts Llopis (2010)
model. The expression "economy based on knowledge" was fitted into the building metaphor
subcategory. Another example, the phrase "To settle the foundations of a future economist-
accountant" assumed a dual classification in the subcategories building and source-path-goal
and a double classification into the categories generic metaphor of the human being and the
generic metaphor of image-schemas. Thus, the analysis, coding and, where appropriate, the
double encoding of metaphorical expressions resulted in an increase of the number of records
from 145 to 153, as shown in Table no. 3.
Results
The analysis of the metaphors according to the Rojo López and Orts Llopis (2010)
model revealed the category preference to the first generic category of metaphors, The Great
Chain of Being. The following table summarizes the percentage of each category in the total
corpus.
Table no. 3 Distribution of metaphors in the three generic categories
Universities Companies
Generic-level metaphor No. No. Total No. Total %
% %
Metaphors based on the
64 65,3% 41 74,5% 105 68,1%
Great Chain of Being
Metaphors based on image-
32 32,7% 12 21,8% 44 29,1%
schemas
Metaphors based on the
2 2,0% 2 3,6% 4 2,8%
metaphor Actions Are Events
Total 98 100,0% 55 100,0% 153 100,0%
The distribution of metaphors between the three generic categories of the principal
corpus, which includes the promotion speeches of the Accounting specialization, relatively
follows the same pattern to that observed in the corpus which consists of presenting messages
of accounting companies. Universities (65.3%) and companies (74.5%) tend to attribute
human qualities to accounting, especially when promoting their "products". After that, the
following are the metaphors based on image-schemas category, with 32.7% and 21.8%,
respectively. At large distance, with almost an insignificant percentage, appear the metaphors
from the category Action are Events (2% and 3.6%). Therefore, we can already assume that in
promotional messages, accounting has very little to do with spectacular aspect.
The first generic category of metaphors, the Great Chain of Being, is based on the
cultural model proposed by Lakoff and Turner (1989), adapted by Rojo and Orts (2010).
Source field is defined by the attributes and behavior of living organisms hierarchy organized
as follows: human beings, animals, plants. Here are also gathered the subcategories: objects
and complex objects (construction, machine, mechanism, etc.).
Table no. 4, which shows the distribution of metaphors into the subcategories of the
metaphor the Great Chain of Being, shows preference for analogies with human behavior
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(26,14%), followed by the subcategories building (20.26%), object (9.15%) and machine
(4.58%). Percentages are calculated by reference to the total number of records (total 153).
Table no. 4 Distribution of metaphors into the subcategories of metaphor of the
Great Chain of Being
Metaphors based on the Great Chain Corpus % Corpus % Corpus
of Being Univesities Universities Companies Companies Total % Total
Object 7 7,14% 7 12,73% 14 9,15%
Building 19 19,39% 12 21,82% 31 20,26%
Natural force 4 4,08% 1 1,82% 5 3,27%
Supernatural force 2 2,04% 0 0,00% 2 1,31%
Human behaviour 24 24,49% 16 29,09% 40 26,14%
Illness 0 0,00% 0 0,00% 0 0,00%
Celebration 0 0,00% 0 0,00% 0 0,00%
Living being (animal or plant) 2 2,04% 4 7,27% 6 3,92%
Machine 6 6,12% 1 1,82% 7 4,58%
Total 64 65,31% 41 74,55% 105 68,63%
TOTAL 98 55 153
The analogies with disease, celebrations, supernatural forces and living beings related
to the categories of animals and plants seem to be unattractive. These results can be argued by
the fact that the language of professionals from the accounting field, technical field and the
one dedicated to figures will be reflected in promotional messages by using metaphors from
the field of building, objects and machines (cumulative 33.99%). In the case of companies,
the metaphors from the building subcategory (―building‖ and ―construction‖, ―anchoring‖,
―setting new business architecture‖) and the object subcategory (―size‖, ―lens‖, ―frame‖)
occupy larger spaces (cumulative 34.55%) than in the case of universities (cumulative
26,53%). Even if metaphors from the technical subcategories are dominated by accumulation
(building plus object plus machine), the human behavior subcategory with a share of 24.49%
in the case of universities and a share of 29.09% in the case of companies, shows concern for
human face of accounting which is more accessible and more open to communication. Thus,
we discover an accounting which is ―committed to excellence‖, which ―reinvents itself‖,
which ―takes care‖, which ―addresses and responds to the clients‘ needs―, which is
―responsible‖, which ―has goals‖, which is ―sensitive‖, which ―can be happy‖.
A second category of generic metaphors, based on image-schemas, combines the
metaphorical expressions where the source domain is structured on concepts like destination,
travel, objective and has additional elements such as trail, trajectory, direction, speed, vehicle,
rhythm, topography, space, container etc. (Rojo López and Orts Llopis, 2010). The source
domain consists of the basic structure of the source-path-goal schema and other elements,
such as: the trajectory, the trajectory characteristics, the folowed objective, the position in
space owned at one time, the direction at a certain moment, the final objective, the presence of
a vehicle, its speed, the difficulties encountered, the forces can act/influence favorably or
unfavorably, the presence of other possible paths etc. (Lara Moreno, 2008, p. 196).
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In the source-path-goal subcategory, we discover in the case of universities (14.29%
of metaphors) ―an accounting oriented towards internationalization‖ and university training
programs in accounting ―pragmatically oriented towards the real needs of the Romanian
school‖, with goals such as ―acquiring entrepreneurial students spirit‖ or, more generally,
―becoming a good economist‖. Also, accounting companies (12.73% of metaphors) announce
that ―they are oriented towards results and towards goals achievement‖ that in their activity
―they set and achieve the highest quality standards‖, that they support ―their customers to
become real business man―, and they are an aid ―to see exactly where their business
customers are going‖.
Table no. 5 Distribution of metaphors based on the Image-Schemas category
Metaphors based on image- Corpus % Corpus % Corpus
schemas Universities Universities Companies Companies Total % Total
Verticality 8 8,16% 4 7,27% 12 7,84%
Source–path–goal 14 14,29% 7 12,73% 21 13,73%
Container schema 2 2,04% 1 1,82% 3 1,96%
Journey 8 8,16% 0 0,00% 8 5,23%
Total 32 32,65% 12 21,82% 44 28,76%
TOTAL 98 55 153
When coding, besides the source-path-goal schema, we also used the secondary
schemas of verticality, journey and container schema. In the expressions based on the
verticality scheme (7.84% of the total corpus), accounting specializing programs are presented
as a career path with a well-defined direction (i.e. ―to access to the chartered accountant
qualification‖, ―to successfully enter labor market‖, ―customer orientation‖), and actions taken
for career development in accounting are cumulative, and they are a support for jumping to
the next level (i.e. ―the first step in offering you a successful future‖). The journey model,
perhaps not incidentally, is present in the principal corpus of presentation speech for
accounting specialization (8.16% of metaphorical expressions), but lacks in the secondary
corpus created at the level of accounting companies (0%). Naturally, training to be an
accountant can be seen as a journey (i.e. ―way to success‖) with inherent elements of
unpredictability and unknown (i.e. ―mysteries of knowledge‖), but with a reliable ―guide‖ (the
training program provided). The offer of accounting services, on the other hand, emphasizes
the purpose, the achieved objectives. The metaphorical patterns based on the container
schema model (1.96% of the total corpus), accounting, for example, has been conceptualized
―as a space of elite for those who have to grow rich‖. In the analyzed corpus, the generic
metaphor based on image-schemas brings together a much smaller number of expressions
(28.76% of the total of 153 recorded phrases) and includes explicit associations, especially for
the source-path-goal, verticality and journey subcategories.
The third category of generic metaphors based on the metaphor actions are events
allows us to conceptualize accounting and financial accounting activities as events. The model
retains four types of events: competitive game, war, show business and medieval tournament.
From the conceptual point of view, the metaphors of the first three types of events "share
some features or elements, such as the high degree of competitiveness, a certain spirit of
aggressiveness and the search for victory or fame" (Rojo López and Orts Llopis, 2010, p .
3306).
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Table no. 5 Distribution of metaphors based on the Actions are Events category
Metaphors based on Corpus % Corpus % Corpus
Actions Are Events Universities Universities Companies Companies Total % Total
War 2 2,04% 0 0,00% 2 1,31%
Competition game 0 0,00% 1 1,82% 1 0,65%
Show business 0 0,00% 1 1,82% 1 0,65%
Medieval tournament 0 0,00% 0 0,00% 0 0,00%
Total 2 2,04% 2 3,64% 4 2,61%
TOTAL 98 55 153
The results shown in table no. 6 reflect a weak affinity (cumulative percentage of
2.61% of the total of 153 recorded expressions) with the language and spirit of the warrior
(1.31%), competition (0.65%) or the typical show business (0.65 %). In fact, it would be
difficult and inappropriate to imagine the building of a career with the use of a warrior
language or to promote the chartered accountant-client partnership in terms of competition
and struggle.
Conclusions of the study
Individuals and organizations can react only to data or information previously
recognized. Perhaps in this way the force of the metaphorical language, the analogies and the
understanding, knowledge and change mechanisms can be explained. When we used the
expression ―metaphors that can turn accounting into a career‖, first, we privileged the use of
the metaphor as a tool to explore the link between communication and action. The metaphor
legitimizes action, sets targets, and guides behavior. The option of students in economics, at
the end of the first year of study, for a specialization or another, in this case for accounting
specialization, is the result of several factors. We will never know for sure what is the deep
motivation of choosing for each of our students unless, perhaps, we initiate individual
explorations. However, the metaphors used in presentation speeches of the accounting
specialization and, secondly, those used to promote financial and accounting services, open a
door to the world of representations of the accounting profession. In the introduction of this
paper we quoted earlier studies which confirm that in accounting textbooks (including the
ones from the program of study for students in economics), the metaphor ACCOUNTING IS
AN INSTRUMENT (machine, mechanism) is dominant. In our research we found that for
promoting the accounting specialization, the metaphorical expressions that are in the category
of ACCOUNTING IS HUMAN BEHAVIOR are privileged. We might assume that this
transformation follows the wider current where the machine metaphor is replaced by the
living organism metaphor, when talking about the economy or about the organization. But
this transformation also illustrates the effort of closeness between the technical and yet
unfamiliar universe of the accounting profession and the ordinary, familiar world of the first
year student. In the analyzed corpus, we also noticed the same trend in the promotion
speeches for financial-accounting services. For us, it is the expression of the adaptation effort
to the receptor. The beneficiaries of these services are probably people who need an
accountant just because they have a lack of this expertise. The option for an accounting that is
―committed to excellence‖ , which ―reinvents itself‖ , which ―takes care‖, which ―addresses
and responds to the clients‘ needs‖, which ―is responsible‖, which ―has goals‖, which ―is
sensitive‖, which ―can be happy‖, an accounting which helps us to ―configure‖, ―build‖ and
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―strengthen a new business architecture‖ transforms accounting into a territory of partnership,
communication, future projects, and finally, into a way to being in a profession. Into a career.
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ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN TOURISM FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF
THE CORE – PERIPHERY MODEL
Mara Ursache, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași, PhD Fellow SOP
HRD/159/1.5/133675
Abstract: The European economy is characterized by a robust tourism industry, with
significantly different growth rates between different geographical areas. The purpose of this
paper is to analyze the links created between the economic and spatial periphery (tourism
arrivals, tourism overnight stays, tourism intensity, tourism total contribution to GDP,
tourism total contribution to employment, accessibility potential) of the eastern versus
southern periphery of the EU. We will try to answer questions as: Does spatial position
influence the degree of tourism development? Are there any similarities or differences
between the Eastern and Southern periphery? Could the southern periphery be an example
for the Eastern one?
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources
Development (SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and the Romanian Government under contract
number POSDRU/159/1.5/133675.
Keywords: tourism industry, economic development, peripherality, accessibility, EU
Introduction
Currently tourism at both international and national levels is a widespread
phenomenon that causes a significant impact on the economy, society, quality of life and
well-being, becoming a dynamic engine of social progress.
Tourism (i) increases foreign exchange earnings, which in turn can be used to finance
imports (Brida and Pulina, 2010), (ii) encourages investment and local companies to drive
increased efficiency as a result of increased competition (Ballaguer and Cantavella-Jorda,
2002; Bhagwati and Srinivasan, 1979; Krueger, 1980), (iii) alleviates unemployment as
tourism activities are strongly based on human capital (Brida and Pulina, 2010) and (iv)
increases the income and GDP per capita levels (Croes and Vanegas, 2008; Sugiyarto, Blake
and Sinclair, 2003).
Tourism causes positive economies of scale and economies of scope (Helpman and
Krugman, 1985; Andriotis, 2002; Croes, 2006). Economies of scale help companies reduce
average production costs while increasing the number of units produced, and economies of
scope support the reduction of production costs while increasing the variety of products and
services produced.
The European economy is characterized by a robust tourism industry, with
significantly different growth rates among different geographical areas. These discrepancies
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became a significant setback after the EU‘s enlargement towards east. In front of the
European integration and globalization, nations increasingly entered into a fierce competition,
in particular regarding tourism development and accessibility.
In order to measure the tourism development disparities between the southern and
eastern peripheries of EU, we analyzed in our study variables defining tourism arrivals and
overnight stays, tourism contribution to GDP and employment, tourism intensity and
accessibility, considering it necessary not only to include indicators that refer to the economic
problems, but also those which refer to the spatial structure (motor density and railway
density).
1. Literature review
Within Europe processes of economic convergence and divergence operate at various
geographical scales, resulting in a very uneven geographical landscape. Economic integration
leads to a core-periphery spatial structure, resulting in greater congestion and increased
specialization at the expense of peripheral countries/regions (Krugman, 1991a).
Economic integration (both within the EU and globally) determines the concentration
of economic activities in a limited number of locations, while the economic structure of many
areas has become unstable due to increased competition between countries or regions
(Lagendijk and Lorentzen, 2007). The process of economic integration may reveal detrimental
effects for less developed regions and advantages to those initially developed.
Despite the rapid integration process that took place in the last decade, market access
remains uneven between EU regions mainly because of intangible barriers and intra-
community trade, which still maintain the fragmented structure of the EU market (Head and
Mayer, 2004). Because of these barriers, countries with good geographic and economic
accessibility to the main European markets benefit more from the effects of concentration of
economic activity than peripheral countries. Agglomeration effects indicate the presence of
high-quality infrastructure, specialization, greater competition and also a favorable business
environment for foreign investors.
The development of any country depends on a series of economic, social, political and
geographical factors. An important part is played by the geographical location, which is
associated with the spatial and territorial background where a place is developing. Its location
and implicitly everything which separates it from other places may be decisive for the
dynamics of several of its economic activities, namely its tourism activities (Bulai et al.,
2011). However, the uneven development of tourism is not only influenced by accessibility,
but also by more complex problems related to economic peripherality.
The tourism industry, like other production sectors, is reliant on agglomeration
economies (Capone and Boix, 2008) tending to form territorial clusters which share large-
sized infrastructures (airports, ports, museums), resource endowments and have good market
access. These factors are part of the center – periphery pattern and affect the competitiveness
of destinations.
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Starting from these aspects, we considered it important to examine how the level of
tourism development of certain countries is determined by the peripherality effect and its
implications.
2. Statistical approach on the peripherality effect of southern and eastern states
of the European Union
2.1 Methodology and Data
In this study we considered the analysis between the „old southern periphery‖
(Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain) and the „new eastern periphery‖ of
EU (Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia). Hence, we
made a statistical analysis of the development differences, captured from a double
perspective: economic and spatial, from which we tried to set up the determination links
created between economic development, tourism and peripherality using a selective set of
indicators: GDP/per capita (expressed in PPS), tourism arrivals, tourism overnight stays,
tourism intensity (expressed in arrivals/population), total contribution of tourism to GDP,
total contribution of tourism to employment and the accessibility potential, by taking into
account the density of the transport networks. The development of such a study is without
doubt needed in order to direct attention to the complexity of the center-periphery links
generated by the expansion towards east.
We also add up the fact that we chose to analyze the countries that define the
European Union‘s southern expansion and the eastern one respectively, in order to observe if
the process of integration may be considered potential for economic development. The
geographical location of these countries is different as concerns the proximity to the EU
center, which is why we want to examine whether accessibility has a meaningful role on
tourism development.
In order to answer our questions we applied the Pearson correlation coefficient,
regression and cluster method towards the following correlations: economic development –
tourism development – accessibility.
The data necessary for the analysis was collected from statistics and official reports,
belonging to Eurostat, World Travel and Tourism Council and World Tourism Organization
databases. The analysis was made for the year 2012, a choice dictated by the availability of
data.
2.2 Main results and findings
2.2.1 The correlation economic development – tourism
We analyzed the southern and eastern periphery distribution from the EU average of
EU28=100 (GDP per capita in PPS) and from the tourism development level (arrivals,
overnight stays, tourism contribution to GDP, tourism contribution to employment and
tourism intensity) under a scatter plot representation (Figure 1).
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Source: Author‘s representation based on Eurostat, WTTC and WTO databases
Figure 1 Scatter plot Representation (tourism development)
We noticed that there are significant differences in the country distribution regarding
the degree of tourism development. Most of the eastern countries (Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Slovakia) are below the EU average, choosing to concentrate their economic
activities among themselves, the geographical proximity and similar level of development
being probably the main reason for this pattern. Thus, tourist flows are affected not only by
the geographical distance but also by the characteristics of neighboring locations (LeSage &
Fischer, 2008).
Bulgaria and Romania are concentrated towards the intersection point of the X and Y
axes, which denotes a weak tourism development. A low level of development (economic
peripherality) is usually correlated with the degree of spatial peripherality (the distance from
the EU economic core).
At the opposite end we find Spain and Italy. The two countries belong to the
Mediterranean arch, region that attracts 30% of the worldwide tourism. Mediterranean
tourism is known as a global brand, the countries of this region having already created a
tradition regarding international tourism. The tourism industries in Spain and Italy represents
one of the most relevant economic activities in terms of value-added produced, employment
and multiplier effects on several other manufacturing and services sectors.
Further, the correlation Pearson correlation coefficient revealed the intensity of
connections between the indicators used in explaining the economic and spatial periphery
(Table 1). The most conclusive results (synthesized in Table 1) highlight the fact that there is
a direct connection between the total contribution of tourism to employment and the number
of arrivals and overnight stays, conditionality being 99.7% (Pcoef = 0.997) and 98.9% ( Pcoef =
0.989), respectively. Moreover the GDP per capita is also dependent on the number of arrivals
(64.6%) and overnight stays respectively (65%).
The indicators arrivals and overnight stays are closely linked, representing indicators
of the economic impact on a territory. The overnight stays indicator reflects both length of
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stay and number of guests. Each additional day spent by the tourist in a different destination
other than the residence destination generally translates into important revenues and benefits
for the area in question: the increase of GDP level, revenues, employment rate, added value.
If we take into account aspects related to accessibility, we observe that the connections
between the variable motorway length and the variables arrivals and overnight stays are
direct, the values of the coefficient obtained being over 50% dependency (61.4% and 59.4%,
respectively).
Table 1. The Pearson correlation indices
GDP_PPSARRIVALSOVERNIGHTTOUR_ TOUR_TOUR_MTR_LENGTHRAI
STAYS INTENSITYGDP EMPL
** **
GDP_PPS 1 .646 .650 .352 .176 .593* .441 -.10
** ** ** *
ARRIVALS_MIL .646 1 .997 .358 -.317 .989 .614 -.10
** ** ** *
OVERNIGHTS_MIL.650 .997 1 .391 -.316 .982 .594 -.12
TOUR_INTENSITY .352 .358 .391 1 .052 .283 -.024 .108
TOUR_GDP .176 -.317 -.316 .052 1 -.375 -.048 .224
TOUR_EMPL .593* .989** .982** .283 -.375 1 .569* -.07
* * *
MTR_LENGTH .441 .614 .594 -.024 -.048 .569 1 .104
RAILW_LENGTH -.109 -.104 -.123 .108 .224 -.070 .104 1
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *. Correlation is significant at
the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Note: GDP_PPS = GDP per capita in PPS; ARRIVALS = total tourism arrivals
calculated as the sum of residents and non residents arrivals at a destination (country);
OVERNIGHT STAYS = total tourism overnight stays calculated as the sum of residents and
non residents overnight stays in a destination (country); TOUR_INTENSITY =
arrivals/population, TOUR_GDP = total contribution of tourism to GDP, representing the sum
of the value added generated by all industries in response to internal tourism consumption and
the amount of net taxes on products and imports included within the value of this expenditure;
TOUR_EMPL = total contribution of tourism to employment ; MTR_LENGTH = motor
length expressed in kilometers; RAILW_LENGTH = railway length expressed in kilometers.
Source: Author‘s representation based on Eurostat, WTTC and WTO databases
However, the relationship between the level of GDP and tourism flows goes both
ways. The GDP level of the destination areas represents an indicator of the economic
development in the receiving area and it is expected to influence the incoming tourism flows.
A high income region provides better quality public services, like health care, public transport
and law enforcement, which are important components of the product characteristics provided
to tourists (De la Mata and Llano-Verduras, 2012; Eilat and Einav, 2004). Despite new trends,
as people tend to explore isolated and untapped places of the great tourist flows, most tourists
still prefer areas with high concentrations of tourists, which usually rhymes with high income
countries, characterized by agglomeration economies, good market access, a diverse range of
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activities, traditions and tourism services and high accessibility to many opportunities, an
aspect noticed above in the scatter plot representation for Spain and Italy.
2.2.2 The correlation tourism – accessibility
In order to have a better view on the accessibility potential of the southern periphery
and the eastern one respectively, we employed hierarchical clusters (Figure 3 and Figure 4).
Source: Author‘s representation based on Eurostat data
Figure 2. Hierarchical cluster analysis – railway density Figure 3.
Hierarchical cluster analysis – motorway density
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As it can be observed, the country grouping took place in the conformity with
the national specificity, taking into account the elements describing the economic and spatial
peripherality, obtaining three clusters. By analyzing them it can be noticed that the railway
density (Figure 3) has the highest value in Poland. According to European research, with
Keeble‘s et al. (1982; 1988) most cited work, the western part of EU is more accessible being
characterized by two European central areas: one from London to northern Italy and one
between Paris and Berlin. This accessibility decreases towards east. Hence, the concentric
distribution of potential accessibility is maintained with respect to the economic nucleus of
the EU.
As stated in the literature, the performance of a region depends crucially on the
development and characteristics of neighboring regions (Fujita și Mori, 2005). Tourist
destinations that are close to developed areas with a high rate of growth, tend to be more
developed than the other peripheral destinations. Thus, Poland‘s position in the cluster
dendrogram (Figure 2) can be explained by its proximity to Western Europe. The greatest
motorway density belongs to Spain, aspect explained by the country‘s endowment with high
speed transport facilities.
Further it can be seen that most of the eastern countries are grouped together. These
countries are characterized by inadequate infrastructure, poor railways and roads and lack of
motorways and high-speed trains. Consequently, it can be said that the modest dynamic of the
eastern periphery is also largely due to factors such as spatiality, especially the accessibility of
tourist destinations. Further, this setback can be explained by the fact that the eastern
countries have long been under the influence of communism, a period when tourism was
firmly subordinated to political and ideological considerations and considered a foreign policy
tool rather than an instrument for economic development.
An essential requirement for the development of tourism and most sectors of the
economy is the development of a transport infrastructure, and adequate accessibility to the
surrounding areas. A transport infrastructure contributes to economic success based on
tourism. For a majority of tourists, good accessibility to a tourist destination is when the area
can be reached and explored, quickly, cheaply and comfortably (e.g. by car or using public
transport). Prideaux (2000) argues that a destination should be easy to get to and easy to travel
around the area. The importance of infrastructure in tourism development has been confirmed
also by empirical studies (Eugenio-Martìn Morales and Scarpa, 2004; Khadaroo and
Seetanah, 2007, 2008; Louca, 2006; Naudé and Saayman, 2005). Different types of
infrastructure are essential for tourism development because they provide location-specific
resources, upon which different types of tourism are based (Smith, 1994).
Accessibility is the main product of a transport system (Spiekermann and Neubauer,
2002), while being a direct expression of the mobility of people, goods and information. Well
developed and efficient transport systems provide a high level of accessibility, while the least
developed provides a low degree of accessibility, which implies a number of consequences
for the territories‘ opportunities - both economically and socially. Kaul (1985) stated that
„provision of suitable transport has transformed dead centers of tourist interest into active and
prosperous places attracting multitudes of people‖.
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Concluding remarks
The results of our study outlined the fact that the countries with a GDP per capita
under the EU average, but located near the development centers (see Poland‘s case), have a
different potential to build on their advantages in terms of tourism. Tourism growth is heavily
dependent on agglomeration economies that provide positive spatial spill-overs, good market
access and cost savings. Thus, tourism is affected not only by the destination‘s specific
features, but also by the characteristics of neighboring places. Furthermore, the role played by
accessibility and transport infrastructure respectively in influencing a destination‘s
development was discussed. Should the ability of tourists to travel to preferred destinations be
inhibited by inefficiencies in the transport system (including the internal transportation
system), there is some likelihood that they might search for alternative destinations. Hence,
we consider that the success or failure of a country resides also in its capacity to establish a
high accessibility potential, as the results of our study pointed out. Destinations at great
geographical distances from major centers are characterized by underdevelopment: inadequate
infrastructure, dependence on external demand, poor diversity of production and trade.
The vulnerability of developing countries from the east, especially in the actual
volatile international context, makes the reduction of the peripherality effect more difficult to
achieve. But even though the countries from the eastern periphery have a slower tourism
development rate than those in the south, through sustained efforts each must identify its
comparative advantage in terms of tourism. Since tourism is an industry which provides great
added value, supports economic and social development, territorial and sustainable balance,
and sustains the improvement of infrastructural conditions and business environment, the
eastern states must employ good management of the existing resources and efficient economic
policies.
The experience of the southern periphery showed that these countries could make up
for the EU enlargement towards south and have reduced the discrepancies in terms of tourism
development. The concern remaining now for the eastern periphery is the measure in which
the countries from this region have the ability to capitalize and send experience towards south.
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SMES FINANCIAL REPORTING AND ENTREPRENEURS CONCERN FOR
FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
Maria Mădălina Buculescu (Costică), PhD Student, University of Economic
Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: Some previous studies highlighted that accounting firms usually provide routine
service to the clients and owner-manager often find it hard to follow accounting reports
prepared in accordance with the generally accepted accounting rules. Moreover, through our
study we aim to understand to what extent Romanian owners-managers are concerned about
financial accounting information regarding position and performance of their SMEs. Also our
purpose is to find what type of financial accounting information is most often required by the
entrepreneurs to the professional accountants and if professional accountants considered
appropriate reporting under national regulations in relation to the requirements and needs of
entrepreneurs. To reach our objectives we sent an on-line questionnaire to professional
accountants (CECCAR members) asking them to establish key financial accounting
information mostly asked by the entrepreneurs. Thus, we conclude that owners- managers
are interested in a great extent of the tax liability and cash amount and second about the rest
of the accounting and financial information that reflects situations/information about
company position and performance. This could be consequence of the fact that in practice, the
professional accountant is the one who determines and communicates frequently to owner-
manager tax liabilities they have to pay.
Keywords: Financial reporting, professional accountants, small and medium sized
enterprises (SMEs), financial accounting information, owner-manager
1. Aspecte și tendințe privind raportarea financiară a IMM-urilor la nivel European și
internațional
La nivel european, Comisia Europeană evaluează importanța IMM-urilor considerând
trei indicatori de performanță: numărul IMM-urilor, valoarea adaugată generată și numărul
personalului angajat în cadrul acestora.
Cel mai recent raport al Comisiei Europene privind performanțele IMM-urilor la
nivelul Uniunii Europene (European Commision, A Partial and Fragile Recovery, Annual
Report on European SMEs 2013/2014) dezvăluie impactul semnificativ al IMM-urilor în
economia Europeană. Conform raportului, în anul 2013 sectorul non-financiar de afaceri a
fost dominat de numărul IMM-urilor, aproximativ 90 de milioane de oameni au fost angajați
in cadrul acestora, iar valoarea adaugată generată de IMM-uri a reprezentat 28% din PIB-ul
aferent celor 28 de țări componente ale UE. Astfel, cele peste 20 de milioane de IMM-uri din
Uniunea Europeană reprezintă 99% din totalul afacerilor si sunt caracterizate ca fiind un
factor cheie pentru creșterea economică și ocuparea forței de muncă.
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Recomandarea 2003/361/CE adoptată in anul 2003 de către Comisia Europeană, care a
intrat in vigoare începând cu anul 2005 la nivelul statelor membre a definit criteriile
cantitative de încadrare a IMM-urilor. Astfel, s-a dorit armonizarea definirii acestora la
nivelul statelor membre. Conform Recomandării 2003/361/CE, Comisia Europeană clasifică
întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii în funcţie de: numărul mediu de salariaţi şi de cifra de afaceri
anuală netă sau activele totale pe care le deţin, în următoarele categorii:
- microîntreprinderi – au până la 9 salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri anuală netă
sau deţin active totale de până la 2 milioane de euro, echivalent în lei;
- întreprinderi mici – au între 10 şi 49 de salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri anuală
netă sau deţin active totale de până la 10 milioane de euro, echivalent în lei;
- întreprinderi mijlocii - au între 50 şi 249 de salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri
anuală netă de până la 50 milioane de euro, echivalent în lei, sau deţin active totale
care nu depăşesc echivalentul în lei a 43 milioane de euro.
Deși baza contabilității și raportarea financiară a întreprinderilor în cadrul UE o
reprezintă Directivele Europene, la nivelul Uniunii se fac eforturi pentru simplificarea
raportării financiare a IMM-urilor având în vedere că la nivel statelor membre ale Uniunii
Europene sistemul contabil pentru întreprinderile mici variază destul de mult și sunt unele ţări
unde nu există reglementări contabile, dar şi ţări unde reglementările contabile sunt relativ
stricte pentru entităţile mici (Comisia Europeană, 2008).
Totuși, Comisia Europeană (2008) recomandă întreprinderilor mici întocmirea celor
mai importante jurnale referitoare la vânzări și cumpărări, registrul de casa, informații privind
încasările și plățile, clienți și furnizori, registrul jurnal general și informații privind ștatele de
salarii și obligațiile de plată ale salariaților (dacă este cazul), întocmirea contabilității în
partida dublă, utilizarea formatelor simplificate pentru situațiile financiare, întocmirea
situațiilor previzionale pentru încasări și plăți (cash-flow), aplicarea principiului contabilității
de angajamente, a principiului independenței exercițiului, a imaginii fidele și folosirea unui
plan de conturi general (Comisia Europeană, 2008).
In anul 2013, Comisia Europeană a elaborat Directiva 2013/34/UE a Parlamentului
European și a Consiliului ce abroga cele două Directive Europene (a IV-a si a VII-a). Noua
Directivă 2013/34/UE are ca scop reducerea sarcinii administrative a IMM-urilor și asigurarea
că raportarea întreprinderilor mici este, în mare măsură, armonizată la nivelul Uniunii.
Directiva 2013/34/UE, prevede, de asemenea și clasificarea întreprinderilor din punct
de vedere contabil pe categorii, astfel:
- microîntreprinderi au până la 9 salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri anuală netă de
700.000 euro sau deţin active totale de până la 350.000 euro, echivalent în lei;
- întreprinderi mici – au între 10 şi 49 de salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri anuală
netă de 8 milioane de euro sau deţin active totale de până la 4 milioane de euro,
echivalent în lei;
- întreprinderi mijlocii - au între 50 şi 249 de salariaţi şi realizează o cifră de afaceri
anuală netă de până la 40 milioane de euro, echivalent în lei, sau deţin active totale
care nu depăşesc echivalentul în lei a 20 milioane de euro.
Astfel, dacă Directiva 2013/34/UE, se va aplica așa cum este prevăzut, începand cu
situațiile financiare aferente anului 2016, va reprezenta într-adevar o oarecare echilibrare a
raportării financiare, prin reducerea poverii administrative, în balanța IMM-urilor, având în
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vedere că această directivă prevede doar întocmirea unui bilant prescurtat pentru
microîntreprinderi, iar întreprinderile mici pot fi scutite de obligația publicării contului de
profit si pierdere, scutirile privind cerințele de raportare financiară fiind însă lasate la
latitudinea statelor membre.
La nivel internațional, în anul 2009 IASB (International Accounting Standard Board) a
publicat standardul Standardul International de Raportare Financiară pentru Intreprinderi Mici
si Mijlocii (IFRS pentru IMM-uri), care are forma unui standard independent, ce cuprinde
anumite simplificări față de setul IFRS-urilor complete. Astfel, existența standardului IFRS
pentru IMM-uri este un raspuns la efectele procesului de globalizare, care a luat o mare
amploare în ultimele decenii și reprezintă dorința IASB de a elabora un standard special
adresat întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii care să poată fi aplicat de orice țară, în vederea
eliminării diferențelor de raportare financiară. In Europa, sunt ezitări în ceea ce priveste
adoptarea IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri, în timp ce IASB promovează costant adoptarea acestuia
la nivel global.
Comisia Europeană respinge aplicarea IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri argumentând că
acest standard nu servește obiectivului simplificării raportării financiare și reducerii poverii
administrative a IMM-urilor. (Comisia Europeană, 2013).
Incepând cu anul 2009, de când IASB a elaborat IFRS-ul pentru IMM-uri până în
prezent, la nivel global, 69 de țări au implementat IFRS-ul pentru IMM-uri sub diverse forme,
astfel (IFRS, 2014):
a. implementare obligatorie a IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri (8 țări impun aplicarea IFRS
pentru IMM-uri pentru toate entitățile care nu raportează conform întregului set de
standarde IAS-IFRS);
b. implementare voluntară (61 de țări permit aplicarea IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri):
b.1. 44 de țări permit IMM-urilor alternativa de a raporta conform întregului set IAS-
IFRS în loc de IFRS pentru IMM-uri;
b.2. 16 țări permit IMM-urilor alternativa de a raporta fie conform întregului set IAS-
IFRS sau reglementărilor naționale în loc de IFRS pentru IMM-uri;
b.3. o țară permite IMM-urilor alternativa de a raporta conform reglementărilor
naționale dacă nu dorește raportarea conform IFRS pentru IMM-uri.
Conform IFRS (2014) din cele 69 de jurisdicții care au ales fie aplicarea obligatorie
sau cea voluntara a IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri, 6 se regăsesc în continentul European: Bosnia
și Hertegovina, Macedonia, Elveția, Marea Britanie, Irlanda și Serbia. Dacă Macedonia,
Elveția și Serbia au permis implementarea IFRS-ului pentru IMM-uri fără a interveni cu vreo
modificare în conținutul standarduui, Irlanda și Marea Britanie au impus anumite modificări
în conformitate cu anumite prevederi ale directivelor europene, având în vedere că aceste
două state sunt membre UE.
Așadar, putem observa ca atât la nivel global, cât și la nivel European se fac eforturi
pentru armonizarea și susținerea raportării financiare a IMM-urilor și reducerea poverii
administrative a acestora, având in vedere importanța IMM-urilor in economie.
2. Raportarea financiară a IMM-urilor în Romania
In prezent, la nivel național, entitățile românești întocmesc situații financiare în
conformitate cu OMFP nr. 3055/2009, pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor contabile conforme
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cu directivele contabile europene. OMFP nr. 3055/2099 prevede aspecte cu privire la
formatul, conținutul și dispoziții generale ale situațiilor financiare anuale, utilizatorii și
caracteristicile calitative ale situațiilor financiare, principiile contabile generale, reguli de
evaluare etc.
In Romania, încă din anul 2001 s-au făcut eforturi pentru crearea unui sistem contabil
şi de impunere simplificat adresat microîntreprinderilor, astfel prin Ordinul nr. 1880/2001
pentru aprobarea Normelor metodologice privind organizarea şi conducerea contabilităţii
microîntreprinderilor a fost specificat un plan de conturi simplificat pentru microîntreprinderi,
precum şi transpunerea acestora, şi de asemenea, modele de bilanţ şi cont de profit şi pierdere
însă peste nici doi ani acest ordin a fost abrogat.
In final, pentru sprijinirea raportării financiare a IMM-urilor, a fost emis Ordinul nr.
2239/2011, pentru aprobarea sistemului simplificat de contabilitate. Pentru aplicarea acestui
ordin, şi respectiv pentru sistemul simplificat de contabilitate pot opta entităţile a căror cifra
de afaceri netă şi total active sunt situate sub limita de 35.000 euro fiecare. Reglementările
contabile simplificate cuprind principiile contabile şi regulile de recunoaştere, evaluare şi
prezentare a elementelor în situaţiile financiare anuale simplificate, regulile de întocmire a
situaţiilor financiare anuale simplificate, formatul şi conţinutul situaţiilor financiare anuale
simplificate, planul de conturi simplificat, precum şi conţinutul şi funcţiunea conturilor
contabile (Ord. Nr. 2239/2011, art. (1), alin. 3).
In Romania însa nu există un standard special adresat IMM-urilor și nu sunt prevăzute
criterii contabile de încadrare a entităților pe mărimi (microîntreprinderi, întreprinderi mici și
întreprinderi mijlocii), ci există doar o delimitare a raportării fie întocmind setul complet sau
setul prescurtat al situațiilor financiare în funcție criteriile de mărime specificate conform
OMFP 3055/2009. Astfel în Romania, entitățile care depășesc două din următoarele 3 criterii
de mărime: numărul de salariați mai mic de 50, cifra de afaceri mai mică de 7,3 milioane de
euro și active totale de 3,65 milioane de euro, întocmesc întreg setul de situații financiare, iar
entitățile care nu depășesc aceste criterii întocmesc setul prescurtat de situații financiare.
3. Nevoile antreprenorilor privind informația contabilă
Ismail și Zin (2009:6) consideră ca utilizarea informațiilor contabile în randul IMM-
urilor este destul de redusă, iar în timp ce unele întreprinderi au deprins competența de a
procesa aceste informații, multe întreprinderi încă nu înțeleg importanța informațiilor
financiar-contabile.
Având în vedere studiile precedente, Marriot și Marriot (2000:476) consideră că în
cazul companiilor mici, situațiile financiare sunt întocmite pentru îndeplinirea obligațiilor
administrative, dar relevența unei astfel de raportări externe este greu de identificat pentru
managerii/proprietarii afacerilor.
Marriot și Marriot (2000:476), consideră ca doar producerea situațiilor financiare
obligatorii nu aduce nici un plus de valoare întreprinderilor mici, de aceea este necesar ca
profesioniștii contabili să ofere și servicii de contabilitate managerială, care sunt considerate
mult mai folositoare întreprinderilor. Nandan (2010) de asemenea, consideră ca IMM-urile au
nevoie pe lângă serviciile financiar contabile de raportare obligatorii primite de la contabili și
de consultanță privind informațiile manageriale și de gestiune.
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Lybaert (1998:171) sugerează ca există o relație directă între frecvența informațiilor
utilizate și performanță IMM-urilor.
Avand in vedere ca în Romania statul este considerat cel mai important utilizator al
situațiilor financiare, putem constata că de obicei entitățile produc situații financiare cu scopul
îndeplinirii sarcinii administrative, însă în mod complementar, de producerea informațiilor și
a situațiilor financiar contabile ar trebui să beneficieze în primul rând managerii/proprietarii
întreprinderilor dacă se dorește creșterea performanței întreprinderilor.
4. Metodologia cercetarii
In practică, de regulă, se observă că profesioniștii contabili sunt preocupați in princial
de îndeplinirea cerințelor administrative prevazute de către Administratiile fiscale (depunerea
declarațiilor, stabilirea taxelor și impozitelor, a întocmirii situațiilor financiare etc.) și astfel
timpul alocat analizei informațiilor aferente contabilității manageriale (ca de exemplu, analiza
unor structuri contabile: active, datorii, capitaluri, cheltuieli, venituri, rezultat, calculul unor
indicatori de performanță, a întocmirii unor bugete etc.) poate fi redus.
Pentru a întelege tipurile de informații solicitate de către antreprenori contabililor, a
evaluarii interesului managerilor/propretarilor privind informațiile financiar-contabile și de
asemenea determinării opiniei contabililor privind anumite aspecte ale raportării financiare a
IMM-urilor s-au fixat următoarele obiective:
Obiectivul nr. 1 Stabilirea principalelor informații financiar-contabile solicitate cel
mai des profesioniștilor contabili (membrii CECCAR) de către
antreprenorii/managerii/proprietarii IMM-urillor in vederea stabilirii nevoilor
acestora.
Obiectivul nr. 2 Caracterizarea de către profesioniștii contabili a gradului de
interes al antreprenorilor față de informațiile/situațiile financiar-contabile
(frecvența cu care acestea sunt solicitate).
Obiectivul nr. 3 Evaluarea de către profesioniștii contabili a utilității raportării
financiare conform reglementărilor naționale în raport cu cerințele antreprenorilor.
Asfel, pentru a afla părerea experților contabili si contabililor autorizați (membrii
CECCAR) referitor la anumite aspecte privind raportarea financiară a IMM-urilor a fost
elaborat un chestionar. Primele intrebări adresate profesioniștilor contabili se referă la
informații generale privind profilul membrilor CECCAR (varsta, sex, adresă email),
experiența contabililor autorizați în cadrul Corpului Expertilor Contabili si a Contabililor
Autorizati din Romania (CECCAR), modalitatea în care aceștia își desfașoară activitatea
(contabil angajat/liber profesionist). Următoarea secțiune a chestionarului include intrebări
referitoare la gradul de satisfacție privind prevederile reglementărilor contabile naționale
OMFP (3055/2009) pentru raportarea financiară a IMM-urilor, dacă este necesară definirea
unor cerințe specifice de raportare fianciară aferentă fiecarei categorii de IMM-uri, care sunt
informațiile/situațiile financiar-contabile cel mai des solicitate de catre
antreprenorii/managerii IMM-urilor, cum caracterizează membrii CECCAR interesul
antreprenorilor față de informațiile/situațiile financiar-contabile (în funcție de frecvența cu
care acestea sunt solicitate), cum evaluează membrii CECCAR utilitatea raportării financiare
conform reglementărilor naționale în raport cu cerințele antreprenorilor/managerilor privind
informația contabilă și alte întrebări cu privire la IFRS pentru IMM-uri. Ultima parte a
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chestionarului cuprinde intrebări referitoare la agrearea anumitor practici contabile aferente
imobilizarile corporale.
Chestionarul a fost distribuit on-line, în perioada Iulie-August 2014, unui număr de
4.000 de e-mailuri ale membrilor CECCAR, atât persoane fizice cât si societăți de
contabilitate și expertiză contabilă în vederea obținerii unui eșantion reprezentativ pentru
cercetarea întreprinsă. In final, au fost colectate un numar de 90 de răspunsuri.
Avand în vedere că numărul membrilor CECCAR, persoane fizice și societăți de
contabilitate se situează în jur de 40.000, iar eșantionul obținut a fost de 90 de respondenți, a
fost calculata o eroare de eșantionare de ± 10,3 %, pentru un interval de incredere de 95%.
5. Rezultatele obținute
Numărul respondenților a fost de 90 dintre care 30 de bărbați și 60 de femei, cu o
vârstă medie a respondenților de 48,4 ani. Peste 50% dintre respondenți au o experiență mai
mare de 15 ani în cadrul CECCAR. 45,7 % (48 de respondenți) își desfașoara activitatea ca și
liber profesioniști, 26,7% (28 de respondenți) lucrează în cadrul unui departament financiar-
contabil al unei societăți comerciale, 19% (20 de respondenți) iși defășoara activitatea în
cadrul unei societăți de contabilitate și expertiză contabilă, iar 8,6% (9 respondenți) iși
desfășoara activitatea alte domenii decât contabilitatea societăților comerciale. De menționat
ca unii respondenți iși desfasoara activitatea in mai multe locuri.
Obiectivul nr. 1 In ceea ce privește obiectivul nr. 1, s-a concluzionat că profesioniștii
contabili (membrii CECCAR) consideră că cele mai frecvent solicitate informații de către
antreprenorii/managerii/proprietarii IMM-urilor în relația profesională desfașurată, sunt cele
care se referă în special la obligațiile fiscale, respectiv informații/situații privind TVA–ul
(11,54%), informații/situații privind impozitului pe profit (10,3%), informații/situații privind
nivelul contribuțiilor salariale (8,89%). Acest lucru poate fi explicat ca și consecință a
faptului ca în practică, în cele mai multe cazuri, profesionistul contabil este cel care determină
și comunică antreprenorului/managerului valoarea obligațiilor fiscale de plată. De asemenea,
se observă că informații privind situații ale furnizorilor și clienților (8,58%), și informații
privind nivelul disponibilităților in general (5,93%) sunt solicitate mai frecvent decât alte
informații financiar-contabile.
Astfel, putem concluziona că de regula, antreprenorii/managerii sunt interesați în
măsura mai mare de nivelul obligațiilor fiscale și a informațiilor privind disponibilitătile în
general și dupa aceea de restul informațiilor financiar contabile care reflectă situații/informații
privind poziția și performanța întreprinderii ca de exemplu : nivelul veniturilor si cheltuielilor
realizate (7,96%), tipurile și detalierea cheltuielilor (5,46%), informații/situații privind nivelul
profitului (7,02%), informații privind anumiți indicatori financiari (5,46%), informații/situații
privind stocul și valoarea acestuia (5,46%).
Tabelul nr. 1. Tipurile de informații solicitate cel mai frecvent de catre
proprietari/manageri
Nr Tipul de informații solicitate %
. (Raspunsuri multiple) Numărul
rapunsurilor
1 Informații/Situații săptamânale/lunare privind nivelul veniturilor si 51 7.96
cheltuielilor
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2 Informații/Situații saptamanele/lunare privind stocul si valoarea acestuia 35 5.46
3 Informații/Situații săptamânale/lunare privind situația furnizorilor si 55 8.58
clientilor si scadentele implicite
4 Informații/Situații saptamanele/lunare privind nivelul plăților si încasarilor 43 6.71
5 Informații/Situații privind nivelul disponibilităților 38 5.93
6 Informații/Situații lunare/trimestriale privind situația TVA 74 11.5
4
7 Informații/Situații trimestriale/anuale privind impozitul pe profit 66 10.3
0
8 Informații/Situații saptamanele/lunare privind tipurile si detalierea 35 5.46
cheltuielior
9 Informații/Situații saptamanele/lunare privind costurile pe tipul de produse 16 2.50
10 Situații previzionale privind incasarile si platile 31 4.84
11 Informații/Situații privind nivelul profitului 45 7.02
12 Informații/Situații privind nivelul amortizarilor 19 2.96
13 Informații/Situații lunare/trimestriale privind nivelul contribuțiilor salariale 57 8.89
14 Informații/Situații saptamanele/lunare privind nivelul consumurilor 18 2.81
efectuate
15 Informații/Situații saptamane/lunare privind nivelul productiei realizate 17 2.65
16 Informații/Situații privind anumiti indicatori financiari 35 5.46
17 Nici o situatie 3 0.47
18 Alte situații (de exemplificat) 3 0.47
Total 641 100
Tabelul nr. 2 Tipurile de informații (pe fiecare tip de respondent) solicitate de catre
proprietar/manager
Tip 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 12 13 1 15 1 1 18
informație 0 1 4 6 7
% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %
Procent
Loc
activitate
Societate 4 2 4 4 3 90 8 30 1 2 4 15 70 1 25 5 0 5
expertiză 0 5 0 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
contabilă
Departamen 7 5 7 6 6 79 7 54 3 5 5 29 64 2 28 3 4 4
t 1 4 1 1 8 1 2 0 0 9 9
financiar
contabil
Liber 5 4 6 3 3 87 7 33 1 2 5 21 69 1 15 2 6 2
profesionist 2 4 7 5 7 5 0 7 0 5 9
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Considerând gruparea respondenților pe fiecare tip de desfașurare al activității
acestora, respectiv: societate expertiză contabilă (19% din respondenți), departament financiar
(26,7% din respondenți) si liber profesionist (45,7% din respondenți), (restul de 8.6% dintre
respondenți activând în alte domenii de activitate decât contabilitatea societăților comerciale)
am obsevat că în rândul profesioniștilor contabili care lucrează într-un departament financiar
contabil al unei societăți comerciale, tipurile de informații solicitate acestora de către
antreprenori sunt mult mai diversificate, iar informații precum: nivelul veniturilor și
cheltuielilor, informații/situații săptamânale/lunare privind stocul și valoarea acestuia,
informații/situații saptămânale/lunare privind situația furnizorilor si clientilor si scadentele
implicite, informații/situații saptamanele/lunare privind nivelul plăților si incasarilor,
informații/situații privind nivelul disponibilitatilor sunt mai des solicitate decât în celelalte
cazuri. Aceasta observație poate fi fundamentată și din practică, având în vedere că de regulă,
entitățile care au înființat un departament financiar-contabil sunt de regulă mai mari și este de
asteptat ca un profesionist contabil care lucrează intr-un departament financiar-contabil al
unei entităși se ocupă exclusiv de acea entitate și întocmește mai multe situații și analize
financiar-contabile decât in cazul spre exemplu al unui profesionist contabil care lucrează în
cadrul unei societăți de contabilitate si furnizează servicii financiar-contabile mai multor
întreprinderi. Conform tabelului, se observă că în cazul profesioniștilor contabili ce activează
în societăți de contabilitate și expertiză contabilă informațiile financiare solicitate de către
antreprenori se limitează mai mult la cele de natura fiscală.
Obiectivul nr. 2. Pentru atingerea celui de-al doilea obiectiv, membrii CECCAR au
fost rugați să acorde un scor de la 1 la 7 (1=« Interes foarte mic »,7 = « Interes foarte mare »)
în funcție de frecvența solicitării informațiilor financiar contabile de către profesioniștii
contabili (membrii CECCAR) pentru a putea stabili în acest fel, modul în care profesioniștii
contabili (membrii CECCAR) caracterizează interesul antreprenorilor față de
informațiile/situațiile financiar contabile solicitate. Pe baza raspunsurilor furnizate, printre cei
90 de respondenți, scorul mediu a fost de 4,36 (in scala de la 1 la 7). Asadar, profesioniștii
contabili consideră interesul antreprenorilor/managerilor IMM-urilor vis a vis de
informațiile/situațiile financiar-contabile ca fiind unul mai degraba mare.
Tabelul nr. 3. Caracterizarea interesului antreprenorilor față de
informațiile/situațiile financiar-contabile
Caracterizarea interesului
antreprenorilor față de
informațiile/situațiile financiar-
Statistică contabile
Nr. Respondenți 90
Minim 1.000
Maxim 7.000
1 Quartilă 3.000
Mediana 4.000
a 3-a Quartilă 6.000
Media 4.356
Dispersia (n-1) 3.243
Abaterea 1.801
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Standard (n-1)
Sursa: calculele autorului folosind Excel XLSTAT
Obiectivul nr. 3. Prin stabilirea celui de-al 3-lea obiectiv, se dorește evaluarea de către
membrii CECCAR a utilității raportării financiare conform reglementărilor naționale în raport
cu cerințele antreprenorilor/managerilor. De asemenea, pentru atingerea acestui obiectiv,
membrii CECCAR au fost rugați sa acorde un scor de la 1 la 7 (1=« Inutilă » , 7 = « Utilă »)
in funcție de măsura în care aceștia consideră adecvată raportarea financiară conform
reglementărilor naționale (OMFP 3055/2009) in raport cu cerințele și nevoile antreprenorilor.
Printre cei 90 de respondenți, scorul mediu a fost de 4,32 (în scala Likert de la 1 la 7), ceea ce
sugerează că profesioniștii contabili (membrii CECCAR) consideră adecvată raportarea
financiară conform reglementărilor naționale în raport cu cerințele si nevoile antreprenorilor
IMM-urilor.
Tabelul nr. 4. Evaluarea utilitatii raportării financiare in raport cu cerințele
antreprenorilor/managerilor privind informația contabilă/financiară
Evaluarea utilitatii raportării
Statistică financiare
Nr. respondenți 90
Minim 1.000
Maxim 7.000
1 Quartilă 3.000
Mediana 4.000
a 3-a Quartilă 6.000
Media 4.322
Dispersia (n-1) 3.165
Abaterea
Standard (n-1) 1.779
Sursa: calculele autorului folosind Excel XLSTAT
6. Concluzii
Conform studiilor anterioare s-a constatat importanța utilizării informației contabile de
către managerii/proprietarii IMM-urilor. Așadar, prin acest studiu am dorit să aflam ce
informații financiar-contabile sunt cel mai des solicitate experților contabili de către
managerii/proprietarii întreprinderilor și dacă profesioniștii contabili consideră raportarea
financiară conform reglementărilor românești adecvată în raport cu cerințele și nevoile
antreprenorilor.
Din studiul întreprins s-a constatat că, de regulă, managerii/proprietarii sunt interesați
în mare masură de informațiile fiscale și de cele privind disponibilitățile, și după aceea de
informații manageriale care sa reflecte poziția și performanță întreprinderii. Totuși aceste
rezultate ar putea avea drept consecință faptul că în practică expertul contabil este cel care
determină și comunică proprietarului/managerului obligațiile de plată.
In general, chiar dacă profesioniștii contabili evaluează interesul antreprenorilor pentru
informațiile financiar-contabile ca fiind unul relativ ridicat, este important ca și din partea
profesioniștilor contabili să existe un interes mai mare în furnizarea informațiilor privind
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contabilitatea managerială către antreprenori/manageri și nu doar limitarea la întocmirea
raportării administrative cerute de către stat.
Acknowledgement
Această lucrare a fost realizată în cadrul proiectului POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115 cu
titlul "Performanţă şi excelenţă în cercetarea doctorală şi postdoctorală în domeniul ştiinţelor
economice din România", cofinanțat din Fondul Social European prin intermediul
Programului Operațional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007 – 2013
Bibliografie:
Comisia Europeană (2013), Directiva 2013/34/UE A a Parlamentului European si a
Consiliului din 26 iunie 2013 privind situațiile financiare anuale, situațiile financiare
consolidate și rapoartele conexe ale anumitor tipuri de întreprinderi, de modificare a
Directivei 2006/43/CE a Parlamentului European și a Consiliului și de abrogare a Directivelor
78/660/CEE și 83/349/CEE ale Consiliului: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
content/RO/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32013L0034&from=EN
European Commission (2008), Final Report of the Expert Group Accounting Systems
for Small Enterprises - Recommendations and Good Practices, Enterprise and Industry
Directorate-General, Promotion of SMEs‘ competitiveness:
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/files/craft/accounting/doc/accounting_systems_rep
ort_en.pdf
European Commission (2013), Financial reporting obligations for limited liability
companies (Accounting Directive) – frequently asked questions
European Commision (2014), Annual Report on European SMEs 2013/2014 – A
Partial and Fragile Recovery Final Report -July 2014:
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/facts-figures-analysis/performance-
review/files/supporting-documents/2014/annual-report-smes-2014_en.pdf
European Commision (2014), Annual Report on European SMEs 2013/2014 – A
Partial and Fragile Recovery Final Report -July 2014, SME Performance Review 2013/2014:
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sme/index_ro.htm
IFRS (2014) Analysis of the IFRS profiles for IFRS for SMEs:
http://www.ifrs.org/Use-around-the-world/Pages/Analysis-of-SME-profiles.aspx
IFRS (2014) Jurisdiction Profiles: http://www.ifrs.org/Use-around-the-
world/Pages/Jurisdiction-profiles.aspx
Ismail, N. A., Zin, R. M. (2009), Usage of Accounting Information among Malaysian
Bumiputra Small and Medium Non Manufacturing Firms, Journal of Enterprise Resource
Planning Studies, IBIMA Publishing, Vol. 2009, Article ID 101113
Lybaert, N. (1998), The Information Use in a SME: Its Importance and Some
Elements of Influence, Small Business Economics, Vol. 10, Nr. 2:171-191
Marriott, N., Marriott, P. (2000), Professional accountants and the development of a
management accounting service for thesmall firm: barriers and possibilities, Management
Accounting Research, Vol. 11: 475–492
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Nandan, R. (2010), Management Accounting Needs of SMEs and the Role of
Professional Accountants: A Renewed Research Agenda, JAMAR Vol. 8, Nr. 1: 65-77
Ordinul nr. 1880/2001 pentru aprobarea Normelor metodologice privind organizarea şi
conducerea contabilităţii microîntreprinderilor
OMFP 2239/2011 – Aprobarea Sistemului simplificat de contabilitate
OMFP Nr. 3055/ 2009 pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor contabile conforme cu
directivele europene
Recomandarea nr. 361/2003 privind definirea microîntreprinderilor şi a
întreprinderilor mici şi mijlocii
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REPRESENTATIVE MODELS OF ONLINE CONSUMER BEHAVIOR AND
SATISFACTION: A REVIEW
Maria-Cristiana Munthiu, Assoc. Prof., PhD, IFAG, Ecole Supérieure de
Management, Amiens, France
Abstract: The online environment has caused real transformations in consumer behavior.
Therefore, marketers, in order to keep their clients satisfied at the highest level possible,
should acknowledge these mutations, integrate the online component in all their activities and
react accordingly. In recent years, specialists and researchers have come up with a series of
behavioral models and typologies which reflect these profound changes. Even if there has not
been a model set as framework, this article aims at making a retrospective, a synthetized
review of the main models of online consumer behavior and satisfaction. The factors which
influence online behavior, as well as the relation between e-service quality perception and
satisfaction are also presented.
Keywords: Consumer behavior, model, satisfaction, online, service quality, perception.
1. Introducere
Cunoaşterea de până acum a comportamentului consumatorului online s-a bazat pe
modele ca: TAM (Technology Acceptance Model), una dintre dezvoltările teoriei acţiunilor
motivate TRA (Theory of Reasoned Action, conform lui Fishbein, 1975) existent în literatura
de specialitate şi conceput de către Davis şi Bagozzi în 1989. Modelul TAM cuprinde două
măsuri de acceptare a tehnologiei: uşurinţa de utilizare şi utilitatea. Ambele modele au
elemente comportamentale puternice şi pornesc de la presupunerea că atunci când o persoană
intenţionează să reacţioneze, aceasta va putea s-o facă fără limită. Trebuie menţionate şi TPB
(Theory of Planned Behavior, Ajzen, 1991), respectiv IDT (Innovation Difussion Theory,
Rogers, 1983) şi ECT (Expectation-Confirmation Theory, Oliver, 1980).
Un alt model este UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology)
care consideră ca elemente fundamentale următoarele: aşteptarea performanţei, aşteptarea
efortului, influenţa socială şi condiţiile benefice, acestea determinând direct intenţia de
folosinţă şi comportamentul (Venkatesch et al., 2003). În continuare specificitatea fiecărui
model va fi prezentată.
2. Modele reprezentative de comportament și de satisfacție a utilizatorului de
servicii online
Modelul TAM – Modelul acceptării tehnologiei este unul de referință în ceea ce
privește managementul sistemelor informatice (inclusiv comportamentul consumatorului
online) și a fost conceput cu scopul de a putea face previziuni despre acceptarea tehnologiei,
care se referă la starea psihologică a individului în legătură cu utilizarea intenționată a
tehnologiei.
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Are la bază modelul TRA și pornește de la ipoteza că folosirea tehnologiei este
determinată în mod direct de intenția comportamentală de utilizare, care este influențată de
atitudinea pe care oamenii o au față de utilizarea sistemului. Modelul TRA este redat în figura
1.
Figura 1. Teoria Acțiunii Raționale (Theory of Reasoned Action)
Credinţe şi
Atitudinea
evaluări
Intențiile Comportamentul
comportamentale manifest
Credinţe
Norma
normative şi
subiectivă
motivația
Sursa : Legris, P., Ingham, J. și Collerette, P. 2003. Why do people use information
technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model, Information și
Management, 40 (2003), p. 192.
Intenția comportamentală este o măsură a puterii dorinței sau disponibilității unei
personae de a încerca și de a exercita un efort, în timp ce manifestă anumite comportamente
(Ajzen, 1991). Atitudinea este definită ca o evaluare favorabilă sau nefavorabilă a unei
persoane cu referire la un anumit comportament (Fishbein și Ajzen, 1975, Davis et al.,1989).
O atitudine descrie evaluările relativ consistente ale unei persoane, sentimentele şi tendinţele
privitoare la un obiect sau o idee. Atitudinile prezintă un număr de reacții constante față de un
anumit obiect social, având trei dimensiuni: afectivă (dispoziția favorabilă sau nefavorabilă
față de un anumit obiect social), cognitivă (cunoașterea sau ignorarea obiectului în cauză) și
conativă (intenția fermă de a acționa sau de a se comporta într-un anumit mod față de obiect)
(Cătoiu și Teodorescu, 2004, p. 75).
Modelul TAM se bazează astfel pe intenția comportamentală și pe atitudine ca și
variabile pshihologice ale oricărui individ, care sunt determinate de utilitatea percepută și de
ușurința în utilizare a tehnologiei, după cum reiese din figura 2.
Figura 2. Modelul Acceptării Tehnologiei (Technology Acceptance Model)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Sursa : Legris, P., Ingham, J. și Collerette, P. 2003. Why do people use information
technology? A critical review of the technology acceptance model, Information și
Management, 40 (2003), p. 193.
În esență, modelul TAM teoretizează faptul că intenția comportamentală a unui
individ de a adopta o anumită tehnologie este determinată de atitudinea persoanei în ceea ce
privește utilizarea tehnologiei. Atitudinea, la rândul ei, este determinată de două variabile:
utilitatea percepută și ușurința percepută în utilizare.
Modelul TAM a fost mult analizat și chiar extins de-a lungul timpului. De exemplu,
Venkatesch și Davis (2000) au dezvoltat un model TAM extins, care include procese
cognitive instrumentale și procese sociale de influență. Kulviwat et al. (2007) consideră că
prin includerea părții afective și a cunoașterii în acest model se pot anticipa deciziile de
adoptare a tehnologiei. Lancelot Miltgen et al. (2013) analizează acceptarea individuală a
tehnicilor biometrice de identificare, măsurând intenția de a accepta și de a recomanda
tehnologia rezultată dintr-un set de variabile atent selecționate.
Modelul CAT (Consumer Acceptance of Technology) – Modelul acceptării
tehnologiei de către consumatori a fost propus de Kulviwat et al. (2007) și este o extindere
a modelului TAM prin adăugarea teoriei PAD (pleasure, arousal and dominance – plăcere,
incitare și dominare) propusă de Mehrabian-Russell în 1974. Potrivit acestor autori, modelul
TAM a fost dezvoltat pentru a înțelege acceptarea noilor tehnologii de către angajați,
concentrându-se mai mult pe cunoaștere decât pe reacție emotivă, fără a lua în considerare
așa-zisul paradox tehnologic propus de Mick și Fournier (1989), conform căruia consumatorii
se confruntă cu stări emoționale contradictorii atunci când răspund la inovații tehnologice.
Accentul pus pe cunoaștere poate fi potrivit în context organizațional, unde adoptarea este
impusă și utilizatorii au puține opțiuni de a se decide. În ceea ce privește consumatorii
individuali, este o explicație insuficientă întrucât utilizatorii potențiali sunt în acest caz liberi
să adopte sau să respingă noile tehnologii bazându-se pe ceea ce simt și pe ceea ce gândesc.
Aceiași autori sunt de părere că specialiștii în marketing, cu cât iau mai mult în considerare
emoțiile, cu atât vor avea mai mult succes în crearea și promovarea produselor și serviciilor
online.
Teoria PAD (Mehrabian-Russell, 1974) se bazează pe psihologia mediului
înconjurător și consideră că toate răspunsurile emoționale la mediu înconjurător, fizic sau
social, pot fi capturate cu ajutorul a trei dimensiuni ale afectului: plăcerea, incitarea și
dominarea. În același timp, orice stare emoțională poate fi considerată ca fiind o combinație
între cele trei elemente, adică diferite combinații ale lor pot reprezenta, în mod adecvat,
totalitatea reacțiilor emoționale diverse la mediul înconjurator. Aceste trei dimensiuni
definesc sentimentele unei persoane care apoi influențează comportamentul. Modelul CAT
este reprezentat în figura 3:
Figura 3. Modelul Acceptării Tehnologiei de către Consumator (Consumer
Acceptance of Technology Model)
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Cunoașterea
Avantaj
relativ
Utilitate
percepută
Atitudinea
Ușurință în Intenția de
despre
utilizare adoptare a
adoptarea
percepută tehnologiei
tehnologiei
Afectul
Plăcere
Incitare
Dominație
Sursa: Kulviwat, S. et al. 2007. Toward a Unified Theory of Consumer Acceptance
Technology, Psychology și Marketing, 24 (12): 1059-1084, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI:
10.1002/mar.20196, p. 1064.
Se observă faptul că modelul CAT introduce variabila de avantaj relativ, întrucât
indivizii sunt mai dispuși să adopte inovații care au avantaje percepute, decât să cumpere
produse care au puține avantaje sau chiar deloc în comparație cu alte produse (Kulviwat et al.,
2007). Moore și Benbasat (1991) au dezvoltat modelul PCI (Perceived Components of
Innovation – componentele percepute ale inovației), care, testat de către Plouffe, Hulland și
Vandenbosch (2001) a relevat faptul că avantajul relativ este cel mai puternic predictor al
intenției de adoptare a tehnologiei.
2.1. Redefinirea modelului TAM – Modelul TAM 2
Trebuie totuși menționat că există si alți autori care consideră că modelul TAM
necesită îmbunătățiri. Legris et al. (2003), au revizuit 22 de articole publicate între anii 1980-
2001, pe care le-au considerat relevante în ceea ce privește acuratețea prezentării și testării
modelului TAM. Figura 4. evidențiază modelul TAM remodelat sub forma TAM 2:
Figura 4. Modelul 2 al Acceptării Tehnologiei (Technology Acceptance Model 2)
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Experiența Voința
Norma
subiectivă
Utilitate
percepută
Imaginea
Relevanța
job-ului Intenția Comportamentul
utilizării utilizării
Calitatea
output-ului
Demonstrabilitatea Uşurința în utilizare
rezultatului percepută
Sursa: Chismar, William G. și Wiley-Patton, S. 2003. Does the Extended Technology
Acceptance Model apply to Physicians, Proceedings of the 30th Hawaii International
Conference on System Sciences, p. 2.
În modelul TAM 2 au fost incluse două noi concepte teoretice: procese instrumentale
cognitive și procese de influență socială. Utilitatea percepută este influențată de patru
factori cognitivi: relevanța job-ului, calitatea output-ului, demonstrabilitatea rezultatului și
ușurința în utilizare percepută. Trei forțe sociale influențează utilitatea percepută: norma
subiectivă, imaginea și voința (Chismar și Wiley-Patton, 2003).
Venkatesch și Davis (2000) descriu relevanța job-ului ca fiind percepția individului
despre gradul în care tehnologia este aplicabilă locului său de muncă. Calitatea output-ului
este percepția individului despre cât de bine un anumit sistem îndeplinește atribuțiile necesare
pentru munca sa. Demonstrabilitatea rezultatului este tangibilitatea rezultatelor în urma
utilizării tehnologiei. Ușurința în utilizare percepută are impact atât direct, cât și indirect
asupra utilitatății percepute. Norma subiectivă este definită ca fiind percepția unei persoane
în legătură cu părerea apropiaților, în ceea ce privește utilizarea sau nu a tehnologiei de către
aceasta.
Imaginea este gradul în care utilizatorul percepe folosirea tehnologiei ca o modalitate
de a-și accentua statutul în cadrul unui anumit grup social. Voința este măsura în care
individul percepe decizia adopției tehnologiei ca fiind non-obligatorie (Venkatesch și Davis,
2000; Chismar și Wiley-Patton, 2003).
Modelul UTAUT (Unified theory of acceptance and use of technology, Venkatesch et
al., 2003) este o extensie a modelului TAM. Modelul UTAUT vizează să explice intențiile
utilizatorilor de a folosi un sistem informațional și comportamentul care rezultă din aceasta.
În acest model se consideră că patru concepte-cheie (așteptările performanței, asteptările
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efortului, influența socială și condițiile ajutătoare) sunt determinanți direcți ai intenției de
utilizare și comportament.
Genul, vârsta, experiența și voința de utilizare sunt poziționate în așa fel încât să
modereze impactul celor patru concepte-cheie în ceea ce privește intenția de utilizare și
comportamentul. Teoria a fost dezvoltată realizându-se un studiu al literaturii de specialitate și
prin consolidarea conceptelor a opt modele pe care cercetările anterioare le-au folosit pentru a
explica comportamentul de utilizare a sistemelor informatice (―theory of reasoned action,‖
―technology acceptance model,‖ ―motivational model,‖ ―theory of planned behavior,‖ ―a
combined theory of planned behavior/technology acceptance model,‖ ―model of personal
computer use,‖ ―diffusion of innovations theory,‖ și ―social cognitive theory‖). Într-un studiu
longitudinal, Venkatesch et al. a validat că acest model explică în proporție de 70% varianța
intenției comportamentale și 50% utilizarea efectivă. Modelul UTAUT este redat în figura 5.
Figura 5. Modelul UTAUT (Unified Theory of Use and Acceptance of
Technology)
Aşteptările
performanţei
Aşteptările
efortului
Intenția Comportamentul
Influența comportamentală utilizării
socială
Condiții
ajutătoare
Voința de
Genul Vârsta Experiența utilizare
Sursa: Venkatesh, V., Morris, M.G., Davis, F.D., and Davis, G.B. ―User Acceptance
of Information Technology: Toward a Unified View,‖ MIS Quarterly, 27, 2003, 425-478.
2.2. Modelul succesului sistemului informațional și modelul actualizat al satisfacției
Modele satisfacției propuse de DeLone și McLean (1992, 2003) pornesc de la teoria
procesului comunicațional a lui Shannon și Weaver (1949) cu trei niveluri comunicaționale și
organizează diversele dimensiuni ale succesului, propuse de către cercetători, în șase mari
categorii: calitatea sistemului, calitatea informației, utilizare, satisfacția utilizării, impact
individual și impact organizațional.
Cei doi specialiști consideră mai departe că, în același mod în care informația trece
prin etapele consumului, utilizarea sistemului își manifestă impactul în mod corespunzător în
mai multe variante ale output-ului. Pe o axă temporală, un sistem demostrează, în primul rând,
mai multe grade de calitate a acestuia și a informației. Mai departe, în timpul folosirii
sistemului, utilizatorii devin satisfăcuți sau nesatisfăcuți cu produsele sale informaționale.
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În varianta actualizată a modelului, DeLone și McLean (2003) au propus utilizarea
unui concept unic de ―beneficii nete‖, în loc de impact separat la nivel individual și
organizațional, ca ultim criteriu al succesului sistemului, după cum este evidențiat în figura 6.
Figura 6. Modelul actualizat al satisfacției sistemului informațional
Calitatea
informației
Intenţia
utilizării Utilizare
Beneficii
Calitatea nete
sistemului
Satisfacția
utilizării
Calitatea
serviciului
Sursa: Koh, Chang E. et al., 2010. A Model for Mandatory Use of Software Technologies: An
Integrative Approach by Applying Multiple Level of Abstraction of Informing Science,
Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 13, Editor: T.
Grandon Gill, Informing Science Institute, p. 180.
O altă modificare importantă în modelul actualizat este introducerea intenției de
utilizare în model, cu scopul de a clarifica variabila utilizare. DeLone și McLean consideră
că, din punct de vedere procesual, utilizarea precede satisfacția, dar experiența pozitivă va
genera un grad mai mare al satisfacției din punct de vedere cauzal. Mai departe, un nivel mai
mare de satisfacție a celui care folosește sistemul va genera un grad mai ridicat al intenției de
utilizare, care astfel va afecta întrebuințarea (DeLone și McLean, 2003, Petter, DeLone, și
McLean, 2008).
Modelul actualizat al satisfacției de utilizare a sistemului informatic integrează de
asemenea și dimensiunea calitatea serviciului, măsurată cu ajutorul modelului SERVQUAL,
propus de Zeithaml, Berry și Parasuraman (1982), care a fost adăugată ca urmare a
schimbărilor ce au avut loc, în ultimul timp, în cadrul sistemelor informatice ale ultimului
deceniu (Petter, DeLone, și McLean, 2008).
Modelul propus de DeLone și McLean (2003) este util în măsurarea succesului
sistemelor informatice. Pentru clarificare, dimensiunile succesului sunt următoarele (Petter,
DeLone, și McLean, 2008):
Calitatea sistemului – caracteristicile dezirabile ale unui sistem informatic cum
sunt: ușurința în utilizare, flexibilitatea sistemului, fiabilitatea, încrederea,
siguranța sistemului și ușurința de învățare, dar și caracteristici ale sistemului
cum sunt intuitivitatea, sofisticarea, flexibilitatea și timpii de răspuns;
Calitatea informațională – caracteristicile dezirabile ale output-ulurilor
sistemului, traduse prin rapoarte ale managementului și site-uri web, spre
exemplu relevanţa, uşurinţa de a fi înţeles, acurateţea, caracterul succint, gradul
de complexitate, moneda, actualitatea şi utilitatea;
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Calitatea serviciului – calitatea sprijinului pe care utilizatorii sistemului îl
primesc din partea departamentului sistemelor informatice şi a personalului de
suport tehnic, cum sunt reacţia, reactivitatea, acurateţea, fiabilitatea, competenţa
tehnică şi empatia personalului, toate acestea prin utilizarea unei variante
adaptate a modelului SERVQUAL;
Utilizarea sistemului – gradul şi maniera în care personalul şi consumatorii
întrebuințează facilităţile oferite de un sistem informatic, de exemplu: gradul
(cantitatea), frecvenţa, tipul, adecvarea, extinderea şi scopul utilizării;
Satisfacţia utilizatorului – nivelul de satisfacţie al utilizatorului rezultat din
rapoarte, site-uri Web şi servicii de suport informatic;
Beneficiile nete – măsura în care sistemele informatice contribuie la succesul
indivizilor, grupurilor, organizaţiilor, industriilor şi naţiunilor, cum sunt:
îmbunătăţirea luării deciziilor, îmbunătăţirea productivităţii, creşterea vânzărilor,
reducerea costurilor, creşterea profiturilor, eficienţa pieţei, bunăstarea
consumatorului, crearea de locuri de muncă şi dezvoltarea economică.
Modelul ECT (Expectation-Confirmation Theory, adică modelul confirmării sau
infirmării așteptărilor), conceput de Oliver în 1980, s-a concentrat pe studiul influenței
satisfacției sau insatisfacției consumatorului asupra comportamentului său de recumpărare
(Oliver, 1980, Oliver, 1997, Oliver și Burke, 1999, Bhattacherjee, 2001, McKiney et al.,
2002). Ca o dezvoltare a acestuia a fost propus modelul confirmării sau infirmării așteptărilor
care analizează comportamentul consumatorului ―în timp ce continuă să utilizeze‖ un sistem
informațional (Bhattacherjee, 2001). De fapt, s-a redefinit modelul de satisfacție sau
insatisfacție a consumatorului în mediul online, odată cu acceptarea tehnologiei (a serviciilor
online) de către utilizator.
Teoria fluidității sau ―Experiența optimală‖ este un concept dezvoltat de către Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi în 1975. Fluiditatea reprezintă o experiență dorită atât de mult încât
consumatorul va vrea să o repete de cât mai multe ori posibil. Pentru a o accesa însă acesta are
nevoie să fie stimulat fără întrerupere cu sarcini încă mai dificile, pentru a asigura un grad de
dificultate adaptat abilităților dobândite de acesta între timp; conștiința de sine dispare, iar
simțul timpului se distorsionează. O activitate care cauzează o asemenea experiență este atât
de mulțumitoare, încât oamenii sunt dispuși să o facă numai de dragul ei, preocupându-se într-
o mică măsură de ceea ce pot obține din aceasta, chiar dacă este dificil și periculos
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990).
Întrucât experiența pe care consumatorii o trăiesc online este extrem de importantă în
decizia de a cumpăra un produs sau un serviciu (Constantinides, 2004), conceptul de fluiditate
este central acestei experiențe. Hoffman și Novak (1996) sunt de părere că un site web care
atrage mulți vizitatori este bazat pe starea de fluiditate pe care consumatorii o resimt și astfel
strategiile de marketing online ar trebui să ofere un mediu propice pentru această stare.
Fluiditatea pe Internet este definită ca fiind starea cognitivă experimentală care este
determinată de: niveluri ridicate de aptitudini și control, niveluri ridicate de provocare și
animare, atenție concentrată, accentuată de interactivitate și teleprezență.
Consumatorii care într-adevăr ating nivelul de fluiditate ignoră complet oricare alte
influențe exterioare care nu sunt în concordanță cu procesul lor de navigare online,
concentrându-se complet asupra experienței lor pe web (Hoffman și Novak, 2000). Bridges și
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Florsheim (2008) sunt de părere că anumite aspecte ale fluidității (sentimente legate de
control, aptitudini și interacțiunea efectivă) pot contribui la creșterea aspectului utilitarist al
experienței în mediul virtual, ceea ce duce la augmentarea valorii hedonice a cumpărării de pe
Internet, prin implicare crescută, captivare, escapism și fantezie. Van Noort et al. (2011),
bazându-se pe teoria fluidității în mediul online, a analizat influența interactivității asupra
răspunsurilor cognitive, afective și conative.
2.3. Modelul integrator al sistemului informațional
Modelul Integrator a fost propus de Wixom și Todd (2005), care au observat lipsa
unei clare delimitări conceptuale în literatura de specialitate, între calitatea informației, a
sistemului și utilizarea lui, și au sugerat că legătura lipsă poate fi găsită în modelul TAM,
după cum reiese din figura 7:
Figura 7. Model Integrator al sistemului informațional
Convingeri Atitudini Convingeri Atitudine
Deplinătate bazate pe obiecte bazate pe obiecte comportamentale comportamentală
Acuratețe
Calitatea Satisfacţia
informației informației Utilitate
Structură
Valabilitate
Atitudine Intenție
Siguranță
Flexibilitate
Calitatea Satisfacţia Uşurință în
Integrare sistemului sistemului utilizare
Accesibilitate
Oportunitate
Sursa: Koh, Chang E. et al., 2010. A Model for Mandatory Use of Software
Technologies: An Integrative Approach by Applying Multiple Level of Abstraction of
Informing Science, Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging
Transdiscipline, 13, Editor: T. Grandon Gill, Informing Science Institute, p. 182.
Cei doi specialişti au construit categorii din toate procesele psihologice axate pe
tipologii bazate pe obiecte și tipuri comportamentale. În fiecare categorie există convingeri și
atitudini. Procesele psihologice legate de sisteme și informații sunt bazate pe obiecte. Astfel,
calitatea sistemului și calitatea informației sunt convingeri obiective (Koh, Chang E. et al.,
2010).
Fiecare dintre acestea este legată de satisfacția sistemului sau satisfacția
informațională, care sunt atitudini obiective. Legătura critică este între atitudini bazate pe
obiecte și convingeri comportamentale, care sunt reprezentate de utilitatea percepută și
ușurința în utilizare percepută din modelul TAM. După cum apare în TAM, acestea
influențează atitudinea consumatorului și, în final, intenția de a utiliza sistemul. Din
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perspectiva lui Wixom și Todd (2005), atitudinile obiective sunt slabi predictori direcți ai
atitudinii legate de utilizare și ai intenției comportamentale. Totuși, prin medierea
convingerilor comportamentale (utilitatea și ușurința în utilizare), acestea exercită o influență
semnificativă asupra atitudinilor comportamentale, dacă sunt concordante în timp, țintă și
context cu comportamentul respectiv, aderând în acest fel la ―principiul corespondenței‖
(Fishbein și Ajzen, 1975).
Din punct de vedere al calității informației, convingerea obiectivă este percepția
utilizatorului asupra calității informației incluse în sistem. Literatura de specialitate, în ceea ce
privește atitudinea ca și componentă comportamentală, consideră convingerile despre obiecte
legate de atitudinea față de un obiect (Ajzen și Fishbein, 1980). Caeteris paribus, un utilizator
responsabil va fi satisfăcut de o anumită informație numai dacă este de înaltă calitate. Aceasta
crește încrederea utilizatorului în întrebuințarea informației pentru a duce la capăt atribuții. Cu
alte cuvinte, un utilizator mulțumit de calitatea informației pe care o primește de la sistem este
mai probabil să perceapă faptul că informația va stimula performanța muncii lui (Wixom și
Todd, 2005).
3. Concluzii și direcții viitoare de cercetare
În concluzie, articolul este o retrospectivă succintă a celor mai importante modele ale
comportamentului și satisfacției consumatorului în mediul online, punând accentul pe legătura
dintre modelele prezentate și pe noutatea adusă de fiecare dintre acestea.
Ca direcții viitoare de cercetare, se poate realiza o retrospectivă mai detaliată, precum
și aplicarea si dezvoltarea unui model, pornind de la factorii care influentează utilizatorul
(atitudinea referitoare la utilizarea tehnologiei, utilitatea percepută, ușurința în utilizare, stări
emoționale contradictorii, intenția de a utiliza un sistem informatic și comportamentul
manifest față de acesta - așteptările performanței, asteptările efortului, influența socială și
condițiile ajutătoare), și luând in considerare percepția asupra calității sistemului informatic,
ca determinant major al satisfacției consumatorului de servicii online.
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FRAUD AND ERROR IN MANIPULATIVE FINANCIAL SITUATIONS
Isa Tak, Assist. Prof., PhD, Lumina - The University of South-East Europe
Abstract: In this paper I presented the concepts of ―fraud‖ and ―error‖ and the difference
between them, their negative effects that influence the ―fair image‖ of financial situations.
Another chapter of this paper is represented by the misleading of the financial users
information, the harm, the prejudice this action produces and the role played by the
Department of Encounter Against Fraud in Romania. The final part of this paper presents my
conclusions and proposals in encountering this phenomenon and controlling, confuting the
relevant negative effects it has on investors, the management and finally on the hole economy.
Keywords: fraud, error, manipulation, DLAF, effects
I. Fraud and error in the misrepresentation of financial situations
The misrepresentation of financial situations can be caused by fraud or/and error.
According with the Romanian Dictionary, these two terms are defined as:
- Fraud: fraudulency, dishonesty of someone to gain a certain profit by harming others‘
rights, theft. Amount gained by stealing;
- Error: wrong idea or opinion, what is wrong; misrepresentation of a situation or fact;
the difference between the real measurement and the determined measurement of an
action.
As we can see by analyzing the content of these two terms, the error refers to a
mistake, an involuntary action that affects the reality, while the term of fraud is associated
with theft, dishonesty, stealing or affecting others‘ rights in order to obtain a gain, a profit, an
action done with intention, at the same time affecting the reality.
According with the International Financial Reporting Standards, International
Accounting Standard no. 8 “Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and
Errors”, paragraph 41, the errors can appear as regards the recognition, evaluation,
presentation and description of financial situations. If the financial situations contain
significant errors, or insignificant errors, but with intention in order to obtain a certain image
of the financial position of an entity, the entity‘s financial performance or the cash-flow of an
entity, we consider those financial situations as not being consistant with the International
Financial Reporting Standards. I would like to highlight the possibility of discovering
potential errors of a current period, according to the International Accounting Standard no.
8 “Accounting Policies, Changes in Accounting Estimates and Errors”, that must be revised
before the approval and presentation of the financial situations. The standard also refers to the
possibility in which the financial situations contain significant error or errors that are
discovered later, where the comparative information must be presented in the financial
situations for that subsequent period.
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International Accounting Standard no. 8 “Accounting Policies, Changes in
Accounting Estimates and Errors”, paragraph 42 states that significant errors must be
revised retroactively for the first set of financial situations that were approved to be published
by:
- Treating again the comparative values for the prior period when the error appeared;
Or
- Determining again the balance account of the beginning of the period for assets,
liabilities and equities for the first period after the presentation if the error appeared
prior to the presentation.
The accounting standards applied in Romania starting with the 1st of January 2010, in
compliance with the European standards, containing almost the same recommendations as the
International Financial Reporting Standards concerning errors and ways of revision. The
difference between the European standards and national standards is that the errors can be
revised in the current profit1; another perspective of domestic standards is that errors must be
revised in the financial period when they were discovered.
Regarding fraud, I would like to highlight from the very beginning of this paper that
fraud can be committed by the management of an entity by avoiding controls, using
techniques such as:
- Fictive transactions in the Journal Registry, most likely at the end of a financial period
in order to manipulate the results or to achieve other objectives;
- Inadequate adjustments and usage of professional judgment used to estimate the
balance account;
- Not registering or delaying the recognition in the financial situations of the events or
transactions that should be registered in the accounting period;
- Hiding or not presenting the facts that could determine the modification of registered
values in the financial situations;
- The implication of many transactions that are structured in such a way as to
misrepresent the financial position or the performance of an entity;
- Modifying the registration or the terms of a significant transaction or unusual
transaction.
We can conclude that, according to the International Financial Reporting
Standards, fraud represents a very interesting action for the financial auditor in case this
negative action brings about modifications and misrepresentation of the financial situations.
For an auditor, there are two types of intentional misrepresentation:
- The ones that represent fraudulent misrepresentation of financial situations,
And
- The ones that represent asset fraud of the audited entity.
The main difference between fraud and error is the fundamental action that has as
result the misrepresentation of financial situations, more precisely if this action is deliberate,
purposeful or not. Fraud, different from error, is deliberate and also reflects the intention of
hiding facts or transactions.
1
OMFP 3055/2009 for approving simplified accounting standards according to European standards, applied since
01.01.2010, paragraph 63.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fraud, even if it is a fraudulent misrepresentation or asset fraud, implies gains and
pressure to commit the fraud, an opportunity and motivations that represent the beginning of
the action2, such as:
- Gains or pressure to commit a fraudulent financial misrepresentation may appear when
the management is under pressure, internal or external pressure, to reach an estimated
target regarding gains or financial result when the consequences of not achieving the
financial target can be significant;
- The opportunity to commit such a fraud can appear only when such a person believes
that internal controls can be avoided, because that person is in a key position or
benefits from trust or has information about the weaknesses of the internal control;
- Some persons possess a set of values and character that allows them to commit an
action that is not honest and do this purposefully; there are also honest persons that in
an environment marked by pressure can commit a fraud because of the pressure that is
exerted upon them;
- The fraud detection studies show that there are three factors that are met when frauds
are committed, the so called ―fraud triangle‖ such as: interest or passion to have a
wrong attitude; the opportunity to commit a fraud, and thirdly, and last but not least,
the authors of the fraud are able to justify their actions.
Financial fraud can be grouped in four categories:
- Fraudulent financial reporting systems;
- Asset fraud;
- Incomes and goods obtained by fraud;
- Costs and debt according to inappropriate targets.
The asset fraud that I mentioned earlier is most of the times committed by the
employees of the entity and expresses most of the times values that are insignificant and
reduced. In the situation where the management of the entity is also involved, the detection of
this process is more difficult because the management hides the misrepresentation. This
phenomenon is most likely to imply fake documents and unreal transactions with the
objective that those assets that are missing are not to be found.
Asset fraud has many ways of happening, such as:
- Income fraud: collecting the receivables in an erroneous way and stealing the cash-in
for the old debts to bank accounts;
- Fraud of tangible assets or intellectual property: inventory stealing for personal use or
for selling purposes, secret pacts with competitors and selling information for
technical purposes;
- The payment made to an entity for goods or services that were never brought, such as:
payments to fictive sellers, bribery and secret commissions of employees that
influence the acquisitions of the entity in order to raise the price or to pay fictive
employees;
- Using the assets of the entity for one‘s own usage: using the assets as guaranty in
order to obtain a personal loan or for a third party.
2
Wells, J. T., J. D. Gill, Assessing Fraud Risk. Journal of Accountancy, 2011.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
I would like to conclude this section of this paper by highlighting that frauds
committed in an entity can also include corruption, conflict of interests, inadequate and
fraudulent reports and technological abuse.
II. Types of errors in financial situations
In the financial accounting there are errors such as:
a. Registration errors
Registration errors usually appear at the moment of transaction registration. These
kinds of errors may appear because of wrong registration of an amount in the journals, writing
more or fewer figures in the amount, registering in another balance account and so on3.
A financial situation can be misrepresentative due to these kinds of errors. The error
represents an unintentional misrepresentation, including an omission or a representation, such
as: mistake occurred in collecting or processing the data that are reflected in the financial
reports; an incorrect accounting estimation due to a wrong transaction interpretation; a wrong
judgment in applying accounting treatments concerning evaluation, classification and
presentation or information description4.
b. Calculus errors
These types of errors can be described as mathematical errors. The amount of the
transaction is incorrectly registered due to a wrong mathematical calculation, for example:
- Errors in drawing up a trial balance: may appear because of erroneously adding
columns or wrong transcription of amounts in the journals (figures that are reversed,
the addition of supplementary figures to the amount, omission of figures in a certain
amount, the transcription of other amount from a different column or row and so on).
In order to eliminate these types of errors one can use techniques such as calculus
repetition or amounts confrontation (for the amounts in the trial balance with the ones in the
journals).
- Errors in operating a transaction in the trial balance to establish the final balance
account: due to wrong addition of debit or credit amounts in order to establish the final
balance account.
Identifying this king of errors is realized by recapitulation of the calculus of each
balance account.
- Errors in the registration of the journals: due to a wrong post up on a page of the
journal to the following page of the journal.
c. Omission errors
They reveal that the economic transaction was not registered at all. Identifying such
errors is possible if the documents are double-checked to observe if all transactions are
operated or by discovering documents that do not present a checking mark or signature or due
to third parties‘ complaints regarding a certain transaction.
d. Errors that represent a double registration of a transaction or omission
registration
This type of error is usually discovered in entities that usually use proforma invoices.
The same amount or invoice is registered two times. In this case the proforma invoice is
3
Nobes C., Parker R. - Comparative International Accounting, 6e edition, Londres, Pearson Education, 2010.
4
Tuba Yaman, Finansal Tablolar Aracılıgı İle Kullanıcılara Yanıltıcı Bilgi Sunulması ve Sonuçları, İstanbul, 2010.
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registered and afterwards the invoice that refers to the same transaction arrives and is also
registered. In conclusion, the amount that represents the debt is doubled and this error will
have as result a misrepresentation.
e. Procedural errors
The internal control of the entity is not functioning according to the standards that
must be applied and which are imposed by the law entailing a qualitative or procedural error.
An example of this type of error is the omission of unique identification of invoices that
conducts to the monetary error. The monetary error represents a quantitative error and is
determined by the procedural errors that have not the same quantifiable effect.
III. Accounting manipulation
Manipulation is a French term and the meaning of this word in the dictionary is the
following: ―to act, conduct a person with hidden means and methods influencing and
controlling his/her attitude in a way that is compatible with the interests of the initiator.‖
Manipulation can also be defined as: financial rights of shareholders that determine
the stock value of a share and the published values are influenced by fictive operations of
transfer and fraudulent reports and actions.5
In this context, here are a few examples of accounting manipulation:
- Appling options allowed by accounting policy in a certain way meant to influence in a
negative way the financial statements user;
- Preferential application of accounting evaluation by: the depreciation test of assets,
reevaluation of assets and changing the evaluation method of inventory, subjective
evaluation of corporal assets and stocks, the modification of the rhythm of irreversible
depreciation, internal prices of asset selling between subsidiaries of the same group;
- Balance account manipulation by structuring and delaying the real transactions;
- Rising the difference between accounting value and acquisition price by
underestimating the purchased asset;
- Operations such as ―lease-back‖ where the sold asset is leased from the selling entity;
the effect of such transactions reflects in supplementary cash-flow, diminishing the
debts and improving the benefits;
- Hybrid shares issue, in this way the entity transfers debts into its own funds;
- Transfer of assets to another entity, along with its debts, transaction called ―run off of
debts‖.
By way of conclusion to this chapter of the present work, let us say that those who
elaborate and publish financial situations may have as main objective the ―make-up‖ of their
reports in such a manner that the respective reports look the best way possible by using
techniques such as ―profit management‖ or ―fraudulent reporting‖.
In a world where the main target is represented by the profit, gain, most of the times
the financial auditor has to discover the Machiavellian methods that erroneously inform the
financial statements users. Of course, when the financial auditor‘s report is used in making
decisions by the users, the stake is raised taking into consideration entities that obtain loans
5
Stolowy H., Breton G., A Review of Research on Accounts Manipulation, Paper for the Annual Congress of European
Accounting Association, 2012.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
from public share subscription and the important role ―played‖ by the financial auditor,
his/her role and responsibility is greater than ever.
IV. The prejudice caused by fraud and error
Economic frauds affect entities irrespective of their size or region, and usually the
greater the fraud is, the more powerful the effects are. The degree of anonymity, the
employees‘ responsibilities and the complexity of systems in a large entity represent breaches
in the control system that fraud organizers take advantage of.
According with a KPMG study6, the managers of entities are asked if they are
concerned about fraud and the outcomes of such actions. As Table no. 1 – Concerns about
fraud - shows, more than two thirds of the managers (71%) are concerned about a possible
loss of public image that is determined by fraud. A more reduced number, and yet more than
half of the managers (54%) replied they are concerned about the juridical aspects and
penalties or loss of new clients (52%) fraud might entail.
Table no. 1 – Concerns about fraud
Opinions Percentage
Loss of public image 71%
Juridical aspects or penalties 54%
Loss of new or existing clients 52%
Loss of capacity to attract and keep employees 43%
Prejudice regarding the selling price of the entity 34%
Other concerns 3%
The following percentage is held by the answer regarding the employees (43%)
because of the topic‘s importance, being able to attract and keep a qualitative resource such as
employees is an important and delicate matter.
The companies that have issued public share are also concerned about the selling price
of the entity, a fraud scandal, meaning a public, one would mean the loss of the price of shares
and so a reduced capacity of investment with negative consequences on the management and
loss of jobs and other opportunities for the management.
Regarding fraud and error, and the negative consequences of this phenomenon, I
would like to highlight that those entities which present fraudulent errors, both in accounting
and financial reports, have common characteristics: their shares are going to be taken out of
the public share market and come along with tax penalties that have as result the rise of the
entity‘s costs. Those who have broken the law or have connections in this scandal are going to
leave their jobs, and most likely most of them are going to lose also their freedom.
In KPMG Fraud Survey 2013, the study registered 65% positive answers and 34%
negative answers to the question: ―Do you consider that fraud and forgery represent a
significant risk to your activity?” The answer clearly demonstrates that 34% of the
6
KPMG Fraud Survey 2013.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
managers do not consider fraud and forgery as a risk and they should have thought about this
topic.
Another question of the study was: ―Which one of the following categories of fraud
represents the most significant risk to your entity?” The answers were:
- Asset theft (i.e. cash, inventory or intellectual property stealing) - 35%;
- Other illegal or unethical actions (bribery, corruption, conflict of interests) - 31%;
- Fraudulent financial reporting (for example the intentional misrepresentation of
incomes, assets or debts) - 14%;
- All the above mentioned factors represent an equal threat - 20%.
Of course these answers vary according to the main object of activity, but what I
would like to highlight is that there is not such a large difference between ―asset
misrepresentation‖ and other illegal or unethical actions (such as bribery, corruption or
conflict of interests).
The most important role of the financial audit7 is to discover and expose the corruption
and unethical actions, to determine and control the work environment. By exposing frauds and
other errors it contributes accordingly to the functioning of the accounting system. The
accounting registries must be verified so that fair, viable and necessary information should be
presented in order to support the financial situation users. An accounting that is not verified
and audited cannot offer correct information. In order to have a ―healthy‖ accounting
presentation, the financial audit and the financial auditor ―play‖ an important role. In the
financial situations auditors can discover errors and irregularities. Errors committed with
intention in the accounting documents or financial situations, in order not to reveal the fair
image of the entity, are deliberate errors or more precisely they are frauds. There is no
intention in the case of errors or mistakes, just negligence and lack of knowledge8.
V. Fraud and error effects on economy
In the investigations conducted by the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners,
the rates of financial loss were presented by a comparison between the years 2012 and 2013.
According to this investigation, 959 of the professional fraud that my study presents, 937
represented an integral loss. The mean of the losses registered in the study was of 175,000$.
As Figure no. 1 – Loss distribution expressed in US Dollars - exhibits, more than one
fourth of the cases, in 2013, imply losses of 1 million dollars. The distribution of losses in
2013 was similar to the distribution of losses in 2012; in both studies, more that 60% of the
entities suffered losses of at least 100,000$.
7
Rotaru Viorel Horatiu - Audit Risk and Materiality Threshold - towards Economic Risk and Audit Failure, 5th WSEAS
International Conference on Applied Economics, Business and Development (AEBD '13), Crete, 2013
8
Sharman, P., External audit failure. Cost Management, 2011.
657
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Figure no. 1 – Loss distribution expressed in US Dollars 9
In fact, the investigation shows that, from the point of view of financial losses, there in
not a big difference between 2012 and 2013. The results of this investigation reveal that there
were not taken sufficient actions in order to prevent frauds or that there are new techniques
used in presenting fraud or fraudulent financial situations.
Figure no. 2 – The situation of fraud frequency by category10
Figure no. 3 – The situation of fraud by category11
I would like to highlight with the help of the figures shown above that fraudulent
reporting represents only 10% of all fraud aspects registered. The investigation shows that the
most ―lethal‖ prejudice was done by fraudulent financial situations. The estimated prejudice is
of 2,000,000 USD. Therefore errors or frauds on the paper (financial situations) have great
9
Source: ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 2013 Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud & Abuse.
10
Source: ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 2013 Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud & Abuse.
11
Source: ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 2012 Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud & Abuse.
658
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
effects on the fairness of data transfer. First of all people are affected by errors or fraudulent
financial situations. In most of the cases, the financial loss due to errors in the financial
situations has been determined in figures. Moreover, fraudulent financial information
frequently leads to a loss of jobs for the employees, the rate of unemployment growing along,
action that can have a negative effect on the economy. According to the investigation, the
most frequent aspect of fraud is ―embezzlement of funds‖, yet this causes less harm than the
fraudulent financial situations. This type of fraud represents 90% of all types of fraud and
causes losses of 150,000 USD. If we analyze the figures it can be clearly observed that a large
number of assets were stolen from an entity, which is more difficult than the manipulation of
financial information and less dangerous than fraud.
The actual cost of fraud activities can be quantified with difficulty for the following
reasons:
1. Not all frauds can be detected;
2. The frauds that are detected are not reported;
3. In many cases of fraud incomplete information is presented;
4. Relevant information is not presented to the management of the entity or competent
authorities; and
5. Too many times the entity does not take action against the author(s) of the fraud
(law suits).
Besides the economic effective loss of the entity, the indirect costs should also be
taken into consideration, such as diminution of the productivity, costs related to law suits, the
raise of unemployment and the time lost to investigate the fraud in the entity‘s activity.
Figure no. 4 – The age of fraud authors12
According to the investigation conducted by the Association of Certified Fraud
Examiners, more than half of the fraud cases studies were committed by persons with the age
ranging between 41 and 50 years old. The age distribution was similar to the one in 2012. I
succeeded in understanding that the managers that gain economic information and qualified
information are using these with a view to trying to create ―black holes‖ in the financial
reports and are trying to manipulate in their own interest, this action leading finally to fraud.
If we compare 2012 with 2013 we can observe that, from the point of view of fraud, the
variation in not so great. According to the same institution, the figure below shows the ages at
which fraud is committed and the losses suffered because of this action.
As one can observe, the tendency of fraud is higher for the ages between 41-50 years
old, follow by those between 51 and 60 years old, but the negative effects are proportionally
reversed. In many cases the most important positions, key-positions, are held by employees
12
Source: ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 2013, Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud & Abuse.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
with large experience, which means that elder persons have key-positions and gained access
to the resources of the entity. This is the explanation why 50 years old persons represent the
mean of age and why in our study, the age of the fraud author has raised. Frauds committed
by 50 years old persons have produced mean loses of 500,000$, two times more than the ones
caused by younger fraud authors.
Figure no. 5– Age of fraud authors reported to earnings13
Bibliography
1. Ramos, M., Risk-based audit best practices. Journal of Accountancy, December, pp.
32-38, 2012;
2. Riley, M. E., W. R. Pasewark, Assessing the Allowance for Doubtful Accounts.
Journal of Accountancy September, pp. 40-46, 2011;
3. Rotaru Viorel Horatiu - Audit Risk and Materiality Threshold - towards Economic
Risk and Audit Failure, 5th WSEAS International Conference on Applied Economics,
Business and Development (AEBD '13), Crete, 2013;
4. Sanchez, M. H., K. F. Brown C. P. Agoglia, Consideration of Control Environment
and Fraud Risk: A Set of Instructional Exercises. Journal of Accounting Education no.
25, pp. 207-221, 2011;
5. Sharman, P., External Audit Failure. Cost Management, 2011;
6. Stolowy H., Breton G., A Review of Research on Accounts Manipulation, Paper for
the Annual Congress of European Accounting Association, 2012;
7. Wells, J. T., J. D. Gill, Assessing Fraud Risk. Journal of Accountancy, 2011;
***ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 2013 Report to the Nation on
Occupational Fraud & Abuse;
***KPMG Fraud Survey 2013;
***OMFP 3055/2009 for approving simplified accounting standards according to
European standards, applied since 01.01.2010.
13
Source: ACFE (Association of Certified Fraud Examiners) 20012, Report to the Nation on Occupational Fraud & Abuse.
660
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TIME FACTOR IN DEVELOPING THE STATE
BUDGET
Marioara Niculae (Piroi), PhD Student, University of Economic Studies,
Bucharest
Abstract: The aim of this article is to analyze the correlation between the state budget deficit
and the actual preparation time used for developing the state budget in a selected number of
EU Member States. These countries reflect a variety of administrative cultures, increasing the
grasp of the research. Based on the principles of consensual economics, the focus is to
identify one of the causes of budget performance by analyzing the time needed to ensure
optimum dispersion of information on the draft budget to all the stakeholders, fostering
debate and increasing transparency.
Keywords: budget, calendar, administration, deficit, ESA 2010
1. INTRODUCTION
With this article we aim to develop a compared analysis of the budget planning
process in a selected number of EU Member States. While Romania has a system of main,
secondary and tertiary actors, other EU Member States are structured differently and this may
offer interesting insights into one of the factors of budget performance: preparation time. This
research has been developed after conduction a review of the mainstream literature included
in some of the leading journals indexed by Thomson-Reuters in the Social Science Citation
Index (SSCI). For instance, in the SSCI-indexed International Tax and Public Finance
Journal, Luechinger and Schaltegger (2013) have presented an interesting view of fiscal rules,
budget deficits and budget projections. The political influence on budgets is also part of our
analysis and is just the same in line with the major international research agenda. For instance,
extending the comparison, Li et al. (2013) have presented evidence regarding politics and
economics in their article published in the SSCI-indexed European Finance Journal. One of
the key findings of Esteller-Moré & Otero (2012) in their Fiscal Transparency analysis,
published in Taylor & Francis‘ Public Management Review, which showcases the importance
of transparency, one the key arguments used in this article as well. These lines of research
point towards the importance of an efficient planning system for the development of the state
budget and its impact on the state deficit.
2. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF BUDGETING SYSTEMS FOR A
NUMBER OF EU MEMBER STATES
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
The goal of developping this chapter was to analyze the state budget resources in
terms of data used for planning of revenues. We conducted this research to see if EU countries
use in the preparation of the state budget and especially budget revenues, duties declared and
paid by the taxpayer in the previous financial year or informative reports containing data
regarding future obligations.
In order to facilitate the compared analysis, we have selected the following EU
Member States: Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Finland, Poland, and Spain. The aim
was to achieve as much of a spread as possible in terms of variety of administrative cultures.
The criteria that formed the basis for selecting the countries in order to analyze the
stages of development of the state budget was deficit / budget surplus recorded in fiscal year
2012. According to EUROSTAT, the EU Member States thet recorded the lowest budget
deficit in 2012 was Estonia (-0.2% of GDP), Sweden (-0.2% of GDP), Luxembourg (-0.6% of
GDP) and Bulgaria (-0.8 % of GDP). The countries with the highest budget deficit were Spain
(-10.6% of GDP) and Greece (9% of GDP).
A comparative analysis of the state organization provides various examples for the
analyzed countries, including regional forms of territorial administration (Germany). The
budget process is relatively similar for all states analyzed: it starts by defining the set of
macroeconomic indicators. It differs only the onset timing of the budgetary procedure.
Taking Germany as the reference point, for which the budgetary procedure begins two
years before the current year, we can observe that the other Member States begin this
procedure in late winter / early spring prior to the year of reference. In Finland, according to
the Ministry of Finance, the drafting of budget proposal starts in January. In the Czech
Republic, annual budget preparation begins in late June (t-1), when the Ministry of Finance
notifies the ministries the spending limits.
As a general rule, the Ministry of Finance of the analyzed countries collects from the
institutions during spring (t-1) the budget proposals for the year t, then submits them to the
Government. (For example, in Finland, the ministries formulate a draft budget for the entire
administration based on plans submitted by agencies and submitts them the Ministry of
Finance in May. The Czech Ministry of Finance compiles the draft budget in August (t-1)).
A round of technical and political talks takes place within the government, which,
after having reached an agreement, submits in autumn the draft budget to the Parliament. The
Parliament members examine and approve the budget and in case of republics headed by a
president, the budget is sent to the President for promulgation. After promulgation, the
budget, taking the form of a law, is published in the official journal, taking effect usually in
December of year t-1.
We find interesting the way the budget is drafted by states having a federal or regional
organization. In this case, the regions are autonomous; therefore, the Ministry of Finance acts
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as an integrator, not only as a coordinator. By adding another budget level, the complexity of
budgeting increases, so that Germany, for example, starts the procedure in December of year
t-2.
In Romania, according to the Law nr 500/2002, the calendar of the budget
development process includes an initial deadline (1st of May) until when the Ministry of
Finance has propose to the Government the objectives of the fiscal and budget policy for next
year, together with expense caps for each major institution. The Government has 15 days to
approve these objectives and the expense caps, after which it informs the Parliament of its
main policy directions. Based on a circular letter from the Ministry of Finance (MoF), the
public institutions with primary budget responsibility send MoF by August 1 st their budget
proposals for the following year and budget projections for the coming 3 years. The
Parliament as well, with its two chambers (Chamber of Deputies and Senate) sends its budget
to the Government, in order to be included in the state budget. Based on these proposals, MoF
sends the Government the draft budget law by 30 September. The Government, in a
maximum of 15 days after receiving the draft from MoF, sends it to the Parliament for
adoption. The Parliament discusses the Budget Law in a plenary session, votes it and then the
President promulgates it. The Budget Law enters into force the moment it goes to the Official
Journal of Romania.
As a general rule, the budget process follows the same deadlines, allowing the start of
the budget year on time without having to resort to backup solutions.
Figure 1. Comparative analysis of budgetary procedures
(Source: developed by the authors based on data from the Finance Ministries of the
respective EU MS)
Why do some EU member states suceed in maintaining their budget balance better
than others? To answer this question, we must look at the evolution on the long term. We
observe a correlation between budget stability and the amount of time taken to develop the
budget. This benefit is obvious in the case of Germany, which starts its budgeting process in
the year t-2. Having more time to plan better, this also allows for more time to implement and
to monitor the budget better.
In the chart below, compiled on EUROSTAT figures, we compare the evolution of
budget deficit for a selection of European countries in the last 10 years.
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Figure 2. Budget deficit, 2003-2012
(Source: EUROSTAT, 2013)
Beyond the preparation time and budget deficit correlation, we find another correlation
at European level between the surplus / deficit of the Member States selected for analysis:
after a relatively broad gap between revenues and expenditures in 2005-2007, the difference
increased: all analyzed EU Member States recorded a budget deficit in 2009. Afterwards,
during 2010-2012, a stabilization period followed. The country having the closest bugetary
results to the average of analyzed countries was Germany, which is the only country that
recorded a budget surplus in 2012.
3. CONCLUSIONS
We observe the direct correlation between the time taken to develop the budget and
the budget performance (i.e. inverse relation between preparation time and budget deficit).
For instance, analyzing budgeting timing, one can notice that Germany‘s budgetary procedure
begins two years before the current year. For the countries with shorter planning periods,
including Romania, the onset of the budgetary procedure with one year earlier would ensure
longer available time, offering both versatility and ability to provide a greater margin for the
consultation of the main stakeholders.
Another conclusion is determined by the political influence. This has the potential to
distort both budget planning and implementation and monitoring of national budget. To
maintain fairness, however, politics can get valuable input from the academic domain.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
To sum up, we find indications of the budgetary performance in several key areas.
Among them, we mention the need to respect international ESA standards, the elaboration of
national budgets should be based on a participatory, consultative and consensual approach.
The budget execution should be characterized by a combination of robustness of a correct
forecast and flexibility required for the adaptation to the challenges of the economic situation,
often characterized, especially in recent, years by turbulence.
ANNEX I. Eurostat database regarding the budget deficit, 2003-2012
Government deficit/surplus, debt and associated data [gov_dd_edpt1]
Last update 04.12.13
Extracted on 09.12.13
Source of data Eurostat
Short Description Short Description is not available
UNIT Percentage of GDP
SECTOR General government
Net lending (+)/Net borrowing (-) under the EDP (Excessive D
INDIC_NA Procedure)
GEO/TIME 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Norway 7,3 11,1 15,1 18,5 17,5 18,8 10,5 11,0 13,3 13,6
Germany -4,2 -3,8 -3,3 -1,6 0,2 -0,1 -3,1 -4,2 -0,8 0,1
Estonia 1,7 1,6 1,6 2,5 2,4 -2,9 -2,0 0,2 1,1 -0,2
Sweden -1,0 0,6 2,2 2,3 3,6 2,2 -0,7 0,3 0,2 -0,2
Luxembourg 0,5 -1,1 0,0 1,4 3,7 3,2 -0,7 -0,8 0,1 -0,6
Bulgaria -0,4 1,9 1,0 1,9 1,2 1,7 -4,3 -3,1 -2,0 -0,8
Latvia -1,6 -1,0 -0,4 -0,5 -0,4 -4,2 -9,8 -8,1 -3,6 -1,3
Finland 2,6 2,5 2,9 4,2 5,3 4,4 -2,5 -2,5 -0,7 -1,8
Hungary -7,3 -6,5 -7,9 -9,4 -5,1 -3,7 -4,6 -4,3 4,3 -2,0
Austria -1,5 -4,4 -1,7 -1,5 -0,9 -0,9 -4,1 -4,5 -2,5 -2,5
Italy -3,6 -3,5 -4,4 -3,4 -1,6 -2,7 -5,5 -4,5 -3,8 -3,0
Romania -1,5 -1,2 -1,2 -2,2 -2,9 -5,7 -9,0 -6,8 -5,6 -3,0
Lithuania -1,3 -1,5 -0,5 -0,4 -1,0 -3,3 -9,4 -7,2 -5,5 -3,2
Malta -9,0 -4,6 -2,9 -2,7 -2,3 -4,6 -3,7 -3,5 -2,8 -3,3
Euro area (17 countries) -3,1 -2,9 -2,5 -1,3 -0,7 -2,1 -6,4 -6,2 -4,2 -3,7
Euro area (16 countries) -3,1 -2,9 -2,5 -1,4 -0,7 -2,1 -6,4 -6,2 -4,2 -3,7
Slovenia -2,7 -2,3 -1,5 -1,4 0,0 -1,9 -6,3 -5,9 -6,3 -3,8
- -
Iceland : : 4,9 6,3 5,4 13,5 -9,9 10,1 -5,6 -3,8
European Union (28
countries) : : : : : : -6,9 -6,5 -4,4 -3,9
European Union (27
countries) -3,2 -2,9 -2,5 -1,5 -0,9 -2,4 -6,9 -6,5 -4,4 -3,9
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European Union (25
countries) -3,2 -2,9 -2,5 -1,5 -0,9 -2,4 -6,9 -6,5 -4,4 -3,9
Poland -6,2 -5,4 -4,1 -3,6 -1,9 -3,7 -7,5 -7,9 -5,0 -3,9
Belgium -0,1 -0,1 -2,5 0,4 -0,1 -1,0 -5,6 -3,7 -3,7 -4,0
Denmark 0,1 2,1 5,2 5,2 4,8 3,2 -2,7 -2,5 -1,8 -4,1
Netherlands -3,1 -1,7 -0,3 0,5 0,2 0,5 -5,6 -5,1 -4,3 -4,1
Czech Republic -6,7 -2,8 -3,2 -2,4 -0,7 -2,2 -5,8 -4,7 -3,2 -4,4
Slovakia -2,8 -2,4 -2,8 -3,2 -1,8 -2,1 -8,0 -7,7 -5,1 -4,5
France -4,1 -3,6 -2,9 -2,3 -2,7 -3,3 -7,5 -7,1 -5,3 -4,8
Croatia : : : : : : -5,3 -6,4 -7,8 -5,0
- -
United Kingdom -3,5 -3,5 -3,4 -2,8 -2,8 -5,0 11,4 10,1 -7,7 -6,1
Cyprus -6,6 -4,1 -2,4 -1,2 3,5 0,9 -6,1 -5,3 -6,3 -6,4
-
Portugal -3,7 -4,0 -6,5 -4,6 -3,1 -3,6 10,2 -9,8 -4,3 -6,4
- - -
Ireland 0,4 1,4 1,6 2,9 0,2 -7,4 13,7 30,6 13,1 -8,2
- -
Greece -5,6 -7,5 -5,2 -5,7 -6,5 -9,8 15,7 10,7 -9,5 -9,0
- -
Spain -0,3 -0,1 1,3 2,4 2,0 -4,5 11,1 -9,6 -9,6 10,6
FYROM : : : : : : : : : :
Turkey -9,0 -4,4 -1,2 0,8 -1,5 -2,8 -7,0 -2,6 : :
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RESEARCH CONCERNING PROFESSIONAL IDENTITY OF POLICE WOMEN
IN ROMANIAN POLICE
Angela Vlădescu, PhD Student, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to highlight the results of the study conducted in
Romanian police, study which aimed to measure the professional identity of the policewomen
who work in this organization. To achieve this, it was used a research tool developed and
tested by the researcher H. R. Woo in his paper "Professional Identity Scale in Counseling".
The questionnaire is the research instrument used in this survey to measure professional
identity. By applying this questionnaire it is aimed to measure each component of
professional identity and its interdependencies. The ultimate goal of this study is to emphasize
the importance of a clear professional identity, especially in those areas where there may be
discrimination. Also, the results will be analyzed according to the specific nature of the job
and of the organization.
Keywords: identity, professional identity, professional identity scale.
1. METODOLOGIA CERCETĂRII
Cercetarea s-a desfăşurat prin efectuarea unui studiu cantitativ ce vizează domeniul
identităţii şi constă în aplicarea unui chestionar identificat prin studierea literaturii de
specialitate, totodată adaptat specificului domeniului cercetat. Pentru investigarea clarităţii
identităţii profesionale a femeii la nivelul Poliţiei Române a fost utilizat un instrument ce
măsoară identitatea profesională dezvoltat şi testat de Hong Ryun Woo (Universitatea din
Iowa) în lucrarea ‖Instrument construction and initial validation: Professional Identity Scale
in Counseling‖.
Punctul de plecare în elaborarea instrumentului de măsurare a identităţii profesionale îl
reprezintă definirea conceptului, astfel identitatea profesională, în acest studiu, se referă la o
stare de spirit care clasifică un individ ca pe un membru al unei profesii selectate şi care se
dezvoltă în timp.
Aşa cum rezultă din literatura de specialitate, identitatea profesională constă în
cunoaşterea profesiei şi a filozofiei sale, domeniului de expertiză, înţelegerea rolurilor
profesionale, atitudinile membrilor față de profesie și de sine, angajament și interacțiuni cu
alţi profesioniști. Plecând de la aceasta definiţie au fost dezvoltate cele şase ipoteze ale
cercetării.
Figura 1: Elementele componente ale identităţii profesionale
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Sursa: Woo, H. R., ‖Instrument construction and initial validation: Professional
Identity Scale in Counseling‖, 2013, p. 10
În cadrul analizei efectuate, am calculat coeficienţii care măsoară fidelitatea testului
utilizat. Fidelitatea unui test constă în capacitatea acestui de a indica aceeaşi valoare la
repetarea măsurii şi poate fi definită ca „gradul în care scorurile testului sunt consistente sau
repetabile, adică gradul în care ele nu sunt afectate de erorile de măsură‖ (Albu, 1998, p. 136).
Pentru scalele de tip sumativ, unde scorurile obţinute de mai multe variabile au fost
însumate, am aplicat analiza consistenţei interne a scalei, Cronbach‘s Apha. Pentru fiecare
dintre cele șase macro-variabile a fost aplicată analiza Cronbach‘s Apha, valoarea indicelui
depășind 0.7, element ce ne arată că răspunsurile sunt relevante și corect corelate.
1.1 Obiectivele cercetării
O1. Evidenţierea clarităţii percepţiei asupra propriei identităţi profesionale a femeilor
poliţist din România.
O2. Analiza componentelor identităţii profesionale: filosofia profesiei, domeniului de
expertiză, rolurile profesionale, atitudinile membrilor față de profesie și de sine, angajament și
interacțiuni cu alţi profesioniști.
O3. Determinarea actualei situaţii şi a tendinţelor în ceea ce priveşte identitatea
profesională a femeilor poliţist din România
O4. Evidentierea gradului de integrare al femeilor în Poliţia Română.
1.2 Ipoteze
Cercetarea se bazează pe o ipoteză principală şi şase ipoteze de lucru. Atât în cazul
ipotezei generale, cât şi în cazul ipotezelor de lucru s-a luat în considerare ipoteza nulă şi
ipoteza alternativă.
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O ipoteză, în statistică, este o afirmaţie despre parametrii unei populaţii, pentru că
scopul inferenţei statistice este să descrie populaţii pornind de la eşantioane. Două sunt
ipotezele cu care lucrăm (Lungu, 2001, p.72):
• ipoteza de cercetare (notatăH1): este o afirmaţie generalizată la populaţia supusă
investigării;
• ipoteza de nul (notatăH0): este de fapt ceea ce noi testăm în realitate şi descrie
situaţia de la care se porneşte, situaţia în care intervenţia nu ar avea nici un efect.
Așadar, cele două ipoteze principale se formulează astfel:
Ipoteza generală: femeile care îşi desfăşoară activitatea în Poliţia Română au o
viziune clară asupra identităţii lor profesionale
Ipoteze de lucru:
H1.1 Femeile poliţist îşi cunosc profesia.
H1.0 Femeile poliţist nu îşi cunosc profesia.
H2.1 Femeile poliţist cunosc filosofia profesiei.
H2.0 Femeile poliţist nu cunosc filosofia profesiei.
H3.1 Femeile poliţist îşi cunosc rolurile profesionale şi domeniul de expertiză
H3.0 Femeile poliţist nu îşi cunosc rolurile profesionale, nici domeniul de expertiză
H4.1 Femeile poliţist au o perspectivă bine conturată asupra profesiei lor
H4.0 Femeile poliţist nu au o perspectivă bine conturată asupra profesiei lor
H5.1 Femeile poliţist dau dovadă de angajament faţă de propria profesie
H5.0 Femeile poliţist nu dau dovadă de angajament faţă de propria profesie
H6.1 Femeile poliţist sunt interesate de dezvoltarea profesională
H6.0 Femeile poliţist nu sunt interesate de dezvoltarea profesională
Cele două ipoteze sunt mutual exclusive: dacă una este adevărată, atunci cealaltă este
falsă. Mai mult, ipoteza de nul se consideră implicit adevărată. Inferenţa statistică se face cu
referire la ea, iar probabilităţile statistice (pragurile de semnificaţie) care însoţesc orice test
statistic fac referire tocmai la ipoteza de nul (Lungu, 2001, p.72).
1.3 Populaţia
Populaţia investigată este construită din totalul femeilor poliţist care în această
perioadă îşi desfăşoară activitatea în cadrul Ministerului de Afaceri Interne. Procentul de
încadrare al posturilor, înregistrat la începutul anului 2013 este de 93,1% pentru categoria
,,Poliţişti‖ – 55.419 posturi ocupate, dintre care 12.965 sunt ofiţeri şi 40.167 agenţi. La
categoria ,,Personal contractual/ Funcţionari publici‖ posturile ocupate sunt în procent de 94
%, respectiv 2.287 angajaţi.
În Poliţia Română îşi desfăşoară activitatea 8.809 femei (15,9% din total personal),
dintre care 7.119 femei poliţist (12,84% din totalul poliţiştilor), peste standardul european de
8-12% femei poliţist.
Figura 2: Numărul de posturi (totale-încadrate) la nivelul Poliţiei Române
defalcat pe fiecare categorie
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Sursa:http://www.mai.gov.ro/Documente/Bilant%20MAI/Evaluarea_activitatii_MAI_
2012.pdf
1.4 Eşantionul
Eşantionul nostru cuprinde 365 de femei poliţist din cadrul Ministerului de Afaceri
Interne.Au fost distribuite, prin email și prin contact direct, un număr de 365 de chestionare,
din care au fost returnate 365 de chestionare completate, fiind validate tot 365 de chestionare.
Eşantionul trebuie să aibă capacitatea de a reproduce cât mai fidel structurile şi
caracteristicile populaţiei din care este extras (Vătui, 2009). Cu alte cuvinte, în loc să se
culeagă informaţii de la toţi indivizii din populaţie, se face o prelevare de la o mică parte a ei
(Creswell, 2012, p 28).
Am utilizat ca metodă de identificare a subiecţilor eşantionarea simplă aleatoare cu
probabilităţi inegale întrucât persoanele aveau şanse diferite de a face parte din eşantion. Am
determinat mărimea eşantionului prin acceptarea pragului de eroare cuprinsîntre 1% şi 5 %,
dar şi prin asumarea studiului unor colectivităţi mici. Particianţii la studiu provin din toate
domeniile de activitate specifice poliţiei române. Scopul aplicării chestionarului era acela de a
identifica dacă femeile poliţist îşi cunosc propria identitate profesională sau nu, iar acesta a
fost prezentat persoanelor vizate, ţinând cont de faptul că acest fapt nu a afecta rezultatele
obţinute.
1.5 Instrumentul de cercetare
Instrumentul de cercetare utilizat a fost chestionarul autoadministrat în variantă
electronică şi fizică, grila de întrebări a fost ordonată în vederea surprinderii într-o manieră cît
mai cuprinzătore a părerilor persoanelor chestionate. De asemenea, subiecţii de studiu sunt
anonimi, confidenţialitatea datelor obţinute fiind asigurată. Chestionarul a fost structurat
îndouă părţi – una generală, iar cealaltă specifică. Prima parte cuprinde şase întrebări ce ne
oferă informaţii generale despre persoana chestionată.
Partea a două cuprinde şase teme, fiecăreia fiindu-i atribuită câte o macro-variabilă de
cercetare, după cum urmează: A. Macro-variabila ―Cunoaşterea profesiei‖ – cuprinde 9 itemi;
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B. Macro-variabila ―Filosofia profesiei‖ – cuprinde 4 itemi; C. Macro-variabila ―Rolurile
profesionale şi expertiză‖ – cuprinde 11 itemi; D. Macro-variabila ‖Atitudine‖ – cuprinde 12
itemi; E. Macro-variabila ―Angajament faţă de profesie.‖ – cuprinde 11 itemi; F. Macro-
variabila ‖Interacţiuni‖ cuprinde 7 itemi. Partea specifică cuprinde un număr de 54 de itemi.
Studiul s-a desfăşurat în perioada octombrie 2013– martie 2014, iar baza de date a fost
completată cu date din 365 de chestionare aplicate şi validate. Având în vedere caracterul
subiectiv al problematicii studiate, cercetarea s-a desfăşurat în rândul femeilor ce practică
meseria de poliţist în România.
Repartiţia persoanelor chestionate s-a efectuat pe următoarele categorii:
vârstă;
vechime;
nivelul de studii;
sursa de recrutare;
domeniu de activitate;
structura din care provine.
În elaborarea chestionarului, am utilizat itemi de control, dar şi de trecere de la un prag
de răspunsuri la altul pentru a asigura acurateţea cu care sunt exprimate opiniile.
Chestionarele au fost compeltate în mod anonim, în primul rând datorită suspiciunii induse
prin solicitarea datelor cu caracte personal, iar în al doilea rând deoarece nume subiecţilor
chestionaţi nu ar fi prezentat o variabilă de interes pentru această cercetare. Durata de
completare a chestionarului este de aproximativ 15 minute.
1.6 Metode de prelucrare a datelor
Datele culese la aplicarea chestionarului au fost introduse într-o bază de date SPSS
(Statistical Package for Social Sciences), iar la prelucrarea şi analizarea acestora a fost
utilizată aplicaţia software SPSS 17, în combinaţie cu MS Excel. Analizare datelor s-a
efectuat în două planuri: descripriv (prezentarea datelor în plan procentual) şi inferenţial
(testarea ipotezelor din punctul de vedere al corelaţiilor), având în vedere faprul că datele
colectate vizează interdependenţe sociale surprinse în mediul organizaţional. Programul
selectat pentru analizarea datelor - SPSS, este un program ce este folosit pentru analiza
statistică a datelor culese cu ajutorul unor instrumente de măsurare cantitative, în cazul nostru
instrumentul selectat a fost chestionarul. În plan economic, prelucrarea informaţiilor aferente
unei cercetări este efectuată prin prisma analizelor de validitate, fidelitate, a testelor
parametrice şi nonparametrice, precum şi a regresiei (non) liniare.
1.7 Surse de eroare
Chestionarele au fost returnate completate,în consecință, au fost luate în calcul 365 de
chestionare valide. Erorile de răspuns ţin, în principal, de înregistrarea informaţiei surogat,
existând riscul de a fi înregistrat percepţia respondentului asupra unui anume enunţ, în locul
preferinţei lui pentru acel enunţ. De asemenea, s-a încercat eliminarea surselor de eroare prin
implementarea în cadrul sondajului a unor întrebări de control care redau consecvenţa
răspunsurilor.
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1.8 Limite
Nu sunt excluse limite privind această cercetare generate fie de posibila existenţă a
surselor de eroare, fie de lipsa de omogenitate a eşantionului. Lipsa de omogenitate a
eşantionului se poate remarca prin diversitatea muncii respodenţilor. Însă, populaţia studiată
este caracterizată de omogenitate din punct de vedere al profesiei subiecţilo, precum şi al
faptului că sudiul s-a realizat la nivelul femeilor poliţist.
La nivelul cercetării există nişte rezerve ce se menţin în legătură cu extrapolarea
datelor la nivelul populaţiei, după cum urmează:
dimensiunea relativ restrânsă a eşantionului (365 de subiecţi), dar care respetă
valoarea pragului de eroare cuprins între 1% şi 5%;
aplicarea chestionarului atât fizic, cât şi electronic, ar fi putut avea un impact asupra
rezultatelor, însă autoadministrarea chestionarului a elliminat posibila influenţă a
cercetătorului asupra răspunsurilor;
cercetarea urmăreşte obţinerea de concluzii întemeiate asupra identităţii profesionale a
femeilor din poliţia română, nu şi a identificării cauzelor sau a demersurilor care au
facut posibilă dezvoltarea identităţii profesionale a femeilor într-un mediu de lucru
specific bărbaţilor.
Luând în considerare aceste limite ale cercetării, putem generaliza rezultatele obţinute
privind identitatea profesională a femeii poliţist, în condiţiile pragului de eroare de 5% şi a
dispersiei teritoriale a subiecţilor chestionaţi.
2. PRELUCRAREA ŞI INTERPRETAREA DATELOR
Pentru a evidenţia rezultatele obţinute în urma aplicării chestionarului au fost utilizate
două metode de analiză statistică:
Descriprivă: datele urmează să fie prezentate în plan procentual;
Inferenţială: ipotezele urmează să fie testate din punct de vedere al corelaţiilor.
Analiza în plan descriptiv a fost realizată la nivel procentual şi a fost împărţită pe cele
două secţiuni: cea de identificare a subiecţilor şi cea de identificare a opiniilor persoanelor
chestionate.
În prima parte a analizei descriptive urmează să prezentăm valorile obţinute pentru
anumiţi indicatori ce caracterizează populaţia investigată privind anumite variabile selectate,
astfel tabelul 1 cuprinde: ―vârsta‖, ―vechimea‖, ―studiile‖, ―sursa de recrutare‖, ―domeniul de
activitate‖, precum şi ―structura din care face parte persoana chestionată‖.
Indicatorii calculaţi pentru caracterizarea populaţiei investigate sunt prezentaţi în
tabelul de mai jos pe prima coloană după cum urmează: numărul de persoane chestionate
(Valid), formulare invalide/incomplete (Missing), tendinţa centrală sau valoarea
reprezentativă pentru anumite scoruri (Mean), eroarea standard a mediei (Std. Error of Mean),
tendinţa centrală din puctul de vedere al frecvenţelor (Median), valoarea cu frecvenţa cea mai
mare (Mode), deviaţia standard (Std. deviation), gradul de ―împrăştiere‖ al scorurilor în jurul
valorii centrale/gradul de variabilitate (Variance), deviaţia distribuţiei empirice în raport cu o
distribuţie empirică în raport cu o distribuţie simetrică în jurul mediei (Skewness), gradul de
aplatizare sau de ascuţire a unei distribuţii (Kurtosis), valoarea minimă (Minimum) şi valoarea
maximă (Maximum), precum şi suma valorilor înregistrate pentru toţi subiecţii (Sum).
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Tabel nr. 1 – Statistics
Varsta Vechimea in Nivelul Sursa de Domeniul Munca dvs.
respondentilo organizatie ultimelor recrutare de este asmilata
r studii activitate structurilor
absolvite
Valid 365 365 365 365 365 365
N
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 2.25 2.92 3.01 1.41 1.18 2.37
Std. Error of Mean .033 .038 .006 .026 .020 .038
Median 2.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 1.00 3.00
Mode 2 3 3 1 1 3
Std. Deviation .629 .735 .116 .493 .388 .724
Variance .395 .540 .014 .243 .150 .524
Skewness -.243 .126 8.402 .363 1.642 -.686
Std. Error of Skewness .128 .128 .128 .128 .128 .128
Kurtosis -.632 -1.138 68.971 -1.878 .699 -.815
Std. Error of Kurtosis .255 .255 .255 .255 .255 .255
Minimum 1 2 3 1 1 1
Maximum 3 4 4 2 2 3
Sum 820 1066 1100 515 432 864
Sursa:
În tabelul de mai sus putem observa că au fost validate toate chestionarele transmise
spre completare, obţinându-se o valoarea a abaterii standard (măsura distanţei până la care
variabila aleatoare fluctuează faţă de medie deci a dispersiei) de 0.38 pentru variabilele
―vechime‖ şi ―structură‖, 0.33 pentru ―vârstă‖, 0.26 pentru ―sursă‖, 0.20 pentru vaiabila
―domeniu de activitate‖, respectiv 0.06 pentru variabila ―studii‖. În ceea ce priveşte valorile
obţinute pentru Skewness observăm că avem două cazuri: primul când Skewness < 0 (cazul
înregistrat pentru variabilele ―vârstă‖ şi ―structură‖), deci distribuţia este înclinată spre
dreapta, având mai multe valori extreme spre stânga, respectiv cazul al doilea când Skewness
> 0 (pentru variabilele ―vechime‖, ―studii‖, ―sursa‖ şi ―mediul‖), deci distribuţia este înclinată
spre stânga, având mai multe valori extreme spre dreapta.
Pentru Kurtosis avem cazul în care valoarea acestuia este < 3 (situaţie întâlnită în cazul
următoarelor variabile: ―vârstă‖, ―vechime‖, ―sursă‖, ―mediul‖ şi ―structură‖) şi avem o
distribuţie platikurtică, mai plată decât o distribuţie normală având valori dispersate pe un
interval mai mare în jurul mediei. Probabilitatea pentru valori extreme este mai mică decât în
cazul unei distribuţii normale. De asemenea, avem cazuri în care indicatorul Kurtosis este > 3
(situaţie întâlnită în cazul variabilei ―studii‖) şi atunci avem o distribuţie leptokurtică, mai
ascuţită decât o distribuţie normal, ce înregistrează mai multe valori concentrate în jurul
mediei, ceea ce înseamnă probabilităţi ridicate pentru valorile extreme.
Aşa cum a fost prezentat anterior, ipotezele prezentei cercetări au fost concepute
pornind de la elementele constitutive ale identităţii profesionale. Astfel, studiul s-a axat pe
investigarea celor şase ipoteze de lucru ce vizează următoarele macrovariabile:
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Cunoaşterea profesiei;
Cunoaşterea filosofiei profesiei;
Rolurile profesionale şi expertiza;
Atitudinea faţă de profesie;
Angajamentul;
Interacţiuni.
În urma aprofundării literaturii de specialitate, se remarcă faptul că fiecărei
macrovariabile îi pot corespunde anumiţi itemi care au rolul de a studia comportamentul
subiectului asupra acesteia. Acesti itemi au fost propuşi şi confirmaţi de către cercetătorul
Hong Ryun Woo (Universitatea din Iowa) în lucrarea ‖Instrument construction and initial
validation: Professional Identity Scale in Counseling‖ şi adaptaţi specificului poliţienesc
pentru prezenta cercetare. În partea a doua a analizei descriptive urmează să prezentăm
valorile obţinute pentru anumiţi indicatori ce caracterizează populaţia investigată privind
anumite macrovariabilele prezentate mai sus.
Indicatorii calculaţi pentru caracterizarea populaţiei investigate sunt prezentaţi în
tabelul de mai jos pe prima coloană după cum urmează: numărul de persoane chestionate
(Valid), formulare invalide/incomplete (Missing), tendinţa centrală sau valoarea
reprezentativă pentru anumite scoruri (Mean), eroarea standard a mediei (Std. Error of Mean),
tendinţa centrală din puctul de vedere al frecvenţelor (Median), valoarea cu frecvenţa cea mai
mare (Mode), deviaţia standard (Std. deviation), gradul de ―împrăştiere‖ al scorurilor în jurul
valorii centrale/gradul de variabilitate (Variance), deviaţia distribuţiei empirice în raport cu o
distribuţie empirică în raport cu o distribuţie simetrică în jurul mediei (Skewness), gradul de
aplatizare sau de ascuţire a unei distribuţii (Kurtosis), valoarea minimă (Minimum) şi valoarea
maximă (Maximum), precum şi suma valorilor înregistrate pentru toţi subiecţii (Sum).
Tabel nr. 2: Elemente descriptive – macrovariabile
cunoaşterea cunoaştere rolurile Atitudinea angajamentul interacţiuni
profesiei afilosofiei
Valid 365 365 365 365 365 365
N
Missing 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mean 4.50 4.71 4.31 4.18 4.26 4.43
Std. Error of Mean .026 .024 .024 .020 .033 .026
Median 4.00 5.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00
Mode 4 5 4 4 4 4
Std. Deviation .501 .456 .463 .385 .637 .501
Variance .251 .208 .214 .149 .406 .251
Skewness .006 -.913 .827 1.665 -.282 .229
Std. Error of
.128 .128 .128 .128 .128 .128
Skewness
Kurtosis -2.011 -1.174 -1.323 .778 -.673 -1.785
Std. Error of Kurtosis .255 .255 .255 .255 .255 .255
Minimum 4 4 4 4 3 3
Maximum 5 5 5 5 5 5
Sum 1642 1718 1573 1526 1554 1616
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În tabelul de mai sus putem observa că au fost validate toate chestionarele transmise
spre completare, obţinându-se o valoarea a abaterii standard (măsura distanţei până la care
variabila aleatoare fluctuează faţă de medie deci a dispersiei) de 0.26 pentru variabilele
―cunoaşterea profesiei‖ şi ―interacţiuni‖, 0.24 pentru ―cunoaşterea filosofiei profesiei‖ şi
―rolurile profesionale şi expertiză‖, 0.33 pentru ―angajament‖ şi 0.20 pentru vaiabila
―atitudine‖. În ceea ce priveşte valorile obţinute pentru Skewness observăm că avem două
cazuri: primul când Skewness < 0 (cazul înregistrat pentru variabilele ―vârstă‖ şi ―structură‖),
deci distribuţia este înclinată spre dreapta, având mai multe valori extreme spre stânga,
respectiv cazul al doilea când Skewness > 0 (pentru variabilele ―vechime‖, ―studii‖, ―sursa‖ şi
―mediul‖), deci distribuţia este înclinată spre stânga, având mai multe valori extreme spre
dreapta.
Pentru Kurtosis avem cazul în care valoarea acestuia este < 3 (situaţie întâlnită în cazul
următoarelor variabile: ―vârstă‖, ―vechime‖, ―sursă‖, ―mediul‖ şi ―structură‖) şi avem o
distribuţie platikurtică, mai plată decât o distribuţie normală având valori dispersate pe un
interval mai mare în jurul mediei. Probabilitatea pentru valori extreme este mai mică decât în
cazul unei distribuţii normale.
Testarea de ipoteze într-o cercetare presupune mai mult decât simpla descriere a
datelor. Trebuie realizate corelații între variabilele măsurate.
În vederea calculării consistenţei interne, scala cu cei 54 de itemi identificați, grupaţi
pe cele 6 dimensiuni reţinute a fost aplicată pentru a evalua 365 de femei polițist care au studii
superioare, vârsta mai mică de 30 de ani, cuprinsă între 31 și 39 de ani, respectiv peste 40,
provenind din sursă internă sau externă. Totodată, participantele la studiu lucrează fie în
domeniul operativ, fie în cel neoperativ în structuri de investigații criminiale, ordine publică
sau suport, având o vechime cuprinsă între 3 și 10 ani, 10 și 15, sau peste 15 ani.
Pentru fiecare persoană supusă evaluării, s-a calculat pentru fiecare item al fiecărei
dimensiuni, un scor final reprezentând media scorurilor individuale la acel item. Pe baza
acestor date s-a calculat coeficientul Alpha Cronbach pentru a evalua consistenţa internă a
fiecărei dimensiuni a scalei, ca indicator al fidelităţii instrumentului.
În cadrul acestei etape au fost analizate corelaţiile dintre scorul fiecărui item şi scorul
final al dimensiunii, astfel încât itemii care corelează negativ cu scorul total vor fi eliminaţi.
Neidentificându-se itemi care corelează negativ, coeficientului de consistenţă internă a acestor
dimensiuni a rămas neschimbat.
Tabelul nr. 3: Case Processing
Summary
N %
Valid 365 100.0
a
Cases Excluded 0 .0
Total 365 100.0
a. Listwise deletion based on all
variables in the procedure.
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Tabelul nr. 4:
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.833 6
Scorul la fiecare dimensiune se obţine calculând media scorurilor la itemii acelei
dimensiuni. Pornind de la conceptualizarea noțiunii de identitate profesională ca fiind formată
din dimensiunile scalei de evaluare, se poate considera că au ponderi egale în obţinerea
scorului final.
Ca măsură a fidelităţii instrumentului, au fost calculaţi coeficienţii Alpha Cronbach
pentru fiecare dimensiune a identității profesionale, pe rezultatele obţinute de toţi cei 365 de
participanţi la studiu.
Bibliografie
Albu, M, (1998), „Construirea şi utilizarea testelor psihologice‖, Editura Clusiun,
Cluj-Napoca, pp. 136 - 148
Creswell, W. John (2012), ―Educational Research. Planning, conducting and
evaluating quantitative and qualitative research―, Editura Pearson, Boston, pp. 26-28
Lungu, O (2001), „Programul SPSS‖, Iaşi, Seria Psihologie Experimentală şi Aplicată,
dispoibil la http://alingavreliuc.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/ovidiu-lungu-spss.pdf (accesat
pe 10 februarie 2012)
Vătui, Mihaela (2009), ―Statistică―; Editura ASE, Bucureşti, disponibil la
http://www.biblioteca-digitala.ase.ro/biblioteca/carte2.asp?id=95&idb= (accesat 27 februarie
2012, 13 martie 2013)
Vătui, Mihaela; Voineagu Vergil (2006), ―Statistică: teorie şi aplicaţii―; Editura ASE,
Bucureşti disponibil la http://www.biblioteca-
digitala.ase.ro/biblioteca/carte2.asp?id=39&idb= (accesat pe 28 mai 2012, 10 aprilie 2013)
Woo, H. R., Instrument construction and initial validation: professional identity scale
in counseling,PhD. Diss., University of Iowa, 2013, pp. 9-10, disponibil la
<http://ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2663>, accesat pe 3 decembrie 2013
http://www.mai.gov.ro/Documente/Bilant%20MAI/Evaluarea_activitatii_MAI_2012.p
df
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SOME ASPECTS ON ICT IMPLICATION IN GLOBAL INNOVATION
Marta Kiss, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu Mureș
Abstract: In the modern society based on knowledge the Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) has played an essential role. ICT offers many opportunities for innovation.
The purpose of this paper is to present some connection that we have identified through our
research between Information Society and global innovation. In this respect we used two
composite indicators: one for ICT – the ―Networked Readiness Index‖ (NRI) published by
World Economic Forum – and another for Innovation – the ―Global Innovation Index‖ (GII)
from the Global Innovation Report. A global innovation cannot be achieved without the
implementation of a solid human infrastructure where ICT is a very important component.
Keywords: connection, innovation, ICT, GII, NRI.
1. Introduction
In the modern society the importance given to information plays an essential role and
in understanding its implication first we should mention some concepts:
Information Society or digital society is the society in which the creation, distribution,
use of information has a significant impact on the economic, political, social, cultural
etc environment (National Institute of Statistics). The basic aim is to create a society
that includes all citizens‘ access to public services provided in electronic form by
increasing capacity utilization of services of the information society, reforming
business models and increasing operational efficiency through appropriate use of
ICTs, namely increasing competitiveness in the business environment through
advanced usage of ICTs.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been defined in the literature
in different ways; thus O'Brien defines information technology as computer-based
information systems, Laudon & Laudon considers computers and peripherals
equipments the basis of modern information systems, and Van Cuilenburg argues that
computer and telecommunications technology taken together form the information
technology.
The information and telecommunications industry has become the backbone of the
information society, both present and future (Pook L., 2006). According to the author the
information and telecommunications industry created world wide networks interconnecting
societies and individuals alike influencing social development and knowledge acquisition.
The question is how does ICT connect with innovation? ICT offers many opportunities
and promises for innovation. One such business model built on ICT is mobile banking that
has been successfully implemented in developing countries. According to Chandrajit
Banerjee, in today‘s world, innovation is a subject of great importance because it stimulates
sustainable growth in a highly competitive market (Global Innovation Report, 2014). Global
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innovation cannot be achieved without the implementation of a solid human infrastructure
where ICT is a very important component. Innovation is an inherently human endeavor.
Education has a key role in innovation, and access to basic education and professional
development is the key to the development of talents. Investing in education we can build a
human infrastructure that leads to innovation and growth. Mikre (2011) highlights the benefits
of ICT use in education, existing promises, and the limitations and challenges of integration to
education systems.
Each European country has its own strategy for the Information Society, but there are
significant differences between them, due in particular to initial technical, technological and
economic conditions of each country, as well as to their human, economic or financially
potential.
Advances in information and communication technologies (ICT) in recent years
played a crucial role in transforming traditional education and making it more accessible,
affordable, and effective globally (Ken Hu, Global Innovation Report, 2014).
This paper presents some connection that we have identified through our research
between Information Society and global innovation. In this respect we used two composite
indicators: one for ICT – the ―Networked Readiness Index‖ (NRI) published by World
Economic Forum – and another for Innovation – the ―Global Innovation Index‖ (GII) from
the Global Innovation Report.
2. The Networked Readiness Index (NRI)
NRI index measures the propensity for countries to exploit the opportunities offered
by information and communications technology (ICT) and seeks to better understand the
impact of ICT on the competitiveness of countries. NRI has been published annually in the
Global Information Technology Report (GITR) by the World Economic Forum in partnership
with INSEAD since 2002 and in 2014 it has covered a record number of 144
economies/countries. The Report has accompanied and monitored ICT advances over the last
decade as well as raising awareness of the importance of ICT diffusion and usage for long-
term competitiveness and societal well-being. The 144 countries are grouped in 7 categories:
ADV = Advanced economies, CEE = Central and Eastern Europe, CIS = Commonwealth of
Independent States and Mongolia, DEVASIA = Developing Asia, LATAM = Latin America
and the Caribbean, MENA = Middle East and North Africa, SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa
(Figure 1).
Figure 1. Repartition of countries/economies
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Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
NRI, since 2012, is a composite of 4 sub-indexes, 10 pillars and 54 indicators. The 4
sub-indexes are (Figure 2):
- the environment for ICT offered by a given country;
- the readiness of the economy‘s key stakeholders (individuals, businesses, and
governments) to use ICT;
- the usage of ICT among these stakeholders;
- the economic and social impact of ICT (sub-index introduced since 2012).
Figure 2. The Networked Readiness Index framework
Source: World Economic Forum
As we can see in Figure 2 the NRI includes features related to access and usage that
cover not only affordable ICT infrastructure but also digital resources, including software and
skills.
Figure 3. The 4 sub-indexes and the 10 pillars of the NRI
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Source: World Economic Forum
Two groups of economies dominate the NRI: Northern European economies - Finland,
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Iceland – and the Asian economies – Singapore, Taiwan, the
Republic of Korea, Hong Kong. In the top chart of the NRI Finland ranks the first and
Singapore is ranked on the second place in the world top chart.
The performance of these Northern European economies in terms of ICT readiness is
due to the fact that they own excellent digital infrastructures and robust innovation systems,
and this allows them to score very highly in ICT use - with almost universal Internet use, for
example - and in innovation performances.
Asian economies reflect outstanding business and innovation environments that are
consistently ranked among the most conducive to entrepreneurship in the world.
Further on we describe the situation of NRI in EU-27 countries for the period 2013 -
2014.
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Figure 4. The Networked Readiness Index (NRI) for EU-27 countries in 2013-
2014
Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
The score between 5.4 - 7.0 is the best possible outcome and between 1.0 - 3.3 is the
worst outcome. In the European top chart Finland is placed first, and Bulgaria and Romania,
on the 71st and 75th places, close the EU rankings, with lower rates of ICT uptake and unstable
environments that prevent their potential for higher economic and social returns. However in
Romania the NRI score increased from 3.86 in 2013 to 3.96 in 2014 and this is a gratifying
fact.
Figure 5. Distribution of the 2014 NRIs for EU-27 countries into their constituent
sub-indexes
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Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
The digital divide in Europe among countries is bigger for businesses and narrower
across governments. Overall, governments in most EU Member States have recognized the
importance of developing ICTs and offer a fairly large number of public services online. The
most important consequence is that digital strategies should focus not only on developing ICT
infrastructure but also on creating the right conditions for an effective use of ICTs to stimulate
innovation, competitiveness, and social inclusion.
3. The Global Innovation Index (GII)
The Global Innovation Index (GII) reveals a rich dataset to analyze the global
innovation trends. The GII 2014 issued the 7th edition and is co-published by Cornell
University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO, a specialized
agency of the United Nations).
GII in 2014 has covered 143 countries/economies around the world and used 81
indicators.
Those 143 countries/economies are grouped in 7 categories: EUR = Europe, NAC =
Northern America, LCN = Latin America and the Caribbean, CSA = Central and Southern
Asia, SEAO = South East Asia and Oceania, NAWA = Northern Africa and Western Asia,
SSF = Sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 6).
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Figure 6. Repartition of countries/economies
Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
The GII is a composite indicator that relies on seven pillars that ranks
countries/economies in terms of their enabling environment to innovation and their innovation
outputs.
Figure 7. The Global Innovation Index (GII) framework
Source: World Economic Forum
In 2014, Switzerland is the leader of the global top chart followed by the United
Kingdom, Sweden, Finland, the Netherlands, the United States of America (USA), Singapore,
Denmark, Luxembourg and Hong Kong (China). These economies from around the world
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appear to have high income as a common factor explaining their dominance and stability at
the top. The GII model used by the high income economies reflects the fact that innovation is
a multifaceted phenomenon with several input drivers and different output results. These
innovation leaders are almost in top ranked in all pillars and sub-pillars. Global innovation
divides exist between world regions. The average GII scores for Northern America (58.11),
Europe (47.23), South East Asia and Oceania (41.72) and are significantly higher than those
for other regions such as Northern Africa and Western Asia (35.73), Latin America and the
Caribbean (32.85), Central and Southern Asia (27.48) and Sub-Saharan Africa (27.45). For
these innovation divides between regions are responsible the human capital, the creative
outputs pillar and the research pillar.
Figure 8. The Global Innovation Index (GII) for EU-27 countries in 2013-2014
Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
Global innovation divides can be found also in European countries. United Kingdom
is the first in the European top chart, and Greece and Romania on the 50th and 55th place
closing the EU rankings with lower rates of GII.
The Innovation Efficiency Ratio serves to highlight those economies that have
achieved more with less as well as those that lag behind in terms of fulfilling their innovation
potential. In Romania the Innovation Efficiency Ratio is 0.84 that indicates a strengthening in
this respect. In Romania the median of the Innovation Efficiency Ratio is 0.74, which places
the country among the upper-middle-income economies.
The development of ICT enables people to have access to information, to learn online,
build their skills. The 3rd pillar named Infrastructure of the GII with a score 41.7 in Romania
includes Information and communication technologies indicators with a score 37.8, where the
index of E-participation has the smallest value 7.9 indicating a weakness of the system.
Figure 9. Distribution of the 2014 GIIs for EU-27 countries into their constituent
sub-indices
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Source: World Economic Forum data processed by the author
The leading countries are among the high income economies. The progress of these
countries depends not only on an economy‘s level of development in science, technology and
innovation, but also on the depth of its penetration into society as well as the intellectual
potential of the population, its competence in creating and applying new knowledge, and its
ability to perceive essential achievements in science, technology and innovation daily
practices.
4. Conclusions
The main aim of NRI is to measure the ability of countries to leverage information and
communication technologies for improved competitiveness and well being.
The NRI contains aspects of how ICT are transforming the economy and society.
Despite the fact that ICT involves the development of new skills, new competencies, the
question of access and usage remains important - especially for developing countries, given
their need to reduce the digital divide. Consequently, several European countries lead the NRI
rankings: Finland, Sweden, Netherlands, and Denmark. Although the situation differs from
one country to another in European countries, they all seem to face difficulties in developing
and benefiting from their digital potential. Despite the fact that Romania is ranked the last in
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the EU top chart, the values of NRI are increasing, and this shows that it is a country with
emerging economies.
The human factor is responsible for innovation and growth. Successful innovation
requires the population to obtain a higher level of education, to be more creative, and to
stimulate their ability to perceive essential achievements in science, technology, and
innovation and implement those in daily practices. Romania is placed among the upper-
middle-income and emerging economies.
A global innovation cannot be achieved without the implementation of a solid human
infrastructure where ICT is a very important component.
5. References
[1] Crişan, D. A., Preda, A., Coculescu, C., Altăr-Samuel, A. N., (2010) Some aspects
concerning the correlation between ICT and innovation in Europe, The Annals of the
University of Oradea. Economic Sciences, TOM XIX, Nr. 2, December, pp. 1183-1189
[2] Global Innovation Report (2013) The Global Innovation Index 2013: The Local
Dynamics of Innovation, Available at http://www.wipo.int
[3] Global Innovation Report (2014) The Global Innovation Index 2014: The Human
Factor In innovation, Available at https://www.globalinnovationindex.org
[4] Mikre, F., (2011) The Role of Information Communication Technologies in
Education: Review Article with Emphasis to the Computer and Internet, Ethiopian Journal of
Education and Sciences, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 109-126,
Available on http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ejesc/article/viewFile/73521/62437
[5] O‘Brien, J. A., (2000) Introduction to Information Systems: Essentials for the
Internetworked E-Business Enterprise, McGraw-Hill Education
Laudon, K. C., Laudon, J. P., (1999) Management Information Systems: Organization
and Technology, Prentice-Hall
[6] Pook, L., (2006) A comparison of Bulgaria‘s and Romania‘s information
infrastructures for EU accession, Proceedings of the International Conference on Economics,
Law and Management, ICELM-2, Targu Mures, pp. 25-37
[7] The Global Information Technology Report 2014: Rewards and Risks of Big Data,
Available at http://www3.weforum.org
[8] The Global Information Technology Report 2013: Growth and Jobs in a
Hyperconnected World, Available at http://www3.weforum.org
[9] Van Cuilenburg, J. J., Scholten, O., Noomen, G. W., (1998), Ştiinţa comunicării,
Editura Humanitas, Bucureşti
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INFLUENCE OF CLIMATERIC SHOCKS ON FIRM PERFORMANCE
Nicoleta Mihăilă, PhD, Scientific Researcher, Centre for Financial and Monetary
Research ”Victor Slăvescu”
Abstract: The climateric shock- firm performance relationship is very complex, based on key
factors of influence: the activity of the enterprise; financing structure; degree of risk
diversification in funding (depending on the fluctuation of profitability to the activity volume
variations); predictability of the environment in which the firm activates - affected will be the
enterprise from an unpredictable environment because of its vulnerability to the economic
situation it's facing with; regulatory framework for the enterprise; central and local
administration reaction - in case of shock, how the authorities will act to enterprise, the
recovery measures etc.
The shock manifestation in the firm is quick, the effects and consequences being seen
immediately. The financial losses, the firm image, its market position can be major or minor,
depending on its degree of readiness to act in such cases. In many cases firms could not resist
crises that confronted with , coming out of the market by bankruptcy or voluntary closure.
Therefore, the firm needs to adapt to the new situation created, by investment, refurbishment,
and implicitly by appealing to credit, receiving grants, mergers (where applicable).
According to P. Drucker in "The Practice of Management" (1954) "the performance
objectives of an organization should be set in eight areas: market positioning, innovation,
productivity, financial and logistical resources, profitability, development and performance of
managers, attitude and performance of employees, public responsibility".
Keywords: firm performance, climateric shock , firm stabilizers, financial performance
indicators, adaptability to shocks
Introducere
Conform lui A. Bourguignon, ―performanţa nu este o constatare, ea se
construieşte‖.Utilizarea termenului de ―performanţă‖ este din ce în ce mai întalnit în
vocabularul nostru, acesta ―îmbracând‖ mai multe forme, înţelesuri.
1. Conceptul de performanţă a firmei
Noţiunea de performanţă este dificil de definit, este un ―cuvânt-valiză‖, ce prezintă cel
puţin trei semnificaţii: succes, rezultatul unei acţiuni sau acţiunea în sine. În ceea ce priveşte
performanţa organizaţională, aceasta reprezintă: „realizarea obiectivelor organizaţionale
indiferent de natura şi varietatea lor. Didier Noyet afirma: ‖performanţa reprezintă atingerea
scopurilor care ţi s-au dat în convergenţă cu orientările întreprinderii‖.
De asemenea, performanţa este acea stare de competitivitate a entităţilor economic:
firma caută să obţină rezultatele dorite, şi eventual chiar a le depăşi, pentru a fi la nivelul celor
mai bune concurenţe de pe piaţă. Prin urmare, performanţa poate fi asociată cu conceptul de
―benchmarking‖(constă în confruntarea propriilor practici ale organizaţiei cu cele ale altor
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organizaţii). A practica benchmarking-ul este echivalent cu a merge în căutarea celor mai
bune metode utilizate într-o activitate, aceste metode permiţând firmei să-şi amelioreze
performanţele. Acest concept se bazează pe faptul că lumea exterioară este într-o continuă
evoluţie şi constă în compararea propriei organizaţii cu una sau mai multe organizaţii
identificate ca fiind de referinţă într-un anumit domeniu.
Predicate necesare în definirea performanţei (caracteristici)
Performanţa prezintă o serie de trăsături, prin intermediul cărora se poate construi o
definiţie pertinentă a acesteia. Prin urmare:
● performanţa este o caracteristică a agentului economic, cuprinde întreaga sa sferă de
activitate; se referă la agentul economic ca la un tot, este intrinsecă activităţii lui;
● performanţa poate fi particularizată pentru diversele laturi ale activităţii economice;
● performanţa este permanentă, întrucât este mereu legată de activitatea firmei;
● este progresivă, dinamică: se doreşte ca în timp să se obţină rezultate superioare
celor actuale, să fie mai bună, să progreseze;
● este autogenerativă: performanţa generează performanţă, în sensul că odată atins un
nivel al performanţei, în perioada următoare obiectivul ar fi depăşirea acestuia;
● performanţa este o mărime discretă, întrucât fenomenele economice care o
generează sunt discrete, nu continue, au un ritm de modificare( care poate fi şi negativ);
● este rezultatul comparaţiei între rezultat şi obiectiv, evidenţiată prin intermediul
comparaţiilor :- cu propriile realizări din perioade anterioare(de referinţă);- cu rezultate
obţinute de alte organizaţii (abordare comparativă); - cu obiective asumate pentru o anumită
perioadă, ceea ce dă consistenţă abordării autorelative a performanţei;
● este multidimensională, prezintă 4 dimensiuni: socială (valoarea resurselor umane),
economică (eficienţa economică), politică (legitimitatea organizaţiei în faţa grupurilor
externe) şi sistemică (perenitatea organizaţiei);
● prezintă sensibilitate la şocul climateric; trendul performanţei înregistrează
modificări, funcţie de domeniul de activitate al agentului, intensitatea şocului, modul cum se
răsfrânge acesta asupra firmei;
● este vulnerabilă. Performanţa depinde de mediul economic, fenomenele care o
generează; poate suferi modificări în ceea ce priveşte nivelului acesteia;
● este predictibilă În funcţie de rezultatele obţinute, nivelul performanţei poate fi
cunoscut în perioada urmatoare;
● este previzibilă, funcţie de previzibilitatea activităţii la care se referă.
Prin urmare, putem crea o definiţie a performanţei, pornind de la următoarele
elemente: a realiza ceva pentru un scop dat (a crea valoare); rezultatul (care poate fi definit în
maniere diferite); potenţialul de realizare (capacitatea creativă, fidelitatea clienţilor);
compararea unui rezultat în raport cu referinţa (internă sau externă, aleasă sau impusă);
competiţia (aplicarea conceptelor de progres continuu, a face mai bine decât ultima dată);
judecată, comparaţie.
2. Şocul climateric. Impactul asupra performanţei firmei
Şocul climateric afectează într-o măsură mai mică sau mai mare agentul economic,
funcţie de specificului domeniului de activitate. În determinarea efectului şocului climateric
asupra firmei, considerăm necesar a face o tipologie a celor mai importante întreprinderi care
fac obiectul nostru de cercetare , în asociere cu cea a şocurilor.
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Clasificarea agentului economic: a)după dimensiune, avem întreprinderi mari, IMM-
uri, mici; b)funcţie de domeniul de activitate- cele din ramurile economice (agricultură,
construcţii, transport, servicii,asigurări etc); c) după capital, sunt întreprinderi private şi cele
cu capital de stat.
Şocurile climaterice sunt de mai multe tipuri: a) după intervalul de timp în care se
succed, avem şocuri ciclice şi aciclice; b) după amplitudine, avem dezastre şi catastrofe; c)
după intensitate, sunt şocuri cu intensitare minimă, medie, maximă sau, d)după durata şocului,
sunt şocuri punctuale, şocuri de durată mică, medie, lungă.
Relaţia şoc climateric- performanţa financiară este foarte complexă, se manifestă
asupra nivelului de performanţă. Are la baza factori esenţiali de influenţa:
- domeniul de activitate: şocul este resimţit diferit de agenţii ce activează în special în
ramuri ale economiei ca agricultura, construcţii, transporturi –şocul este perceput într-o
manieră negativă, ca o lovitură de către firmă, are efecte puternice asupra performanţei
financiare- faţă de firmele de asigurări, din învăţământ, servicii bancare, care îşi continuă
activitatea în condiţii normale.
- structura de finanţare, respectiv autofinanţare sau credit. La producerea şocului, de
regulă finanţele proprii sunt afectate, deci autofinanţarea nu poate fi o soluţie de ieşire din
impas. Se va apela prin urmare la împrumut, fapt ce va îndatora însă întreprinderea.
- gradul de diversificare a riscurilor în finanţare: depinde de fluctuaţia rentabilităţii la
variaţiile volumului de activitate.
- predictibilitatea mediului în care activează agentul economic: afectată va fi firma
dintr-un mediu impredictibil, datorită vulnerabilităţii acesteia la situaţia economică cu care se
confruntă.
- cadrul de reglementare al agentului economic
- reacţia administraţiei centrale şi locale: în caz de şoc, cum vor acţiona autorităţile
faţă de întreprindere, măsurile de redresare etc.
Şocul climateric afectează direct performanţa financiară a firmei, de aceea, pentru ca
efectele dezastrului să fie cât mai reduse, agentul ―opune rezistenţă‖ cu ajutorul unor
―stabilizatori‖(factori endogeni, ce aparţin întreprinderii). Acest proces de a opune rezistenţă
poartă denumirea de adaptabilitate la şocuri, adica capacitatea firmei de a se conforma
situaţiei nou-create, de a veni cu măsuri de prevenire(dacă şocul încă nu s-a produs), respectiv
de remediere(ulterior şocului).
Tipurile de stabilizatori sunt în funcţie de natura agentului economic.
În primul rând, o condiţie esenţială a absorbţiei şocului climateric este reprezentată de
managementul firmei, organizarea, informarea. Dacă întreprinderea posedă o capacitate de
producţie performantă şi personalul de conducere este foarte bine pregătit şi apt de a face faţă
problemelor întâmpinate, situatia se va redresa. Trebuie avute în vedere:
- investiţiile, schimbarea structurilor - infrastructura statică (imobilă) implică investiţii
şi adecvare;
- relaţia transport-nevoi-cerinţe-tehnologie, care implică investiţii sau externalizări;
- măsurile de prevenire presupun atenţie asupra relaţiei ciclu-prognoza climaterică-
ciclul activităţii. Sunt necesare în acest sens investiţii în inovarea produselor şi serviciilor
pentru adaptare, susţinere, complementaritate. De asemenea, se va apela la rezervele pentru
situaţii critice (redondanţa climaterică – suplimentul peste necesar; coeficientul de
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redondanţă, calculat ca raport între cantitatea obţinută peste necesarul firmei şi producţia
totală);
- măsuri de remediere : recuperare, remediere, recondiţionare, reluare, prin investiţii şi
schimbarea structurilor.
În continuare prezentăm un exemplu referitor la rolul stabilizatorilor (absorbanţilor) la
producerea şocului. De menţionat că aceşti absorbanţi se regăsesc sub forma unei cheltuieli
pentru firmă.
Presupunem că firma are 3 tipuri de absorbanţi (spre exemplu: asigurare, provizion,
depozit): x, y, z. Matricea va conţine prin urmare estimarea valorică a cheltuielilor pe fiecare
instrument de combatere a şocului sau şocurilor (pe orizontală) şi pe verticală, tot în
aproximare valorică din punct de vedere financiar, aproximarea valorică a pagubei produse de
şoc: T, U, V.
Presupunem că dacă se produce un eveniment, acesta poate fi însoţit de un eveniment
catastrofic similar sau de altă natură pe care firma îl anticipează a se produce împreună cu
primul şoc.
T U V
X A=X/T B=X/U C=X/V
Y D=Y/T E=Y/U F=Y/V
Z G=Z/T H=Z/U I=Z/V
Această matrice poate indica eficacitatea firmei în combaterea şocului prin adecvarea
(cheltuielilor) instrumentului la şocul produs- atunci când acesta, probabil, datorită repetării
sau a producerii asupra unor firme similare, poate fi estimat din punct de vedere financiar.
Se va selecta acel instrument a cărui cheltuială acoperă cel mai bine şocul produs,
astfel încât raportul să fie unitar sau putin peste această valoare. Un raport subunitar va sugera
că instrumentul respectiv nu este suficient în acoperirea şocului şi atunci fie se va majora
suma aferentă instrumentului, fie se vor combina 2 sau mai multe instrumente (ex.: în cazul
şocului T, când să spunem A este 0,8, se va prefera fie majorarea sumei X, fie şi un alt
instrument astfel încât să spunem A+B=1. Această variantă a mixului de instrumente de
protecţie împotriva şocului este mai plauzibil deoarece sumele aferente fiecărui instrument
absorbant nu poate fi oricând modificat cu uşurinţă; totodată mixul de instrumente poate
disipa riscul neacoperirii şocului sau şocurilor).
Selecţia instrumentului absorbant cel mai eficace în combaterea şocului se va face şi în
funcţie de probabilitatea cea mai mare de producere a şocului. Astfel, daca se anticipează că
mai curând şocul T se va produce, atunci se va selecta instrumentul a cărui sumă alocată este
capabilă să acopere cel mai bine efectele financiare ale şocului (să presupunem că în cazul
exemplului de mai sus, este raportul A şi prin urmare instrumentul a cărui cheltuială este X).
Deci să presupunem că, în urma acoperirii pagubei, vor fi preferate:
T U V
X A=X/T B=X/U C=X/V
Y D=Y/T E=Y/U F=Y/V
Z G=Z/T H=Z/U I=Z/V
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
A, adică X E, adică Y I, adică Z
În cazul în care, un şoc climateric este anticipat a fi persistent, atunci, pentru perioada
următoare (t+1) se va selecta fie acelaşi instrument, însă se va adecva valorii şocului (mai
mică) fie va fi preferat un alt instrument mult mai eficient pentru acea perioadă.
T0(t) T1 (t+1)
X A0=X0/T0 A1= X0/T1
Y D0=Y0/T0 D1= Y0/T1
Z G0=Z0/T0 G1= Z0/T1
A0, adică X Adică fie se
va modifica X0
pentru a fi adecvat
lui T1, fie se va
prefera un alt
instrument, să
spunem Y
Aceste instrumente, fie singure sau sub formă de mix de instrumente, trebuie să fie
capabile să se reflecte în indicatorii de performanţă financiară.
În cazul în care şocurile se anticipează a fi mai puternice decât au fost prevăzute
iniţial, fără a se cunoaşte proporţia lor financiară, atunci instrumentele mai eficiente vor fi
cele selectate iar sumele lor vor fi majorate. Impactul cheltuielilor privind şocurile climaterice
asupra indicatorilor financiari nu poate fi decât unul nefavorabil, însă odată selectate
instrumentele cele mai bune de acoperire a şocului sau şocurilor, relevanţa raportului dintre
cele două elemente (cheltuială X (însă eficientă în acoperirea riscului) / indicator financiar
(ex. profit net)) nu va mai trebui percepută strict din punct de vedere al beneficiului contabil
ci din perspectiva optimalităţii acoperirii riscului climateric.
3. Indicatorii economico-financiari vs şoc climateric
Folosirea indicatorilor economico-financiari pentru măsurarea rezultatelor
întreprinderii este de fapt modalitatea de reflectare a performanţelor economico- financiare.
Aceştia prezintă câteva trăsături fundamentale:• reflectă o latură specifică a performanţei
finaciare,• sunt dinamici – evoluează în timp,
• sunt obiectivi – datorită informaţiilor ce stau la baza calculului lor,• prezintă
sensibilitate la comensurarea performanţei financiare, funcţie de variaţia acesteia,•
vulnerabilitate la schimbările climaterice,• fluctuaţia nivelului lor, funcţie de intensitatea
şocului climateric.
Producerea şocului climateric determină modificarea evoluţiei indicatorilor de
performanţă financiară, întrucât efectele se resimt, în special pe termen scurt, asupra structurii
veniturilor, producţiei, cheltuielilor-prin includerea externalitatilor-, creanţelor, datoriilor.
Astfel de indicatori sensibili la producerea unui şoc climateric sunt: a) trezoreria neta
(TN=FR-NFR), care va înregistra reducere datorită creşterii NFR(acoperire datorii,
cheltuielile neprevazute), iar FR nu este suficient pentru a face faţă acestei noi situaţii, b)
gradul de îndatorare, c) lichiditatea, care va avea de asemenea valori negative, prin afectarea
activelor curente(marfă, materii prime şi materiale) în reducerea sau stagnarea stocurilor în
firmă, şi creşterea datoriilor de exploatare, d) cifra de afaceri - va înregistra o diminuare
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
însemnată, ceea ce va determina implicit ca şi alţi indicatori care derivă din ea să se reducă:
rentabilitatea financiară (Rf= rezultat net/ CA), pragul de rentabilitate, marja comercială etc,
e), veniturile sunt afectate, cheltuielile sunt majorate şi cu cele de mediu, deci profitul va fi în
scădere. Prin urmare rentabilitatea economică, capitalurile proprii se vor diminua, f) gradul de
elasticitate, g) coeficientul de redondanţă climaterică poate fi un indicator ce arată măsura în
care rezervele pentru situaţiile de criză acoperă nevoile firmei. Redondanţa climaterică
reprezintă în opinia noastră rezerve climaterice/ producţia totală obţinută. Rezervele
climaterice sunt cele ―puse deoparte‖, suplimentul peste cantitatea necesară firmei.
4. Adaptabilitatea firmei la schimbarea climaterică.
Managementul concretizează acţiunea tuturor factorilor interni (sistem productiv,
calitate, ritmicitate a producţiei, organizare etc.) şi externi ; reprezintă principala forţă de care
dispune intreprinderea. Cât timp factorii de decizie dintr-o întreprindere conştientizează
riscurile implicate de activitatea economică a ei, anticiparea lor trebuie să fie un exerciţiu
permanent, care să asigure performanţe ridicate şi continuitatea activităţii. În întâmpinarea
dificultăţilor ce pot apare, managerii întreprinderilor vor trebui să adopte un stil de conducere
care să pună pe prim plan acţiuni rapide şi pragmatice, să dovedească abilitate în rezolvarea
problemelor operaţionale şi aptitudinea de a putea reacţiona în mod rapid la schimbările care
intervin în mediul înconjurător, de multe ori cu caracter neprevăzut.
Performanţele întreprinderii, mai ales în perioade de dezechilibru economic, când
adaptarea la mediu e mai grea, sunt influenţate de factori ce vizează : calitatea personalului şi
managerilor; structura organizaţiei şi funcţionalitatea ei; cultura organizaţiei.
Schimbarea în structura organizaţională, managementul, strategiile şi obiectivele
organizaţiei presupun o schimbare a culturii acesteia , iar reuşita aplicării anumitor strategii
radicale depinde de o evaluare riguroasă şi lucidă a gradului de adaptare a organizaţiei la
contextele actual şi viitor.
În cazul în care întreprinderea este bine adaptată la contextul actual şi înregistrează
performanţe acceptabile, strategiile vizând contextul viitor presupun o ―transformare‖ sau o
―reorientare‖ a activităţii întreprinderii. Dacă întreprinderea nu este adaptată nici contextului
actual, având performanţe dezastruoase chiar, dar nici contextului viitor , este necesară
adoptarea unor strategii de ―redresare‖ sau de ―revitalizare‖ a situaţiei întreprinderii.
Întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii întâmpină adesea dezechilibre ale structurii financiare şi
sunt decapitalizate prin distribuirea dividendelor, ceea ce le diminuează rentabilitatea şi le
face vulnerabile, deoarece rezervele financiare nu mai sunt disponibile în aceeaşi măsură. Pe
de altă parte, supraîndatorarea face că întreprinderea să-şi piardă independenţa în faţa băncilor
, clienţilor, furnizorilor, ceea ce creează o conjunctură financiară nefavorabilă activităţii
economice a firmei.
Dificultăţile financiare datorate şocului pot fi privite prin prisma a două aspecte :
- existenţa unei structuri financiare neadaptate naturii activităţii. Aceasta sporeşte
vulnerabilitatea firmei faţă de finanţatorii externi, dar şi faţă de riscul de faliment al clienţilor.
Consecinţele acestei situaţii sunt imposibilitatea finanţării investiţiilor necesare dezvoltării şi
incapacitatea acoperirii ciclului de exploatare ;
- fragilitatea financiară. Firma nu este capabilă să-şi asigure sursele de finanţare prin
performanţele obţinute, ceea ce o face mult mai vulnerabilă la schimbări bruşte.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Natura vulnerabilităţii componentei financiare a agentului economic constă în faptul
că finanţele sunt generate în totalitate în cadrul relaţiei întreprindere- mediul său. Ele nu
prezintă un ―produs‖ al agentului economic, ci o ―rezultantă‖a acestuia cu mediul, fiind deci
de esenţă raţională.
Agentul economic se comportă inerţial într-un mediu inerţial; la o schimbare a
mediului, agentul îşi modifică comportamentul, devenind vulnerabil dacă este incompatibil cu
sistemul nou creat. Prin urmare agentul trebuie să perceapă, accepte şi asimileze corect
schimbarea propriei componente financiare. În cazul în care nu se poate adapta, va deveni
vulnerabil în faţa schimbării.
Cât despre atenuarea riscurilor cu care se confruntă activitatea agentului şi
supravieţuirea în perioadele cu un nivel scăzut (sau poate chiar negativ) al fluxurilor monetare
generate de schimbarea climaterică, se caută măsuri de adaptare(flexibilitatea firmei).
Adaptabilitatea financiară este abilitatea de a acţiona efectiv perntru a modifica mărimea şi
ritmul fluxurilor de trezorerie, astfel încât să răspundă la necesităţile neaşteptate sau la
oportunităţile ivite.
Măsura în care şi căile prin care o entitate doreşte să fie adaptabilă din punct de vedere
financiar va depinde de riscurile cu care aceasta se confruntă şi de apetitul pentru risc al
investitorilor săi.
Adaptabilitatea financiară provine din mai multe surse, printre care sunt incluse şi
capacitatea de a: procura noi capitaluri, de exemplu prin emisiunea de obligaţiuni; obţine
lichidităţi prin vânzareaa activelor, fără a leza continuitatea operaţiilor; atinge o îmbunătăţire
rapidă a încasărilor nete de lichidităţi generate de operaţiile de exploatare ale entităţii;
acordare de subvenţii, ajutoare, sponsorizări, de către stat sau alţi potenţiali investitori.
Flexibilitatea financiară reprezintă capacitatea întreprinderii de a lua măsurile
corespunzătoare în scopul modificării sumelor şi periodizării fluxurilor de numerar astfel încât
să poată răspunde nevoilor şi situaţiilor neaşteptate.
De exemplu, o întreprindere inflexibilă din punct de vedere financiar este o
întreprindere cu multe datorii, încât sursele sale lichide de finanţare sunt insuficiente pentru a-
şi onora datoriile sau pentru a-şi finanţa dezvoltarea economică. O întreprindere cu un înalt
grad de flexibilitate financiară este capabilă să depăşească perioadele dificile, să-şi revină
după eşecurile neprevăzute şi să beneficieze de oportunităţile de investiţii profitabile şi
neaşteptate.
În general, există aprecieri conform cărora, cu cât flexibilitatea financiară a unei
întreprinderi este mai ridicată, cu atât riscul acesteia să dea faliment, este mai mic.
Concluzii
Performanţa este ―cuvânt-burete‖ datorită multitudinii de întelesuri, cele mai utilizate
forme fiind succes, realizare, randament, competiţie; reprezintă optimizarea prezentului şi
proiecţia viitorului.
Dintre atributele ce o caracterizează, importanţa prezintă în special previzibilitatea,
vulnerabilitatea la schimbările mediului economic şi natural, sensibilitatea la şocurile
climaterice, indicatorii reprezentativi ―suferind‖ modificări majore (profit, eficienţa,
îndatorarea, capitalul). De aceea, pentru a diminua impactul şocului, agentul economic caută
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
absorbanţi (exogeni firmei), respectiv stabilizatori (endogeni) cu care să opereze, astfel încât
şocul climateric să nu ―lovească‖ direct activitatea în cauză.
Producerea schimbării climaterice are urmări negative asupra performanţei financiare,
acestea fiind reflectate în indicatorii specifici de performanţă financiară- cei afectaţi de şoc:
gradul de elasticitate, coeficientul de redondanţa climaterică, gradul de utilizare a capacităţii
utilajelor, precum şi indicatorii clasici: trezoreria, rentabilitatea, cash-flow-ul din
exploatare,etc.
Firma trebuie deci să se adapteze situaţiei nou create, prin investiţii, retehnologizare, şi
implicit prin apelarea la credite, primire de subvenţii, fuziuni(unde este cazul).
Bibliografie
1. Bunea, Şt., 2001, ―Lumini şi umbre în prezentarea şi interpretarea performanţei‖
2. Mihăilă, N. , 2008, ―Indicatori de performanţă economico- financiară şi riscurile
climaterice‖, capitol din proiectul de cercetare ―Finanţarea firmelor în perspectiva asumării
schimbărilor climaterice‖, coordonat de dr. Dimitriu Mihail
3. Ştefănescu, A., 2005, ‖Performanţa financiară a întreprinderii între realitate şi
creativitate‖, editura Economică, Bucureşti
4. Vasilescu, I., 2003, ‖Eficienţa economică şi performanţa managerială a
întreprinderii‖, editura Economică, Bucureşti
5. Verboncu, I., Zalman, M., 2005, ‖Management şi performanţe‖, editura
Universitară, Bucureşti
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QUALITATIVE MARKETING RESEARCH ON THE USAGE AND THE
INFLUENCES OF ONLINE SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES ON CONSUMERS -
PART II
Mircea Fuciu, PhD Student, Lucian Luncean, PhD Student, Hortensia Gorski,
Prof., PhD, Romanian-German University of Sibiu
Abstract: The extremely fast and explosive development of the online social networking (OSN)
sites in the last decades has created for the managers and consumers a new environment in
which to make business. Our paper, which is the second part of a larger study (containing a
quantitative research based on in-depth interviews and a qualitative research based on a
questionnaire), represents an approach made by the authors in order to understand the level
of usage of OSN as well as the impact that these platform have on the consumers. The paper
underlines several aspects related to literature review, it presents the research methodology,
it points out the qualitative marketing results linked to: the importance of owning an OSN
account, the number of accounts known and owned by the respondents, the average time spent
on an OSN account, the technological means by which the users connect to the OSN, the main
activities undertaken on an OSN, advantages and disadvantages of owning an OSN, as well
as the main OSN influence factors that act upon the consumers / respondents during and after
the usage of such a platform.
Keywords: consumer behaviour, online social network, marketing research, influences
1. Introduction
The strong development and evolution of the information and communication
technologies and of the internet in the last few years has led to new changes in the way
companies do business, but especially in the manner in which they contact and interact with
their consumers. In the last decade, a new marketing tool has become the great new ―thing‖.
The online social networking sites (OSN) are a new tool that managers and marketers alike
have started to use greatly in their marketing and consumer relationship strategies. It has
become mandatory for every company to have a online social networking account in order to
promote, present their products or services, to inform the public about their company and last
but not least ―to be out there‖. But the question on everybody‘s mind is: How does this new
marketing tool, the OSN, influence the consumer, and how can it be used by the companies?
Our paper, which is the 2nd part of a larger study (containing a quantitative research based on
in-depth interviews and a qualitative research based on a questionnaire), represents an
approach made by the authors in order to understand the level of usage of OSN as well as the
impact that these platform have on the consumers.
2. Short literature review
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Today the World Wide Web (WWW) is undergoing a subtle but profound shift to Web
2.0, becoming more of a social web. In comparison with WWW one decade ago, individuals
(grassroots) play a more crucial role in the evolution of web today, that is, the active
participation of individuals leads to a more diverse online world, regardless of their different
colors, beliefs, and countries. Especially, these Web 2.0 sites provide an ―Eden‖ for free
minds and ideas to trigger sparks of inspiration (Feng et. al, 2008).
In order to understand how the online social networking sites influence the consumers
and to see the methodology and the results of the marketing research, it is imperative to
clarify several aspects related to the concept of online social networks, their evolution over
the years as well as several influences that might act upon the consumer of the 21st century
that uses an online social networking account. OSNs (Kim et al., 2004) have recently gained
significant popularity and are now considered among the most popular sites on the web; the
purpose of such sites being to uniquely distribute information and products
Firstly and probably the most important aspect represents understanding the concept
of online social networks. According to the Oxford Online Dictionary, social networks are all
the social interactions as well as the personal relationships of the individual. The study of
social networks date back about half a century, focusing on interpersonal interactions in small
groups due to the difficulty in obtaining large data sets (Wasserman and Faust in Hu and
Wang, 2009).
Social networking sites are tools for building virtual communities, or social networks,
for individuals with similar education, lifestyles, interests, or activities (Bolotaeva and Cata,
2011). The online social networks are defined (Boyd and Ellison, 2007) as web-based services
that allow individuals to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded
system, (2) articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view
and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system. Other
authors (Diffley et. al. 2011; Trusov et al., 2010; Veghes and Pantea: 2009, Zarella: 2010)
have also presented the definition of an online social network, that agrees totally or to some
extent to Boyd and Elisson (2007).
OSN was defined by Balas (2006) as a platform used as a mean for building online
communities, where individuals from around the world can connect with each other for a
variety of reasons. Similarly, OSN is defined by Preece and Maloney-Krichmar (2005) as
―people who come together for a particular purpose, and who are guided by policies [. . .], and
supported by software.‖ Overall, OSN is an online virtual community where a user can create
a profile and build a network of people with similar interests or activities (Kasavana et.al,
2010).
Social network sites (Ellison et.al, 2007) such as Facebook, QZone, VKontakte allow,
individuals to present themselves, articulate their social networks, and establish or maintain
connections with others. These sites can be oriented towards work-related contexts, romantic
relationship initiation (the original goal of Friendster.com), connecting those with shared
interests such as music or politics (e.g., MySpace.com), or the college student population (the
original incarnation of Facebook.com). Participants may use the sites to interact with people
they already know offline or to meet new people.
As we can see, the online social network is strongly linked with the usage of the
information and communication technologies and allows us to interact with individuals and
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companies that we know. We stated before that the online social networking site has had a
great evolution in the last decade. The number of users has increased exponentially over the
last years and so has the number of online social networking sites. The modern idea of online
social network emerged in 2002 with the launch of the network Friendster by Jonathan
Adams. This network was created from the model Match.com. Friendster is a pioneer in the
development of social networking sites and focused on helping people stay in touch with
friends and discover new people and things.
In the last 8-9 years, the evolution of the information era, and the increased use of the
Internet, has led to the development of strong online social networks. Globally, Facebook and
Twitter are the most commonly used, but there are other networks in North America where
MySpace and LinkedIn are used quite often, Nexopia is primarily used in Canada.
Other online social networks are the following: Netherlands - Bebo, Hi5, Hyves;
Germany - StudiVZ; Hungary - iWiW; Spain - Tuenti; South America , India, Central
America - Orkut and Hi5; Asia and the Pacific Islands - Friendster, Mixi, Multiply, Orkut,
Qzone, etc. As it can be seen in recent years, increasingly more online social networks
appeared, with different profiles and uses. According to some estimates at this time (October
2014) there are over 300 worldwide social networking platforms that are used in strong
manner which cater for different fields of activities.
With regard to the influences that act upon the consumer of the 21st Century, we can
clearly state that these influences have changed greatly in the last decades due to the changes
that took place in the behaviour of the consumer on one hand, and on the other hand the
changes that the companies have made in order to communicate and interact with them. In the
marketing literature (Cătoiu and Teodorescu, 2004; Kotler and Armstrong, 2008), are
underlined several important influences that act upon the consumers. They can be seen from
two different perspectives:
Endogenous perspective –perception, motivation, learning / personality / information
and attitude.
Exogenous perspective – the social groups (family, membership groups, reference
groups), social class, culture and subculture.
Understanding the concept of online social networking sites as well as the influences
that act upon the consumers, will help us determine if these influences have been created by
these new marketing and communication tools. We, as marketers and the companies, must try
to find out if the OSN influences the decision making process of the consumer in general or
certain stages of said process. This is the challenge of the next period if we want to maximise
the effectiveness of such a powerful marketing tool.
3. Research methodology
The aim of the qualitative research is to understand how the usage of online social
networking sites influences the consumer and their buying behaviour. The research that we
developed was qualitative marketing research based on a marketing research in-depth
interview that was carried out on a number of 14 individuals of Sibiu County that are frequent
users of at least one major online social networking site (eg. Facebook, LinkedIn, Google+).
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This qualitative marketing research has an exploratory character and is part of a larger
marketing research and is designed to understand and clarify several attitudes, influences and
behaviours of the OSN users. We have developed a recruitment questionnaire (Cătoiu et al.,
2009) which was based on several statistical figures that describe the users of online social
networking sites of Romania (www.socialbreakers.com):
Male / Female user ratio – 51% vs. 49%;
Age groups: 25 – 34 years old – 33%; 18 – 24 years old – 27,7%; 35 – 44 years old –
17%; other age groups – 22,3%.
For the development of the research we have created an interview guide which
contains 9 main open questions that are related to the fulfilment of the main scope of the
qualitative research. The duration of each interview was between 20 and 40 minutes.
In order to carry out the research we developed several specific objectives:
O1 – Identifying the importance thatowning an OSN account has on the
respondents.
O2 – Determining the number of accounts known and owned by the
respondents.
O3 – Determining the average time spent on an OSN.
O4 – Identifying the technological means by which the users connect to their
OSN account.
O5 – Determining the main activities undertaken on an OSN;
O6 – Identifying the advantages and disadvantages of owning an OSN account.
O7 – Determining the main OSN influences that act upon the consumers.
After the completion of the interviews, each response was transcribed, mentioning the
breaks in the research process. Following the previous stage, we have analyzed the content of
the responses based on a response grid and following the specific objectives of the research.
The content analysis of each interview followed three main steps:
each interview was divided in units following each objective;
each unit was identified and grouped in homogenous and exclusive categories;
each category is analyzed according to frequency, importance and other pre
established rules.
Without a doubt, we must be aware of certain errors and limitation of our research
such as the lack of clear statistical data regarding the usage of online networking sites in the
Sibiu County area, due to the ever-changing structure of the users. Another limitation could
be taken into account is the deliberate or unintentional distortion of the information given by
the respondents.
The deliberate distortion was reduced by selecting the participants that were willing to
take part in the research, but unfortunately the unintentional distortion of the responses could
not have been avoided and some of the respondents might have offered information that
would present the situation in a more favourable light even though the purpose of the research
was presented to the respondents.
4. Research results
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After the analysis of the responses offered by the participants to the study, several
important responses could be drawn in order to respond to the specific objectives and the
purpose of our research. The first question (linked to the O1) of the interview guide was
related to the importance of owning an OSN account. The results for these two questions can
be seen in figures 1/
Figure 1: Importance of owning an OSN account
(Source: Authors‘ computation)
As we can see from the result of figure 1, the great majority (79%) of the respondents‘
state that owning an OSN account is: important and very important for them. The rest of 21%
of the responses are assigned to those that consider that owning an OSN account is neither
important nor unimportant - you just have to be there and have such an account.
The second objective (O2) deals with the number of accounts owned by the
respondents, the respondents have shown the following: (1) all of the respondents stated that
they have and Facebook.com account; (2) more than one third of them mentioned that they
have a second or a third OSN account on platforms like LinkedIn, Google+ or Twitter.
Related to the same objective we have asked a second question about the known OSN sites
known by the participants. They have stated that their knowledge is fairly limited to the OSN
sites that they use and some of them (21,4%) mentioned that they have heard of QZone,
VKontakte and earlier sites like MySpace, Friendster or Hi5.
The next two questions of the research were asked in order to cover objectives O3 and
O4. The results of the data analysis are presented in figures 2 and 3.
Fig. 2 Average time / day spent on an OSN
Fig. 3 Usual method of connecting to OSN
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(Source: Authors‘ computation)
From the analysis of the data, as it can be seen in figure no. 2, we can see that 57% of
the respondents spend between 1 – 3 h / day on an OSN; 29% of the participants state that are
permanently connected to an OSN and 14% of the respondents spend less that 1 h/day on an
online social networking site. Regarding the method of connecting to an OSN, 50% of the
respondents are staying connected via a mobile phone / Smartphone; 36% are connected with
a PC of a Laptop and last but not least 14% of them connect with a tablet.
The next objective of our research (O5) tasked the respondents to state the main
activities that they undertake on an OSN account. The analysis of the research data, presented
in figure 4, show the following results:
Keep informed / News / Advertising – 85,71%;
Communicate with friends – 71 ,43%;
Watch friends‘ photos / activities – 57,14%;
Post photos – 42,86%;
Use messenger service – 35,71%;
Play games – 21,43%.
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Fig. 4 Main activities undertaken on his / hers OSN account
(Source: Authors‘ computation)
The 5th objective (O5) of our research deals with the advantages and disadvantages that
the consumers feel when using / owning an OSN account. The main advantages of having an
OSN account are, according to the respondents, the following: (1) Keep up to date / Always
informed; (2) Having information about different aspects: news, advertising, cultural events,
products etc; (3) Connect with friends, family, acquaintances. With regard to the
disadvantages of owning and using an OSN account, the most common ones mentioned by
the respondents were: (1) lack of confidentiality / everybody has access to you ; (2) indirect
socializing; (3) waste of time etc.
The last objective of our research (O7) was directed towards identifying the main
influences that the online social networking sites have on the consumers, as well as the level
of those influences. The results of this question are presented in the next figure 5.
Fig. 5 Main influences that the OSN sites have on consumer
(Source: Authors‘ computation)
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As we can see from the analysis of the data, the influences of the online social
networking sites on the consumers are not very strong. They range (on a 5 steps Likert scale
score) from 1,70 to 3,70 with a general score of 3.11 (were 1 – very little influence and 5 –
very strong influence). We can see that the strongest influence on the consumers is that of the
recommendations received from friends (score: 3,70), followed closely by the opinions of
friends, colleagues and family (score: 3,65) and on the weakest influence is exercised by
number of times shared / going viral (score: 2,40) and belonging to a certain group (score of
1,70).
5. Conclusions and acknowledgments
The world is in a continuous state of change and o development. In the last 2 decades,
the new communication and information technologies have revolutionized the way the
individuals interact and communicate with one another. Since the beginning of the ‘90, when
the first web page was created by Tim Barnes Lee, to the development of the Windows
Microsoft operating system, to the creation of the first e-commerce site, to the explosive
development of the Smartphone and Tablets and last but not least the unprecedented
development of the online social networking sites, the world is no longer the same.
These new changes and developments have created a new and ever-changing business
environment that has also modified the way the companies do business and interact with their
consumers (either individuals or organizations). The last decade has although created a new
marketing (the online social networking sites) tool that can be used cheaper, faster and which
can reach sometimes up to 20% of the world population (Facebook.com has over 1,2 billion
users worldwide).
This explosive development of the online social networking sites has opened up new
research areas for the marketing specialist. It has become apparent and in the same time
necessary to understand how this online platform can help or harm the business environment
and in the same time haw does it influence the consumers. Our paper which, like stated
before, is part of a larger marketing research (containing a quantitative research based on in-
depth interviews and a qualitative research based on a questionnaire) aimed to understand
how the consumers are influenced by the online social networking sites.
This article has presented in its first part a short literature review where were the
concept and evolution of OSN was underlined as well as several aspects related to the
influences that act upon the consumer behaviour from a theoretical point of view. In the
second part we have presented the research methodology (where we presented 7 research
objectives) and the research results which underlined the following:
79% of the participants stated that owning an OSN account is important and very
important.
All the respondents have an OSN account (Facebook.ro) and the most well known
online platforms are: Facebook.com; Google+; Twitter; LinkedIn.
The majority (57%) of the respondents spends 1-3 h/day on a OSN site and 29% of
them are permanently connected.
The most common method of connecting to ones OSN account is the Smartphone
(50%).
The greatest advantage of having and using an OSN is: Keep up to date / be informed;
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The greatest disadvantage of having and using an OSN is: lack of confidentiality /
everybody has access to you.
The main activities conducted on an OSN account are: Keep informed (85,71%) and
communicate with friends , family etc (71,43%).
The strongest influences of OSN sites on consumers and their consumer behaviour
are: recommendation from friends, opinions from friends and family, while the
weakest influence is belonging to a certain group.
Of course due to the small sample of the research, we can‘t extrapolate and generalize
the results of the research to the total population of online social networking sites users of
Sibiu County or of the 7 Center Region. But this is an important first step in identifying
several important influences that the OSN sites have on the consumer and its decision making
process. It is necessary to further the research by developing and applying a quantitative
marketing research with the same aim.
Following this qualitative marketing research, previously conducted researches (Fuciu
and Gorski, 2012, 2013; Fuciu et. al: 2012) together with a quantitative marketing research
conducted on a representative sample level for the Sibiu County or of the 7 Center Region,
especially taking into account the pattern of the OSN users, can reveal an important indicator
and can validate a possible model that underlines the influence of online social networking
sites on the consumers‘ buying behavior of the said geographical region.
6. Bibliography:
1. Balas, J. (2006), ―The social ties that bind‖, Computers in Libraries, Vol. 26 No. 2,
pp. 39-41.
2. Boyd, D.M., Ellison, N., B., (2007) Social network sites: a definition, history and
scholarship, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, vol.13, (1),
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1;
3. Bolotaeva, V., Cata, T., (2011) Marketing Opportunities with Social Networks,
Journal of Internet Social Networking and Virtual Communities, vol. 2011, p. 8, DOI:
10.5171/2011.409860;
4. Cătoiu, I., et al. (2009), Cercetări de marketing - tratat, Urnaus Publishing House,
Bucharest,
5. Cătoiu, I, Teodorescu N., (2004) Comportamentul Consumatorului, 2nd Edition,
Uranus Publishing House, Bucharest.
6. Diffley, S., Kearns, J., Bennett, W., Kawalek, P., (2011), Consumer Behaviour in
Social Networking Sites: Implications for Marketers, Irish Journal of Management,
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7. Ellison, N. et. al, (2007) The benefits of Facebook ―Friends‖: Social capital and
college students‘ use of online social networking sites, Journal of Computer Mediated
Communication , vol. 12, pp. 1143 – 1168; doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x
8. Feng F. et. al (2008), Empirical analysis of online social networks in the age of Web
2.0, Journal Physica A, vol. 387, pp. 675 – 684, doi:10.1016/j.physa.2007.10.006
9. Fuciu, M., Dumitrescu, L., Luncean L., (2012) – Study on the usage of online social
networks by university students from Sibiu County and its impact on organizations,
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5th International Conference on Marketing – Marketing from Information to decision,
Babes-Boliay University of Cluj Napoca, October 25 – 26, pp. 121 – 135.
10. Fuciu, M., Gorski, H., (2012), Online social networks – a comparative analysis for the
marketing world, Proceedings of the 19th International Economic Conference ―The
persistence of the global economic crisis: causes, implications and solutions‖, Lucian
Blaga University of Sibiu, June 15, pp. 270 – 279.
11. Fuciu M., Gorski H. - Marketing Research Regarding the Usage of Online Social
Networking Sites by High School Students, International Economic Conference of
Sibiu 14 – 15 june 2013 Post Crisis Economy: Challenges and Opportunities, IECS
2013, published in Procedia Economics and Finance, volume 6, 2013, pp. 482–490;
12. Kasavana M. et. al (2010), Online social networking: redefining the human web,
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 68 – 82.
13. Kotler P., Armstrong, G., (2008) Marketing Principles¸ 4th edition, Teora Publishing
House, Bucharest, p, 209.
14. Kim, W., Lee, C. and Hiemstra, S. (2004), ―Effects of an online virtual community on
customer loyalty and travel product purchases‖, Tourism Management, Vol. 25 No. 3.
in Kasavana M. et. al (2010), Online social networking: redefining the human web,
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Technology, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 68 – 82.
15. Preece, J. and Maloney-Krichmar, D. (2005), ―Online communities: design, theory,
and practice‖, available at: http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue4/preece.html
16. Trusov, M., Bodapati, A. V., Bucklin, R. E. (2010), Determining influential users in
Internet social networks, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. XLVII, pp. 643-658, in
Karlicek, M., Tomek, I., Hasprova, M., (2012), Social Networking Sites in the Czech
Republic: an empirical study, Management & Marketing Challenges for the
Knowledge Society (2012) Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 15-28;
17. Veghes, C., Pantea, C., (2009) Social networking: reasons to join and things done by
the romanian consumer, Analele Universităţii din Oradea – seria economică, vol. 4
(1), pp. 869-873;
18. Wasserman, S., Faust, K., (1994) Social Network Analysis: Methods and applications,
Cambridge Univ. Press, in Hu, H., Wang, X., (2009), Evolution of a large online
social network, Physics Letter A Journal, vol. 373 nr. 12 – 13, pp. 1105 – 1110.
19. Zarrella, D., (2010), The social media marketing book, O‘Reilly Media Inc,
Sebastopol, California, SUA, p. 55.
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DOES THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT?
Ioana Andrada Moldovan (Gavril), Assist. Prof., PhD, University of Economic
Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: In the aftermath of the global financial crisis that erupted in 2008 and the turmoil
that followed in public finance field, sustainability has become a highly debated topic, both in
business and academic circles. The crisis has highlighted the weaknesses of the financial
system and reminded the whole world that its fundamental role should be promoting healthy
and sustainable economic growth. This article aims to analyze the relationship between the
financial sector and sustainable development and to provide solutions so that the financial
system becomes a promoter of sustainability.
Keywords: financial system, sustainability, sustainable development, eco-efficiency, economic
growth
JEL Classification: G10, G15,Q01
Introduction
Due to the recent financial and economic context, the way that financial markets
contribute to sustainable development has become a burning issue. Therefore, there are
several questions that should find an answer: Is the global financial system a means to
sustainable development, or on the contrary, it is a factor that works against it? Does the
financial system determine a mentality through which financial markets are only aimed at the
accumulation of short-term gains, which ignores human and environmental issues, or, on the
contrary, it is a means to achieve goals on poverty reduction and environmental protection,
and for ensuring sustainable growth?
All these are very important issues that require immediate solutions in the context of
the unprecedented development of financial markets during the last three decades.
Figure 1- Market capitalization
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Data source: World Federation of Exchanges, http://www.world-exchanges.org
The global equity market capitalization tripled between 1990 and 2000, from nearly
nine billion dollars, to more than 30,000 billion in 2000, and followed an upward trend over
the next seven years, so that in 2007 it amounted to 64.500 billion U.S. dollars, the historical
maximum. Because of the financial crisis that began in 2007, the global capitalization
decreased in 2008 to almost 34,000 billion, but the next year it started growing and reached
nearly 57,000 billion at the end of 2010 (Figure 1). Despite these fluctuations, it should be
noted that the volume of global stock market capitalization has increased more than six times
between 1990-2010.
While the market capitalization tripled between 1990 and 2000, the global output
increased by 46%, from 22,280 billion in 1990 to 32,209.3 billion in 2000. After this
moment, the growth of global GDP accelerated, so that in 2008 it reached 61,350.6 billion,
almost three times higher than in 1990. However, in 2009, the global production fell to
58,141.4 billion (Figure 3.9). Thus, while the global market capitalization increased more than
six times within the period 1990 - 2010, the global production increased less than three times.
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Data Source: World Bank, www.worldbank.org
The global equity market is only part of the overall financial system`s size. In mid-
2007, the global derivatives market amounted to 457 trillion euro, about ten times higher than
the global equity market capitalization, while the global market value of the bonds was about
55 trillion.
Given the impressive size of the global financial system relative to the size of the real
economy, the following question arises: How should the global financial system be managed
so that it promotes sustainable development?
Sustainability
The most popular definition of sustainable development is the one submitted by the
―Bruntland Report‖: ―Sustainable development is a development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their future needs‖.
This definition contains within it two key concepts: the concept of needs and the concept of
limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization of the environments
ability to meet present and future needs (Ebner and Baumgartner, 2006).
Sustainability involves creating alternative resources to substitute the rare ones, while
mitigating the damaging effects on the environment. Therefore, the essence of sustainable
development is maintaining a balance between resource consumption and availability (Olsson
et. al, 2004). Reducing resource consumption can cause a slowdown of the growth process, so
that it is desirable that growth is based on increased efficiency of lower amounts of resources.
At the microeconomic level, sustainable development is based on the concept of "eco-
efficiency", which involves combining the ecological and economic efficiency, or maximizing
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the added value created in economic activity, while minimizing resource consumption,
wastage and pollution (Yadong, 2013).
Sustainable development is closely related to human development, as all efforts to
achieve sustainable development are channeled towards creating a balanced environment to
enable people to improve their quality of life.
The tension between financial system`s nature and sustainable development
Many businesses are concerned, more or less, of issues regarding the environmental
quality, resource depletion, or social responsibility, namely the determinants of sustainable
development. However, development of eco-efficient activities involves the internalization of
environmental and social costs, which reduces the profitability of companies. In their search
for fast and consistent earnings, and under the pressure of market competition, many
businesses prefer to be effective economically only, ignoring the determinants of sustainable
development.
In the event that things would change in favor for sustainable development, firms
would have to fully internalize environmental and social costs, while governments would be
able to discourage pollution and overuse of resources by significant taxes, and to reward eco-
efficient companies. If this should be the case, the global economic system would change
significantly and the financial system should also change the standard of investment
decisions, lending and insurance. In such a context, if a company succeeds in being
economically profitable, then it surely would be eco-efficient. But the reality is different, and
the financial system is generally less concerned with issues related to sustainable
development.
However, global concerns for sustainable development tend to converge to the
situation described above, but changes in this respect are different in intensity from country to
country. As economic activity becomes more oriented toward sustainable development,
financial markets should emphasize more the relationship between sustainable development
and the financial quality of businesses, otherwise they could be exposed to risk (Schmidheiny
and Zorraquìn, 1996).
Thus, between the financial system and sustainable development there is a certain
tension, which can be explained by the following:
sustainable development has a multidimensional and holistic perspective (
based on environmental protection, social equity and economic development),
while the financial sector only seeks for high and rapid profits (Pisano et al.,
2012).
sustainable development requires long-term investment (future-oriented), while
financial markets seek short-term gains (present-oriented);
efforts to achieve eco-efficiency most often reduce a company`s present
profitability in favor of future earnings, while financial markets favor
companies with consistent present earnings;
cost internalization of the eco-efficient activities affects their profitability,
making them unattractive to financial intermediaries;
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sustainable development requires massive investments in emerging countries,
while the players in the financial markets believe these investments are very
risky and require very high yields;
accounting and reporting systems cannot incorporate sustainable development
risks and opportunities, and financial institutions make decisions based just on
the information provided by these systems (Schmidheiny and Zorraquìn,
1996)..
Therefore, developing eco-efficient businesses requires strategies on several years, and
also the existence of strong and lasting relationships with stakeholders and funders. As in
many companies the shareholding is fragmented and ever-changing, and as funders do not
like to give their money up for long periods of time, the nature of financial markets does not
seem to positively influence sustainable development.
The role of the financial system in promoting sustainable development
For the developing economies, creating a balance between the determinants of
sustainable development and economic efficiency requires that the allocation of funds and
capital formation promote eco-efficiency. This will lead to the integration of sustainable
development factors in financial system`s reform programs and to the implementation of
financial innovation. Given the high costs that developed countries pay to remove the effects
of pollution, developing countries cannot afford to pollute at present under the assumption
that they will remedy the situation in future. Therefore, the development of emerging markets
should be directed towards sustainable development.
Many emerging countries have important reserves of natural resources, but often these
are not used in accord with the concept of sustainability. Local and foreign companies often
use them inefficiently, in their attempt to achieve rapid gains. Encouraging market
participants and authorities to embrace eco-efficiency requires substantial support from
financial institutions, both in terms of the funding process, and in terms of the influence they
can exert on accelerating the process of change, as they may require the fulfillment of certain
conditions to debtors.
In developed countries, the dissemination of information on the environment tends to
become an important issue for regulators and institutional investors. By contrast, in emerging
countries, companies do not publish information on the environmental impact of work their
activity, as they generally attract the necessary funds by bank credit. As companies in
emerging countries will resort to financing through the capital market, they will have to report
on the environmental impact of their work, along with other information on the financial
situation.
Moreover, few financial institutions in developing states consider potential
investments to improve environmental quality and are familiar with the concept of eco-
efficiency. Better informing on these issues could lead to the mobilization of financial
institutions towards addressing the issue of eco-efficiency.
Difficulties in obtaining financing cumber the occurrence of clean production
technologies and the most disadvantaged in this regard are small and medium enterprises,
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which face many difficulties because of the high cost of capital, or lack of adequate financial
resources. Moreover, in emerging countries, where environmental regulations are more
relaxed than in the developed ones, the principle of eco-efficiency is not given sufficient
motivation (Schmidheiny and Zorraquìn, 1996).
Traditionally, investments in green technologies are seen as a necessary cost to meet
environmental regulations. Implementation and use of eco-efficient technologies in order to
prevent wastage of resources and reduce environmental pollution has become a source of
competitive advantages, requiring financial institutions to develop new perspectives, concepts
and operational tools.
Developing economies have the opportunity to implement eco-efficient technologies
that reduce the consumption of resources and pollute less, increasing their international
competitiveness. However, for procurement of such technologies, they need financial support,
and this is where the ability of financial intermediaries to assess development opportunities
both in terms of economic efficiency, and in terms of eco-efficiency, has a great importance.
Implementation of eco-efficient technologies will result in significant reduction of
costs on the performance of national environmental standards, but nevertheless, the costs of
implementation can be prohibitive for small and medium enterprises, whose financial
situation does not allow them access to long-term loans. Therefore, governments in
developing countries often avoid tightening regulations on environmental protection,
considering that many companies will not be able to fulfill them.
Investments in ecological production capacities are often financed through foreign aid,
but such financing is reduced. However, the impact of these benefits may be relatively high,
because foreign aid is often conditioned by the implementation of reforms.
The larger the anticipated risks for emerging economies are, foreign investors will be
less willing to invest on the long run, and will require higher yields. Allocation of funds
through aid programs help generating a positive outlook on the country concerned, and often
leads to the unlocking of private capital flows.
Foreign aid can mobilize financial markets to promote eco-efficiency in developing
countries through partnerships, financial reform, and privatization. Public-private partnerships
between development agencies that allocate financial aid and private investors may determine
the mitigation of risk associated to emerging countries and the appearance of profitable
investments in eco-efficient technologies. On the other hand, the privatization of state owned
companies in emerging countries may lead to greater resource efficiency and reducing
pollution. Eco-efficiency aspects should be included in any negotiation and financing of
privatization transactions.
Along with economic growth, large investment projects are financed more easily and
at lower costs than small projects, even when the latter correspond better to sustainable
development requirements. Often, the eco-efficient projects` financing faces many obstacles,
while other investments may be advantaged simply because they promise an impressive
profitability, not taking into account the sustainable development issues.
However, globally, there are several reasons for taking the necessary steps in reaching
eco-efficiency:
environmental regulations and penalties tend to be tightened;
use of several economic instruments to encourage progress towards eco-efficiency;
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investors prefer to invest in eco-efficient companies that comply with environmental
regulations, banks prefer to lend and insurance companies prefer to provide services to
such companies, compared to firms that do not have a strategy for sustainable
development;
consumption of organic products tends to reach maturity, and public opinion weighs
more for corporate decisions;
media expansion makes any practice inconsistent with the sustainable development
principles to be easily pulled out.
We cannot pretend that all the above are valid in every country, but they are some of
the main motivations for embracing practices aimed to sustainable development.
Conclusions
Governments can encourage the implementation of eco-efficient technologies through
tax exemption or reduction, or through providing grants and aid. However, these are not
sufficient in the absence of an efficient financial system to support development. This
requires, first, a change in the mentality, so that financial markets are seen to a lesser extent as
speculation instruments, and greater in terms of the fundamental role they must meet, which is
financing sustainable development. The creation of innovative financial products to help the
companies comply with the sustainable development principles should be a priority for
financial institutions.
Although the main objective of each financial entity is making profit, in recent years
financiers` concerns for sustainable development have intensified. However, this is not the
case for every country. The financiers` concerns for sustainable development are based on the
fact that their risks are lower if they finance companies applying eco-efficient strategies. For
example, a bank prefers to finance the activities of a eco-efficient company, since it is certain
that it will not be called upon to pay heavy fines for pollution, and that will not affect the
company`s ability to pay back its loan. In developing countries, however, it is difficult for
credit institutions to encourage eco-efficiency of small firms, which represent, in most cases,
the major polluters.
Similarly, insurance companies prefer to deal with eco-efficient firms, since their risks
are lower compared to companies that are not oriented towards sustainable development.
However, as insurers invest significant funds on the capital markets, it is their long-run
interest to place these amounts of money in industries that reduce environmental risks that
determine global warming, climate change and natural disasters, which, in turn, increase their
risks.
Recent developments in the global financial system have shown that the financial
entities` concerns for sustainable development is still too low. As their primary purpose is to
develop faster and bigger gains, they have engaged in risky financial schemes, so that instead
of promoting sustainable development of the world economy, they have endangered the
stability of the global economic system.
We consider that, in the context of increasing concerns about sustainable development,
the bio fuels and clean renewable energy industries have a great growth potential and players
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in the financial system should find it motivating to provide financial support for their
development.
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral
research in Romanian economics science domain‖
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A MODEL OF STRATEGIC DECISION-MAKING IN THE GREEN
INVESTMENTS PROJECTS
Oriana Negulescu, PhD Student, ”Transilvania” University of Brașov
Abstract: In order to make a strategic decision in green investments the top management is
facing the process of choosing a project among a series of projects as strategic options or at
least selecting between a proposed project and the existing strategy as it is. The investment
process usually imply, when considering public projects or projects of a high amount of
financing, the preparing of an opportunity study, a feasibility study, a business plan and the
cost-benefit analysis, steps that are reduced at a summary when the projects are private or of
a small amount of financing. But, nevertheless many projects are abandoned, caused by the
management‘s lack of time to analyze deeply the projects, or due to the possibility of
unconsidered risks to arise or the lack of a simple technique to support the management in a
global evaluation of the possible or proposed options.
In this respect, the paper is offering a model of strategic decision-making in the green
investments based on the projects‘ eco-efficiency. The multi-criteria analysis is used as
technique in the models design. The analysis is using seven criteria, i.e. the investments cost,
the sources of financing, the technical/operational parameters, the environment indicators,
the financial-economic indicators, the risks and uncertainty and the investment‘s advantages.
Keywords: management, strategic decision, green investments, eco-efficiency, model
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important global strategic objective today and the next century is to reduce
the gas emissions with the greenhouse effect. In order to reach out this target, the companies
have to change into sustainable-green industry organizations. Nevertheless the main driver is
the investments and the managers and their teams need to follow clear procedures in decision-
making. The literature offers different models that may help the decision-makers to support
their investments decisions. Most of the models are focused on specific directions of greening
the economy, such as:
GICO model (Sim & Jung, 2013) is a mathematical model to determine the optimal
green investment cost in a supply chain environment in which a company‘s allowable
greenhouse gas emissions are expected to decrease because of increasingly stringent
restrictions on carbon dioxide emissions. This model can be used as a decision-making
tool and as a negotiation tool between government and industries and it can assist
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companies in assessing the feasibility of green investment and can assist policymakers
in assessing the effectiveness of greenhouse gas regulations.
The model of a representative wind power investor's decision making process using a
Monte Carlo simulation of a project financial analysis (Gillenwater, 2013).
The intelligent decision-making system for the smart grid based electricity market
which requires distributed decision making on the competitive environments
composed of many players and components (Kang et al., 2009).
A procedure for deriving and including the uncertainty associated with various factors
in energy retrofit option assessment. The analysis shows that considering the
inaccuracy of a base model in the modelling process could improve the level of
confidence associated with simulation outcomes and enhance the quality of investment
decisions regarding green retrofits. It could alter an investment decision from ‗no go‘
to ‗go‘ (Bozorgi & Jones, 2013).
The use of models in investments decision-making in practice depends on the ‚ease of use‘,
that is a consequence of „how the outcomes are clearly modelled‖ (Gray et al., 2013). The
decision-making models are commonly based on techniques that may be easily handled, such
as spreadsheet framework, which may conduct the empirical tests of stochastic dominance
when comparing alternative capital investment plans under uncertainty (Donkor, 2014). The
Decision Matrix Analysis is another useful technique to be use for making a decision, being
really powerful when working with a number of options and many factors involved
(Mindtools, 2014).
It is no doubt that these models and techniques have to be used „with some regularity and not
just when the ultimate decision maker feels unusually uncertain about which call to make‖
(Lovallo & Sibony, 2010).
1. THE STUDY AIM AND METHODOLOGY
In order to take the strategic decision of the green investment, the top management of
organizations faces a multitude of problems, from the lack of time to the process of choosing
a project from a series of projects as strategic alternatives or at least the choice of selecting
between a proposed project and the existing situation (the strategy „as it is‖).
In the public projects or the projects of high values, usually the investment process follows
the next steps: opportunity study, pre-feasibility and feasibility study (including the business
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plan and the cost-benefit analysis, in addition to the technical project), but in the private
projects and small projects the number of steps is reduced, usually to a brief feasibility study.
However, many projects are abandoned due to several causes, including: impossibility of
global assessment of proposed variants; lack of project complete funding; suspicion of
occurrence of risks not taken into consideration; lack of top management time for a thorough
research of the problem; loss of aroused opportunity. In order to facilitate a quick decision,
based on alternative projects prepared by the team of specialists or consultants working for
the organization, a decision model is further proposed, simple and clear, responding to the
global assessment need of existing or possible options and taking the decision. The proposed
model, as a managerial tool for decision in the green investment strategies, is called the model
of Decision-making based on Eco-efficiency in the Green Investments Strategy (acronym
DEGIS). The multi-criteria analysis has been used in developing the model (Negulescu &
Lupulescu, 2013), namely, the analysis of multiple attributes (Hincu & Florescu, 2006, p.
126-128).
2. THE MODEL OF DECISION-MAKING IN GREEN INVESTMENTS
The modelling process, comprising seven stages, was used in designing the model, illustrated
in the Figure 1.
Stage 1 Strategig context setting Investment
s options
Model criteria setting
Stage 2
Stage 3 Variables on criteria
setting
Matrixes
construction
Variables scoring
Stage 4
NO
Stage 5 YES
Criteria weighting
Corections
Stage 6 Ecoeficiency computing
Stage 7 Decision-making
conditions ?
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Green
NU investimnts
option selection
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Figure 1 The stages of the modelling process
The seventh stages are:
Establishing strategic context;
Establishing model criteria;
Establishing variables by criteria;
Giving a score to variables;
Weighting of criteria;
Determining the eco-efficiency value;
Determining the decision-making and selecting the green investment option.
Stage 1: Determining the strategic context of the green investment projects
Any investment strategy is designed or chosen based on strategic goals, related to the business
strategy and especially to the green ones. The investment strategy will be translated into
investment options. Nevertheless, the green investment option is given by the investment
object based on strategic content, consisting of: strategic goal, which can be one or
combinations of goals in line with the overall strategy of the company at the time of decision
or for the future, and the green investment strategy.
The investment options Oi ; i ϵ (1 ’ n), where, Oi = investment option i, are defined.
Stage 2 The model criteria setting
The analysis of green investment options is performed based on the pertinence tree model and
the following seven analysis criteria result:
Investment cost;
Sources of investment financing;
Technical parameters (operating);
Environmental indicators;
Economic and financial indicators;
Risks and investment uncertainty;
Benefits of green investments.
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The function is build for each option:
Dgi = f(C, F, T, M, E, R, A) (1)
Where:
Dgi = green investment decision
C = green investments cost
F = sources of investment financing
T = technical parameters of operation
M = environmental indicators
E = economic and financial efficiency indicators
R = risk indicators
A = benefit of green investment
Stage 3: The model variables setting by criteria
The lists regarding possible variables on every criterion are drawn up.
An example of the listing is shown in the Table 1.
Table 1 Listing of the variables by criteria
No. Criterion Variables Definition
domain
1 Investment cost depending on the provider c1, c2,..., cγ
(quantitative variable) γ ϵ (1 ’ d)
2 Sources of investment - Own sources f1, f2,..., fφ
financing - Bank loans φ ϵ (1’ g)
- Grant
- Credit from suppliers
- Leasing
- Equity
- Other sources
- Combinations among funding
sources
3 Technical parameters - Capacity t1, t2,..., tη
- Work speed η ϵ (1 ’ h)
- Productivity
- Number of interruptions
- Location
- Material consumption
- Other technical parameters
- Combinations among technical
parameters
4 Environmental - Level of emissions by activity m1, m2, ..., mμ
indicators (CO, CO2, NO, NO2, SO2, powders, μ ϵ (1 ’ v )
waste water, toxic products etc.)
- Level of noise
- Level of odour
- Level of waste
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- Conventional energy
- Gas consumption
- Water consumption
- Other indicators
5 Indicators of financial - Financial net present value e1, e2, ..., eλ
and economic - Financial internal rate of return λ ϵ (1 ’ x )
efficiency of the - Rate of return on capital
investment - Financial sustainability
- Payback time of investment
- Net present economic value
- Economic internal rate of return
- The benefit/social cost ratio
- Other indicators
6 Risks and uncertainty -Legal r1, r2, ..., rτ
Tax changes τ ϵ (1 ’ w)
Changes in environmental
legislation
Force majeure
-Economic and financial
Unavailability of financing
Supplementation funding
Inflation
Exchange rate fluctuation
Interest rate fluctuation
Changes in labour market
-Commercial
Competition increase
Demand decrease
-Operating
Input scarce resources
Technical depreciation of equipment
Maintenance of equipment
Flexi-security of workforce
Management capability
-Environmental
Systematic pollution
Accidental pollution
-Social
Negative implications on human
health
Unemployment increase
Negative implications on the
community
7 Advantages of green -Economic advantages a1, a2..., aδ
investment Cost decrease δ ϵ (1 ’ y)
Profit increase
Turnover increase
-Commercial advantages
Winning new markets
Market stability
Business ethics
-Social advantages
Creation of new jobs
Health and safety of employees
-Advantages for the community
Social responsibility increases
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The degree of civilization of the
inhabitants
- Other advantages
- Combinations among advantages
The variables that correspond to investment options are selected from the list.
Stage 4: Giving a score to the variables
The evaluation of the alternatives is achieved by applying the multi-criteria analysis with
multiple attributes (Hincu and Florescu, 2006; Manual, 2009). A score is given to each
criterion variable and the arithmetic average of the variable scores gives the value to the
criterion.
The score for each criterion is defined: sj, j ϵ (0 ’ 5). The scoring scale values in Table 2 are
proposed for scoring.
The analysis is performed in a matrix form. Seven matrices are constructed for each criterion
for each option: cost matrix (on suppliers), funding sources matrix, technical parameters
matrix, environmental indicators matrix, economic financial indicators matrix, investment
risks and uncertainty matrix and investment advantages matrix.
Table 2. The scoring scale values
Importance Significance
score sj
0 inexistent/strong negative impact
1 irrelevant/negative impact
2 moderate impact
3 relevant impact
4 huge impact
5 exceptional impact
In order to determine the financial efficiency of the investment, internal factors are taken into
account and financial ratios are calculated. The external factors are considered in order to
determine the impact of the investment on the social environment, so the economic indicators
of the investment are calculated using shadow prices (if appropriate). The calculations
specific to the cost-benefit analysis for investment projects are used (Florio & Maffi, 2008).
The data are taken from the studies made by the enterprise experts or consultants.
Stage 5 Weighting the criteria
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A weight is associated to each criterion (pk), as an expression of its importance in the context
of the project, between 0 and 1, such as the sum of weights to be equal to 1, where,
k ϵ (0 ’1) and ∑ pk =1.
For weighting the criteria, using the judgment, the weights are proposed in the table 3.
Table 3 Weighting the criteria
No. The criterion Weight Symbol
criterion p
1 Investment cost 0.05 pc
2 Sources of investment financing 0.15 pf
3 Technical parameters (operating) 0.2 pt
4 Environmental indicators 0.25 pm
5 Economic and financial indicators 0.15 pe
6 Investment risks and uncertainty 0.1 pr
7 Advantages of green investment 0.1 pa
Total 1,00
Stage 6 The calculation of the eco-efficiency
The calculation of eco-efficiency value is made in the tabular form by investment options.
The average score of the criterion is multiplied with the criterion weight and the criterion
value is obtained. The criteria values are added together and the eco-efficiency value
corresponding to each option is obtained.
The eco-efficiency option value is the sum of the arithmetic average of each option multiplied
by the weighting of the criterion.
d g h v w x y
c f t m e r a
EeOi 1
d * pc 1
g * pf 1
h * pt 1
v * pm 1
w * pe 1
x * pr 1y * pa
(2)
Where: EeOi = the eco-efficiency of the option i
Stage 7 Determining the condition of the decision-making and selecting the option (green
investment decision making)
We define the minimum threshold Q and we select the most favourable option, respectively
the option that has achieved the maximum value of the eco-efficiency (EeOi max). It is
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recommended that the minimum threshold Q to take the value 3 in order to satisfy at least the
relevant impact condition (table 2).
The green investment strategic decision is taken as the following:
if EeOi > Q and EeOi max; select the green investment project
Dgi = if EeOi = Q and EeOi max; reassess the green investment project (3)
if EeOi < Q and EeOi max; reject the green investment project
The investment decision is taken according to the eco-efficiency obtained for each investment
option. The option with the highest value is selected, if it is above the threshold. If this
threshold is not achieved then the process starts again from the beginning by selecting other
investment options. If the eco-efficiency obtained is equal to the threshold the project is
analyzed and the necessary corrections are to be made.
CONCLUSIONS
The Model of decision-making based on eco-efficiency in the green investments strategy
(DEGIS) is based on the judgment and experience of the enterprise managers and
professionals or external consultants and provides a useful framework for decision making in
the green investment projects.
It is assumed that the projects fall within the overall strategy of the company and they are also
already made or anticipated. By applying the proposed model we can select the most suitable
project to the company strategy and to the strategic objectives of the green investments.
Being a simple and easy to use model, based on solving situations encountered in the
management practice, it can be applied in any field of the green industry. DEGIS model was
tested in a company in Romania producing electrical motors with two options for the projects.
After testing the model the following limits resulted: the unique assessment of scores and
weights associated with the criteria and the use of only two options of proposed projects.
Solving the model limits and testing it by a sensitivity analysis to allow rapid changes in
forecast scenarios and in weighting criteria can be performed on a multi-criteria decision
analysis specialized soft and will lead to the development of the DEGIS model.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme
Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID 134378 financed from the European Social
Fund and by the Romanian Government.
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Chain, American Journal of Operations Research, Vol.3 No.6 (2013), Article
ID:38452, DOI:10.4236/ajor.2013.36044 [online],
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_03.htm, (accessed Oct. 2, 2014).
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CLOUD ACCOUNTING – A NEW PLAYER IN THE ECONOMIC CONTEXT
Otilia Dimitriu, PhD Student, Marian Matei, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza”
University of Iași
Abstract: The economic context that we are witnessing today is increasingly dynamic and
competitive. Because of the need for efficiency and performance, every domain has adopted
some form of information technology. One of the most innovative IT tools, brought forward in
the last decade, is cloud computing. This new business model has been embraced by various
economic entities thanks to its multiple benefits. On the other hand, the accounting sector has
continuously adapted to the economic context and the need to present a real-time overview of
a business has found an ally in cloud technologies. Therefore, the cloud accounting paradigm
has emerged as a reasonable consequence in such a challenging field. In this paper, we argue
the meaning and value of cloud accounting solutions in an ever-changing environment.
Through a theoretical study, we have underlined both the usefulness of cloud-based
accounting software and some of its downsides according to the accounting professionals.
Keywords: cloud computing, cloud accounting, accounting software, cloud-based application,
cloud technology
Introduction
Change is one of the few certainties in life. Especially in our global economy, adapting
to the ever-changing environment is critical. According to Charles Darwin‘s theory presented
in his work, On the Origin of Species, ―it is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor
the most intelligent, but the one that is most adaptable to change.‖ The need to adapt is
especially led by the irreversible and fulminant expansion of technology. Individuals,
companies and countries alike are compelled to keep the pace with this accelerated growth of
modern information technology. Because this rhythm is unlikely to slow down, people have
to stay in touch with the latest developments in the IT domain and be ready to use them in
their best interest. Over the past decade, the digital revolution has reshaped our world, more
than anyone could have imagined. The rise of the internet could be considered the
advancement that had the biggest impact on almost every area, even for our every-day lives.
In just a few years, the internet has become a large-scale ―product‖, an asset that everyone
could afford. We could now say for sure that our current society is greatly dependent on
internet-based solutions and world-wide collaboration is essential. Such IT developments are
continuously changing the way that we access resources and services and how we share
knowledge and experiences. Furthermore, this trend is very likely to go on in the foreseeable
future. As we move forward into the 21st century, existing technologies will definitely
transform or converge, and even if we cannot accurately predict the future, we should realize
that all change requires the ability to adapt and to consciously evolve.
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The Cloud Phenomenon
The most significant progress noted after the emergence of the internet has been cloud
computing. This paradigm, that is very useful especially for organisations, involves the
delivering of computer infrastructure or software that are accessed as a service over the
Internet. Companies have the possibility to benefit from high-end technology with low costs
and only pay a monthly subscription fee, depending on consumption, instead of massively
investing in hardware and software resources. In today‘s competitive marketplace, customer
experience is fundamental, and cloud computing is a proven mean to ensure a high level of
service. ―Clouds‖ are remodelling the way that people and institutions collaborate,
communicate, share and store information and the manner that they obtain IT resources or
services for their personal or professional use. On the other hand, we are witnessing an
impressive spread of cloud-based technology in almost every domain, and we can notice an
increasingly blurring line between IT and economics, in particular. The cloud phenomenon is
rapidly conquering the business field, as proven by the remarks of many professionals.
Andrew Flanagan, the managing director of Digita (part of the Tax & Accounting business of
Thomson Reuters), predicted that ―it seems inevitable that virtually all software and data will
eventually be ‗in the cloud‘, mirroring the move from paper to electronic data and working
over the past few years.‖
Nowadays, organisations from all domains and countries are using a large spectrum of
cloud-based resources that are provided ―as a service‖ rather than ―as a product‖. All kinds of
resources (software, computing power or data storage) are available online from fixed or
mobile devices. Our current business world is gradually moving into an online environment as
the cloud paradigm is consistently evolving, expanding and merging with various domains
and professions. The accounting field has proven to be receptive towards cloud-based
solutions and has already begun to exploit them. Cloud solutions for bookkeeping were
among the first applications that were available as online services and could make
accountants‘ job easier. In fact, accounting applications are some of the most complex among
all types of business software. Financial software can ensure different functionalities for
specific markets, thus meeting distinct needs and budgets for entities of all forms and sizes.
Cloud-based software is especially useful for the accounting domain because today‘s financial
managers are demanding efficient, affordable, and easy-to-use software, that is not only meant
for executing repetitive financial tasks and issuing accurate reports, but it is also able to adapt
according to future business requirements and technology trends. Besides gathering and
processing accounting data, a valuable accounting application should also permit
professionals to transpose financial data into relevant business information, and therefore
contribute to the decision-making process. That is why most accounting software users have
shown interest in the latest IT innovations that have ―invaded‖ the business landscape.
In 2013, ACCA (the Association of Chartered Certified Accountants - the global body
for professional accountants) and IMA (Institute of Management Accountants - the
association for accountants and financial professionals in business) published a study1 on the
1
Digital Darwinism: thriving in the face of technology change, ACCA – IMA Report, 2013, available online at:
http://www.accaglobal.com/
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most promising technology trends that will greatly transform the accounting world over the
next 5 to 10 years and beyond. The report was based upon the findings of over 2.100 experts
in the accounting and technology domains, academics and members of the two associations
that developed the research. According to the survey, at a global level, 81% of the
respondents were expecting technology trends to reshape the accounting area ―to some
extent‖ (24%) or ―to a great extent‖ (57%) over the next decade and 18% predicted ―a total
transformation‖ (Figure 1). An interesting fact is that only 1% of the respondents did not
believe that IT innovations would affect the accounting profession. These figures prove that
IT tools cannot be ignored and people are obviously aware of this reality.
Figure 1. Extent to which developments in technology will transform the way
accountants do business over the next 10 years (Source: ACCA-IMA, Digital Darwinism,
2013)
According to the same research, the traditional desktop software will no longer be
required in the long-run because most applications will be accessible in the cloud by 2020.
Cloud-based technology will certainly be a common asset in the economic environment and in
our every-day lives.
What does cloud-based accounting software promise?
Organisations are surely becoming more comfortable with cloud solutions and
recognize their worth as efficient tools for saving time and money. According to a 2014
global report2 on software quality assurance, cloud-based software is increasingly popular and
this trend will clearly go on in the foreseeable future. The aforementioned research shows that
cloud migration is gaining momentum as 28% of applications are hosted in a cloud
infrastructure in 2014, and the share of cloud-based systems is expected to climb to 35% by
2017.
Considering the fact that the accounting department of every organisation is a
valuable adviser, it is vital for accountants to keep up with technology trends. That is why
2
World Quality Report 2014-15, conducted by Capgemini, Sogeti and HP Software, 2014, available online at:
www.worldqualityreport.com
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cloud computing has become an opportunity to reduce costs and increase productivity for the
accounting profession. Cloud accounting is the new economic player that has been proposed
for the accounting field. This innovative tool will dramatically enhance the accountants‘
activity and it can ensure multiple benefits for all business partners, but for the accounting
function, in particular. And of course, the 21st century accountant‘s expectations are directly
dependant on the highly dynamic economic reality and context. Nowadays, organisations and
accountants alike are demanding personalized cloud-based applications that help them handle
sharp competition, which is only a mouse click away. Companies from all over the world are
knowingly shifting from their traditional reactive way of doing business to a proactive and
collaborative approach. A cloud-based solution can be a wise choice for enterprises dealing
with critical issues like managing substantial costs that burden their activity. The main reason
for this situation is old technology that is unable to adapt and too expensive to be updated and
meet the requirements of today‘s tech-savvy professionals.
Doing accounting ―in the cloud‖ can ensure various advantages for accountants and
the business itself. Due to the way that financial data is being stored (on the provider‘s
servers and not on a local computer) and accessed (over the internet), all involved users are
able to access it at any time and regardless of their location. This is in fact, one of the most
significant gains provided by cloud accounting because this will improve collaboration and
will ensure real-time data update. It is also worth mentioning that users have got restricted and
specific access to the cloud solution, thus increasing the application‘s level of security. The
data‘s increased security is another critical aspect – accounting data stored in the cloud is
regularly backed up and closely protected though complex security protocols.
The fact that the cloud application is accessed as a service and it is not bought as a
product, will have a great impact3 on the company‘s expenses. Capital expenditures will be
converted into operating costs because entities only pay a monthly fee, depending on their
specific demands. This is especially helpful for small and medium sized enterprises that can
use advanced software and significant resources that they could not afford otherwise. With
flexible cloud-based software, businesses can easily scale up and down and rapidly adapt to
the ever-changing economic context.
Undoubtedly, cloud accounting can be an effective option on condition that this
solution is carefully evaluated before adopting it. Because the cloud market is very wide,
companies have the possibility to choose the best-suited solution to meet their specific
activities and goals. According to experts4, in order to ensure a successful accounting software
selection process, companies should first establish the entity‘s requirements and needs and
afterwards, consider potential cloud solutions. This is the way to notably increase the chances
to find the proper cloud accounting solution for each business.
Why should accountants embrace chance?
Just as any other new paradigm, cloud accounting is also facing considerable
roadblocks. The lack of knowledge and fear of unknown are probably the most significant
obstacles in the adoption of cloud-based applications. ―Nothing in life is to be feared, it is
3
Halstead M., How Cloud Accounting Can Help Your Company, 2014, available online at: http://www.intelligenthq.com/
4
Osintsev A., What Organizations Want in Accounting and Financial Software, Technology Evaluation Centers - Market
Survey Report, 2013, available online at: www.technologyevaluation.com
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only to be understood. Now is the time to understand more, so that we may fear less.‖ These
words, that reflect our reality so accurately, belong to Marie Curie, the first woman to win a
Nobel Prize and the only person to win twice (in 1903 and 1911) in different domains
(physics and chemistry). Regardless of the age we live in or the level of knowledge we
reached, this quote could be an incentive factor for any progress.
These considerations are especially applicable for the accounting profession, which is
uniquely positioned as a valued adviser for every business. The accounting department has
always been serving the public interest and that is why accountants should always be aware of
the advances and opportunities that can assist and develop the profession and the entire
business landscape. Indeed, accounting professionals have brought forward some risks that
could be associated with cloud technology. Security issues, the loss of internet connection and
therefore, the interruption of the business activity were cited by sceptical practitioners with
regard to cloud accounting. Still, all these potential downsides can be mitigated 5 or even
excluded through strict and specific contractual clauses.
Accountants need to be receptive and understand current and upcoming digital
technologies, so that they could harness their potential benefits. Neither technology sceptics,
nor optimists can predict the future with any degree of certainty. Nevertheless, by staying
informed about IT innovations and embracing new technologies as they arise, accountants can
help the business grow and maximise the gains promised by the digital era. If we are to
experience another progress in accounting, we will have to think outside the box and give
technology a chance. A new insight into the future is gradually emerging for the modern
accountant – cloud accounting could be the next step in the evolution of the accounting
practice. The cloud adoption process is only just beginning. Even if the percent of early
adopters is not significant yet, several surveys6 have revealed that a meaningful fraction of
entities are considering this option. In fact, almost every prediction made by market research
companies has shown that cloud-based solutions are definitely mentioned as a top trend in the
near future.
Conclusions
There is no doubt that technology is ubiquitous and can bring competitive value. Until
now, the IT field has had an essential role in the optimization of almost every activity, it has
improved the quality of life, and has greatly influenced the economic sector. The last decade
has been significantly marked by the cloud computing paradigm and almost every domain has
found a mean to benefit from its use. Inevitably, cloud computing has also reached the
accounting field. That is why the accounting world is gradually shifting towards cloud-based
solutions. The emergence of cloud accounting has proven to be a new way of doing business.
This revolutionary approach to bookkeeping is very promising as there are multiple
advantages that accountants have already experienced due to cloud technology.
This theoretical paper presents cloud accounting as a new actor in the business world
today. The purpose of the paper is to argue the utility and benefits of these innovative
5
Sommer B., Cloud Accounting Evaluation Guide, Vital Analysis paper, 2014, available online at:
http://www.financialforce.com/
6
Cloud Computing - A matter of survival for the accounting industry, CCH Research Report, 2013, available online at:
http://www.cchifirm.com
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
technologies. Therefore, we have focused on the meaning of cloud-based applications for both
the accounting profession and for companies, in general. We have come to the conclusion that
cloud technology can empower accountants and make their work easier and more effective;
businesses can also gain from the use of cloud accounting solutions in areas like security,
expenses and collaboration. We would also like to underline that this article is intended to be
a platform for stimulating discussion, an overview for a controversial topic, particularly for
the accounting field. We did not aim to present an exhaustive or a technical research on the
cloud accounting concept. Our approach is rather business oriented, as it is based upon the
most relevant and recent reports and studies conducted by specialized research companies and
cloud software providers.
References
Cloud Computing - A matter of survival for the accounting industry, CCH Research
Report, 2013, available online at: http://www.cchifirm.com
Digital Darwinism: thriving in the face of technology change, ACCA – IMA Report,
2013, available online at: http://www.accaglobal.com/
Halstead M., How Cloud Accounting Can Help Your Company, 2014, available online
at: http://www.intelligenthq.com/
Osintsev A., What Organizations Want in Accounting and Financial Software,
Technology Evaluation Centers - Market Survey Report, 2013, available online at:
www.technologyevaluation.com
Sommer B., Cloud Accounting Evaluation Guide, Vital Analysis paper, 2014,
available online at: http://www.financialforce.com/
World Quality Report 2014-15, conducted by Capgemini, Sogeti and HP Software,
2014, available online at: www.worldqualityreport.com
Acknowledgment:
This work was supported by the European Social Fund through Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134197, project title ―Performance and Excellence in Doctoral and
Postdoctoral Research in Economic Sciences Domain in Romania‖.
This work was supported by the European Social Fund through Sectorial Operational
Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115, project title ―Performance and Excellence in Doctoral and
Postdoctoral Research in Economic Sciences Domain in Romania‖.
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L’ANALYSE DU RISQUE DE FAILLITE PAR LE BIAIS DES SYSTÈMES DE
L’INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIELLE
Paul Pașcu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Ștefan cel Mare” University of Suceava
Abstract: This article aims to present a number of aspects of the use of Artificial Intelligence
techniques (IA) for the analysis and diagnosis of company‘s bankruptcy. Based on a series of
indicators that define and measure business activity, we want to introduce a system of
diagnosis and prediction based on the IA methods. The aim of our work is to present a
number of advantages of using intelligent systems could become a useful instrument in the
management of the company.
Keywords: artificial neural network, firm diagnosis, bankruptcy forecast, pattern recognition.
I. Introduction
Les entreprises non-productives se confrontent avec des difficultés financières pour
lesquelles les chances d‘insolvence (l‘impossibilité de payer les dettes vers les tiers) sont
extrêmement élevées. Les modèles de prédilection apportent un véritable support décisionnel
dans le contexte de l‘actuelle crise financière, permettant non seulement l‘avertissement
primaire des possibles situations d‘insolvence, mais aussi la minimisation du temps de calcul
de la solvabilité des clients qui sollicitent du financement, par l‘identification des possibles
financements à très haut degré de risque.
II. Le choix du réseau neuronal artificiel – aspects théoriques
Nous nous proposons de construire un model efficace de prédiction des entreprises
roumaines à risque de faillite en utilisant un système fondé sur des réseaux neuronaux
artificiels et l‘établissement des principaux indicateurs financiers. Ils vont contribuer à
l‘établissement rapide des entreprises de se confronter avec des difficultés financières. Pour
cela, nous avons envisagé des indicateurs financiers selon le tableau ci-dessous [1].
Tableau no 1. Indicateurs utilisés dans la prédiction de faillite de l‘entreprise
Indicateur Rate financières Prédiction
I1 Flux de trésor / Total actives Non-faillite /faillite
I2 Profit net / total active Non-faillite /faillite
I3 Capital de travail / Total actives Non-faillite /faillite
I4 Rapport Dettes / Total actives Non-faillite /faillite
I5 Liquidité courante Non-faillite /faillite
Dans l‘analyse des cinq indicateurs (I1, I2, ..., I5) si les valeurs sont de dimensions
différentes, alors les caractéristiques avec les valeurs absolues auront un plus grand effet sur
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
les résultats de la classification. Par conséquent, nous serons obligés d‘apporter les valeurs
caractéristiques au même ordre de dimension. À ce sens, la méthode utilisée fréquemment est
d‘ajustement du domaine à travers lequel on peut effectuer la transformation suivante sur les
valeurs des caractéristiques:
(x x )
xi ,nouveau i ,ancien i ,min
( xi ,max xi ,min )
(1)
Dans ce contexte, nous soulignons le fait que, pour réduire le nombre des
caractéristiques, la sélection des caractéristiques significatives s‘impose à cause du fait que,
pour une classification correcte, il est nécessaire que le nombre des formes soit beaucoup plus
m
3
grande que le nombre des caractéristiques (un rapport n étant considéré comme
acceptable). Dans notre démarche pratique, nous supposons que F(x) représente une
dimension de l‘activité décrite par l‘indicateur x.
On suppose que X ( x1 , x2 ,...xn ) représente une forme qui appartient à la classe c, avec
des paramètres normalisés xi . Pour chaque xi de la forme x il existe un paramètre (poids) pi
représentant l‘importance de xi (les poids peuvent être calculés, par exemple, comme des
coefficients de corrélation partielle ou établis par un expert).
Pour la forme x, F(x) est calculé selon la formule [2] :
n
F ( x) pi xi
i 1 (2)
M (c) F ( x) / p
xc (3)
où p est le nombre des formes qui appartiennent à la classe c.
La classe c1 se trouve dans une relation « < » avec la classe c2 si M(c1)<M(c2).
Pour la prédiction des indicateurs qui correspondent à l‘année suivante, nous allons
définir la suivante architecture de réseau neuronal artificiel : 5 neurones pour la couche
d‘entrée, 5 neurones pour la couche cachée et 1 neurone pour la couche de sortie.
Le nombre des neurones cachés (NrH) dans un réseau avec trois couches est calculé
selon la formule suivante:
1
NrH No formes d’entraînement
2 (nr.input nr.output )
(4)
L‘architecture du réseau neuronale artificiel est présentée dans la figure 1:
Fig 1. Le reseau neuronale avec 5 neurones sur la couche d‘entrée,
I1t H1
I2t H2 Dt1 ( x)
. .
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. .
H5
I5t
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
5 neurones sur la couche cachée et 1 neurone sur la couche de sortie
Nous allons présenter les résultats obtenus tout en utilisant une fonction sigmoïde pour
activer la couche cachée et la fonction identité pour la couche de sortie. Le processus
d‘entraînement du réseau commence par l‘entraînement d‘un nombre d‘années connues et
puis, la prédiction pour l‘année suivante va se réaliser. L‘entraînement est repris, incluant
dans le set d‘entraînement les valeurs prévues antérieurement, pour trouver les valeurs pour
l‘année suivante.
III. Données expérimentales
Pour des données afférentes à une période de huit ans (2006-2013) pour les cinq
indicateurs (I1, I2, ...I5) nous allons parcourir les étapes suivantes:
1. Reconnaître et classifier les formes et, selon leurs ordres de dimensions différentes, on
les normalise
2. L‘entraînement du réseau neuronal artificiel
3. La prédiction pour l‘année suivante ayant comme point de départ l‘année précédente
Tableau no 2. La normalisation des données et leur classification
Nous pouvons obtenir une représentation fidèle de toute l‘évolution économique en
divisant par classes à travers les techniques de reconnaissance des formes ou utilisant une
dimension scalaire D(x) définie antérieurement.
4,50
4,00
3,50
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
I12006 I22007 I32008 I42009 I52010 I62011 I72012 I82013
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fig. 3. La représentation de l‘évolution économique en fonction du nombre d‘époques
utilisées pour entraîner le réseau (rouge - 800 époques, jaune - 3000 époques, bleu - 5000
époques)
Le processus d‘entraînement du réseau est réalisé en trois phases, selon la fig.4. Il
commence par l‘entraînement pour un nombre d‘années connues et ensuite va se réaliser la
prédiction pour l‘année suivante. L‘entraînement est repris, incluant dans le set
d‘entraînement les valeurs provisionnées antérieurement pour trouver les valeurs pour l‘année
suivante.
7,00
6,00
5,00
D(x)
4,00 D(X) Predicted
3,00 D(X) Predicted
D(X) Predicted
2,00
1,00
0,00
15
16
6
4
00
00
00
00
01
01
01
01
01
20
20
2
1
I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
I7
I8
I9
I1
I1
Fig. 4. La représentation de la prévision de l‘évolution économique et du risque de
faillite
Les résultats obtenus, par l‘utilisation du modèle présenté déjà, confirme la réalité que
la prédiction pour une période de temps plus étendue n‘est pas exacte. Pour une meilleure
approximation, nous considérons qu‘une solution serait la projection des modèles pour les
systèmes non-linéaires. L‘une des méthodes utilisées pour évaluer et prédire est celle de
l‘analyse de la régression.
Conclusions
Les processus économiques et financiers ont une importance majeure dans la société,
pour les entités économiques comme partie intégrante de l‘économie nationale. Par
conséquent, la compréhension de ces processus, leur transformation et leur prédiction de
l‘évolution présentent un intérêt majeur. Dans la plupart des cas, la transformation et la
prédiction classique avec des modèles déterministes simples ne produit de résultats
satisfaisants.
Mais, sans doute, nous considérons que, grâce à leur capacité de détecter les
dépendances non-linéaires dans le set des données d‘entrée, les réseaux neuronaux
représentent une alternative extrêmement efficace pour les modèles existants.
Bibliographie :
[1] Iancu E., Pascu P., Morariu N., The audit process and the new era of informatics,
IJAR, vol.3, no.3, may 2011
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[2] Morariu N., Vlad S., The Joint Use of Artificial Intelligence Technique for
Diagnostication and Prediction, Journal of Applied Computer Science & Mathematics, no1.,
2007
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STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTING THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING
POLICIES FOR THE YOUNG ALUMNI
Loredana Maria Păunescu, Assistant, PhD Student, Petroleum-Gas University of
Ploiești
Abstract: The lack of integration in the social environment end the blocking steps regarding
the absorption on the labor market of young graduates of higher education who fail to get a
job in accordance to their qualifications are elements that create mental and emotional
imbalances that are very powerful, thus the subjects being in a situation to readjust to the new
requirements of the labor market.
The development of the training system needs to respond to the requirements of the
labor market, and the economy based on knowledge and needs relevant information
concerning the changes in the job market, namely the job offers and demands.
A coherent harmonization between the theoretical knowledge of alumni, the
universities' curricula and the training programs is necessary in order for the young
academic graduates to be absorbed by the job market.
Keywords: strategy, professional training, competition, skills, integration, development.
JEL Classification: A, A2, A21, A22, A23.
The development of the continuing vocational training system should meet both the
needs of the labor market and the economy based on knowledge as it requires a set of relevant
information regarding actual and relevant information about the evolution of trades and
professions, the evolutionary trends of the labor market, different skills, the degree of
harmonization between the supply and demand of labor existing in the labor market, the
identification of the negative elements, the necessary educational programs, vocational
training and their suitability to the needs of those who require them.
Our country's economy has generated a number of significant changes in the
occupational structure, prompting new occupations, and traditional professions have also
changed. Thus, we identify three types of occupations at the moment:
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Fig.1. The Occupational Classification.
The Source: The Author
1. The dominant occupations: are crystallized, have a tradition that formed in the area
of the occupational Romanian economy;
2. Occupations with a modified content: these are found in the industrial sectors
affected by technological or organizational changes, and these services are geared towards
customer satisfaction;
3. Breakthrough occupations: these are new services, adapted to the new requirements
and which have a high added value and an increased potential for evolution in the period
ahead. The element that can have a negative value for this category represents the lack of a
large number of qualified personnel to support these occupations. Selected staff must have,
besides a theoretical knowledge, a practical competence and a high level of adaptability. It
goes without saying that the factors that have led to these changes in the content of the
activities are: the adaptation to new needs, the raising competitiveness and the process of
retooling.
New labor has been forced to adapt and to gain new skills such as the use of
information technologies, communication and resource management. The tendency of
evolution is a flexible employment-oriented, value-based quality and on skills, so that:
- the breakthrough occupations develop towards new fields of activity, right on market
niches, to meet the high level and quality required;
- these are put in practice with a partially working program;
-the higher the increase in the economic activity, the higher the possibility of
employees' motivation.
This suggests the need of the implementation of training programs in order to attract
as many people willing to integrate in the labor market. Also, the risk of exclusion may occur,
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from the labor market for the persons who are unable to adapt to the new needs having no
financial possibilities and no required skills.
Continual professional development of the young generation must be transposed in
practice through the promotion of partnerships between public authorities, social partners and
other partners at central and local levels, with a view to making, to the development and
implementation of policies and strategies of continuous vocational training, the involvement
of a growing number of employers in facilitating the access to continuing training by
providing the necessary training resources and the involvement of the social partners,
especially of employers and professional associations in the validation of qualifications of
occupational standards and the framework programs of continuing vocational training.
According to the National Strategy from September 2nd 2004 regarding employment,
in the period between 2004 and 2010, the costs of the training programs should be regarded as
investments and not as costs. Thus, to increase the investment in lifelong learning there are
important the following strands: a legislative framework ensuring that stimulate funding for
continuing vocational education and training, involving the social partners in this funding,
attracting external funding and expansion of providers of vocational training programs.
The access to continuing training through creating opportunities as close to the
beneficiaries, improving access to training in rural areas, increasing the number of people
looking for a job, which will be included in training programs, expanding the network of
vocational training of adults, upgrading and equipping of the existing centers, boosting its
staff training in order to diversify the skills of professional growth and monitoring progress
access to continuing vocational training, are all extremely important steps in designing a
proper system for the young alumni to enter in the job market.
Conclusions
Following the analysis of theoretical issues pertaining to the functioning of the modern
economy based on knowledge, linking higher education system with new requirements for
establishing and deepening of new skills relevant to the labor market is the need to implement
clear measures aimed at the problems faced by young people in direct interaction with the
labor market or with the legislation in force such as:
- attracting investors;
- the development of initiatives for the promotion of young people;
- promote job fairs;
- fighting corruption;
- offering scholarships for young people;
- supporting small entrepreneurs;
- adapting local legislation to the requirements of the labor market or the investors '
proposals;
- investors ' tax-exemption, construction of housing for young people;
- exemption of youth that engage immediately after graduation;
- facilitating the creation of new jobs, the use and exploitation of local resources;
- the granting of facilities for the companies;
- harmonization of legislation in relation to the needs of young people;
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- supporting business environment, providing facilities for young people in terms of
access to credit, or advice on accessing EU funds;
- eliminating the bureaucracy in offering employers ' facilities;
- a linking education system with offers for employment (partnerships between public
institutions and the universities);
- reduction of fees and taxes;
- the creation of specific programs for young people in vulnerable situations
(unemployment, investment institutions, etc.);
- the establishment of vocational counseling centers for young people;
- increased transparency of public institutions regarding the removal of work places;
- development and qualification programs in the workplace;
- provision of information regarding services and opportunities on the labor market.
Thus, the lack of integration into the social environment and the blocking steps
occurring in higher education graduates who fail to secure a job in accordance with their
qualifications are elements that create mental and emotional imbalances which are very
strong.
The subjects are in these situations being forced to rebuild the new coming demands
of the labor market about which had no knowledge at the time when they had to choose a
particular field of study.
The labor market is in a process of an increasingly evolution and change and that is
why the stability of a job has almost disappeared from the common vocabulary and the degree
of adaptability of those competing for a position must be increasingly higher.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled ―Horizon 2020 -
Doctoral and Postdoctoral Studies: Promoting the National Interest through Excellence,
Competitiveness and Responsibility in the Field of Romanian Fundamental and Applied
Scientific Research‖, contract number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/140106. This project is co-
financed by European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human
Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing in people!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dobre, M.H., Aceleanu, M.I., Negoitei, I., Rolul educaţiei în inserţia tinerilor pe piaţa
muncii.Cazul României, în Angelescu, C., Ailenei, D., Dachin Anca (coord.), România
în Uniunea Europeană. Calitatea integrării, Facultatea de Economie, 2006;
1. Dorina, M., Dimensiuni şi tendinţe ale pieţei muncii în România, în Angelescu, C.,
Ciucur, D., (coord.), Economia României şi Uniunea Europeană, vol. I, Bucureşti:
Editura ASE, 2007;
2. Dumitru, I. Al., Consiliere psihopedagogică. Baze teoretice si sugestii practice,Iaşi,
Editura Polirom, 2009;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
3. Ehnert, Ina (Dr.) , Sustainable Human Resource Management: A Conceptual and
Exploratory Analysis from a Paradox Perspective, Germany: University of Bremen,
2009;
4. Gal, D., Educaţia şi mizele ei sociale, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2002;
5. Gama, B., Piaţa muncii. Salariul, în Popescu, D., Economie politică, Sibiu, Editura
Universităţii „Lucian Blaga‖, 2000;
6. Georgescu, M. A., Provocǎri socio-economice , Ed.Casa Cǎrţii de Ştiinţǎ, Cluj
Napoca, 2005;
7. Gianini, O., Maliţa, M., Dubla spirală a învăţării şi a muncii, Bucureşti:
Comunicare/SNSPA, 2005;
8. Hatos, A., Sociologia educaţiei, Polirom, Iaşi, 2006;
9. Iluţ, P., Valori, atitudini şi comportamente sociale, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2004;
10. Jackson, S. E., Ones D. S., Dilchert S. (Ed.)Managing Human Resources for
Environmental Sustainability, The Proffesional Practice Series, 2012;
11. Jackson S E., Schuler R. S., Werner S. , Managing Human Resources, USA: Cengage
Learning, 2012;
12. Kearns, P., HR Strategy, Creating Bussiness Strategy With Human Capital, USA:
Butterworth – Heinneman, 2010;
13. Kelly, K., New rules for the new economy, Fourth Estate, London, 1998;
14. Măntăluţă, O., Abordarea economică a politicilor educaţionale, în revista Sfera
Politicii, nr. 129 – 130, anul XVI, Bucureşti: Fundaşia Societatea civilă,2008;
15. Voiculescu, V., Educaţia în economia de piaţă, Iaşi: Editura Institutul European,
2008.
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CHANGING LEADERS IN THE CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Olivia Roxana Popescu, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Constantin Brâncuși” University of
Târgu-Jiu
Abstract: In the current environment that is rapidly changing, complex decision-making
process becomes more difficult. Leaders are constrained by the environment in which they
operate. Although decision making is a dynamic process in continuous development,
decisions have several common elements. Decision making is the core activity of a manager,
all other activities are conducted to ensure correct decisions, or whether the decision has
already been adopted for implementation and monitoring of its effectiveness. Each decision is
taken in a typical environment of an organization and all decisions have several elementary
steps. But starting from the words of the Russian novelist, Leo Tolstoy ―Everyone thinks of
changing the world, but no one thinks of changing himself.‖, managers realized that
organizational change is inseparable from individual change. In this way, change efforts
often falter because individuals overlook the need to make fundamental changes in themselves
Given the decisional context in Romania, the managers must acquire a series of concepts and
must adopt a series of practices in order to optimize the decision making process in the
context of organizational change. A performing organization implies a radical change of the
attitudes of managers towards their subordinates, the acknowledgement of the contribution of
each of them in obtaining results, the encouragement of employees to take changes, their
empowerment to take decisions in their areas of competence.
Keywords: organizational change, decision making, leaders, management, organisations.
The transition from a centralized and monopolistic economy, based on a strained
structure of relations (in the sense of mainly unilateral connections, without optional
alternatives) to a competition based economy, based on market mechanisms, on the actions of
supply and demand, certainly represents one of the most severe challenges of the current
period. The complex processes – of privatization, restructuring, liberalization of prices and
eliminations of subventions - that accompany the economic reform, as well as the institutional
and legislative transformations, the profound modifications in the mechanisms of
coordination at different levels and in the model of external markets, in the context of
economic internationalization and the integration in the European Union, represent
fundamental changes, significant and ample mutations that characterize the organizational
environment.
The use of the management of change and of appropriate economic strategies must be
based on the new domestic and international conditions in which enterprises operate, in order
to thus define the viable economy, which will guide the management of the enterprise to
achieve the set objectives and profits.
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The evolution and functioning of organizations are mainly determined by the context –
being influenced by the more or less favoring conditions in which they operate, by the
mutations that took place in the exterior environment together with the change in the system –
as well as by the management due to the difference in the quality of the management
practiced at their level as well as due to deficiencies in this field: focus on the current issues,
structural rigidity.
Modern management emphasizes building an organizational culture focused on
integrity, the stimulation of performance, competence, initiative and innovating spirit. The
evolution of informational systems demand that the management of organizations focus
mostly on developing human resources and especially developing new abilities, an increased
attention being dedicated to increasing the cohesion and to developing a team spirit. A
performing organization implies a radical change of the attitudes of managers towards their
subordinates, the acknowledgement of the contribution of each of them in obtaining results,
the encouragement of employees to take changes, their empowerment to take decisions in
their areas of competence. Researches emphasize the fact that in general people tend to act
and take decisions in accordance to their way of perceiving reality and issues arise exactly
from the fact this perception differ from one individual to another. Reality is perceived
through the lens of one‘s own assumptions, attitudes and values. The change in the
environment in which the organization operates implies the change of perceptions, value, and
beliefs. At an organizational level, the change in paradigm concerns primarily the strategy of
the enterprise, the style of management, the structure of the organization, the changes
concerning the personnel.
Change is not a negative, degenerative process but a means of evolution inevitable and
positive which leads to the adaptation of the organization to the present and future reality, to
the internal and external environment in order to ensure the success of their business.
The management of change has as object of study the management of the enterprise,
including the organizational, communicational, and personnel aspects. The organizations
change or adapt what they try to achieve and means to do so. The concept of ―change
management‖ models the thinking of managers, from a pure economic focus directed at
achieving profit to new values – social (for instance: the motivation and satisfaction of
personnel) or ecological (for instance, environment issues).
The management of change implies a systemic succession of processes together with
permanent feedback. A briefer definition, but sufficiently encompassing is the one presented
by Prof .Dr. Verboncu Ioan who states that ―changes do not concern only the simple
maintenance of the functioning of the organization, but they target the renewal of the
organization in its whole‖ 1. In the economy of the enterprise ―change management‖ is the
development, management and systematic evaluation of the changes within an enterprise 2.
Change can take the shape of novelties, adaptations, improvements as well as eliminating past
mistakes.
Changes undergone and ongoing demand a new type of management defined by new
demands, new requirements such as: value for clients, value for shareholders, value for
1
Nicolescu,O, Verboncu, I (2008), The basics of organizational management, University Publishing House, p.24-28.
2
Tanţău A. (2004) The basics of organizational change, Bucharest, ASE Publishing House, p. 46.
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personnel, vision and culture; a new approach to strategy, growth and creativity; fusion and
integration; speed and flexibility.
While every change program is unique, the experiences of the industrial company‘s
managers offer insights into many of the factors that, we find, make it possible to sustain a
profound transformation. Far too often, leaders ask everyone else to change, but in reality this
usually isn‘t possible until they first change themselves.3
This way, Tolstoy‘s dictum ―Everyone thinks of changing the world, but no one thinks
of changing himself‖ is a useful starting point for any executive engaged in organizational
change. After years of collaborating in efforts to advance the practice of leadership and
cultural transformation, we‘ve become convinced that organizational change is inseparable
from individual change. Simply put, change efforts often falter because individuals overlook
the need to make fundamental changes in themselves.4
Many companies move quickly from setting their performance objectives to
implementing a suite of change initiatives. Be it a new growth strategy or business-unit
structure, the integration of a recent acquisition or the rollout of a new operational-
improvement effort, such organizations focus on altering systems and structures and on
creating new policies and processes. To achieve collective change over time, actions like
these are necessary but seldom sufficient. A new strategy will fall short of its potential if it
fails to address the underlying mind-sets and capabilities of the people who will execute it.
McKinsey research and client experience suggest that half of all efforts to transform
organizational performance fail either because senior managers don‘t act as role models for
change or because people in the organization defend the status quo. 5 In other words, despite
the stated change goals, people on the ground tend to behave as they did before. Equally, the
same McKinsey research indicates that if companies can identify and address pervasive mind-
sets at the outset, they are four times more likely to succeed in organizational-change efforts
than are companies that overlook this stage.
Tie training to business goals. Leadership training can seem vaporous when not
applied to actual problems in the workplace. The industrial company‘s focus on teaching
Pierre to have courageous conversations just as the ability to do so would be useful, for
instance, was crucial as Pierre made arrangements to close his plant. In the words of another
senior executive we spoke with, ―If this were just a social experiment, it would be a waste of
time. People need a ‗big, hairy goal‘ and a context to apply these ideas.6‖
Build on strengths. The company chose to train managers who were influential in
areas crucial to the overall transformation and already had some of the desired behavior—in
essence, ―positive deviants.‖ The training itself focused on personal mastery, such as learning
3
Aaron De Smet, Johanne Lavoie, Elizabeth Schwartz Hioe, Developing better change leaders. Putting leadership
development at the heart of a major operations-improvement effort paid big dividends for a global industrial company,
McKinsey Quarterly ,April 2012
4
Nate Boaz , Erica Ariel Fox, Change leader, change thyself, McKinsey Quarterly ,March 2014
5
Scott Keller , Colin Price, Organizational health: The ultimate competitive advantage, McKinsey Quarterly, June 2011
6
Aaron De Smet, Johanne Lavoie, Elizabeth Schwartz Hioe, Developing better change leaders. Putting leadership
development at the heart of a major operations-improvement effort paid big dividends for a global industrial company,
McKinsey Quarterly ,April 2012 |
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
to recognize and shift limiting mind-sets, turning difficult conversations into learning
opportunities, and building on existing interpersonal strengths and managerial optimism to
help broadly engage the organization.
Ensure sponsorship. Giving training participants access to formal senior-executive
sponsors who can tell them hard truths is vital in helping participants to change how they
lead. Moreover, the relationship often benefits the sponsor too. The operations vice president
who encouraged Annie, for example, later asked her to teach him and his executive team
some of the skills she had learned during her training7.
Create networks of change leaders. Change programs falter when early successes
remain isolated in organizational silos. To combat this problem, the industrial company
deployed its leadership-development program globally to create a critical mass of leaders who
shared the same vocabulary and could collaborate across geographic and organizational
boundaries more effectively.
When Annie ran into trouble implementing the changes in some of the company‘s
locations in Asia, the personal network she‘d created came to her rescue. A plant manager
from Brazil, who had gone through the training with Annie, didn‘t hesitate to get on a plane
and spend a week helping the Asian supply chain leaders work through their problems. The
company allowed him to do so even though this visit had nothing to do with his formal job
responsibilities, thus sending an important signal that these changes were important.8
Another tactic the company employed was the creation of formal ―mini-advisory
boards‖: groups of six executives, with diverse cultural and business perspectives, who went
through leadership training together. The mutual trust these teammates developed made them
good coaches for one another. Pierre, for example, reported getting useful advice from his
board as he finalized his plans to talk with his plant employees. The boards also provide
much-needed emotional support: ―The hardest part of being at the forefront of change is just
putting your shoes on every day,‖ noted one manager we talked to. ―Getting together helps me
do that.‖9
In order to maintain an organization in a state of efficient function and moreover in
order to increase its performance, it is necessary to adapt the organization to the changes
happening in the external environment in which it operates. Managers from all over the world
are facing issues of adaptation which they solve in accordance with the new requirements of
the environment, so to be able to implement changes in their organization, managers must
first of all change themselves.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1.Nicolescu,O, Verboncu, I (2008), The basics of organizational management,
University Publishing House, p.24-28.
2.Tanţău A. (2004) The basics of organizational change, Bucharest, ASE Publishing
House, p. 46.
3.Aaron De Smet, Johanne Lavoie, Elizabeth Schwartz Hioe, Developing better
change leaders. Putting leadership development at the heart of a major operations-
7
Idem
8
Idem
9
Ibidem
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
improvement effort paid big dividends for a global industrial company, McKinsey Quarterly
,April 2012
4.Nate Boaz , Erica Ariel Fox, Change leader, change thyself, McKinsey Quarterly
,March 2014
5.Scott Keller , Colin Price, Organizational health: The ultimate competitive
advantage, McKinsey Quarterly, June 2011
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THE AUDITOR’S RESPONSABILITIES REGARDING BUSINESS ETHICS IN
CONDUCTING A FINANCIAL AUDIT
Viorel-Horaţiu Rotaru, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Lumina” University of South East
Europe
Abstract: This paper researches a different approach concerning the financial audit, ethical
audit and business ethics that are different than the quantitative, easily measurable data that
ensures reliability and accuracy in areas like accounting systems, financial reporting and
legal compliance. In this context, the financial auditor deals with all kind of questions
regarding ethics that he/she answer using a qualitative or subjective analysis.
Regarding the methodology employed in this research one of the most important is the
professional judgment of the auditor regarding the company‘s commitment to ethics; in order
to build such a judgment, the main technique used is the analysis of International Standards
of Audit (ISAs), to be more precise of ISAs such as 240 ―The Auditor's Responsibilities
Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements‖, 250 ―Consideration of Laws and
Regulations in an Audit of Financial Statements‖ and 260 ―Communication with Those
Charged with Governance‖.
The result of this research is a methodology made of a techniques and procedures used in the
ethical audit that brought together form a guideline for the financial auditor in detecting the
ethical issues that the accounting professional must solve in order elaborate the audit report
that contains the audit opinion.
Keywords: audit, financial, ethics, standards, methodology.
1. Introduction of ethical audit and its purposes
One new key segment of the financial audit and especially nowadays is represented by
the ethical audit that has as main objective to assess the internal and external entity‘ values
base. The ethical audit is divided into two parts, an internal segment that has as objectives the
review of people, processes and paper. The result of the internal ethical audit activity
presented to the stakeholders groups in order to ensure that the values of the entity are
accepted by its key stakeholders. Therefore, the findings of the ethical audit reflect significant
management information that should be presented public, in the entity‘ reports, in order to
present the social and ethical entity‘ performance.
The examination of entity‘ ethics derives of the following causes:
- Costly legal actions resulted of ethical audit failure that translate in high exists of
cash flow and benefits for the entity;
- An ethical start up point, that has to be improved for ethical improvements;
- Stakeholders obligations that are represented by the users of financial statements
and their need of ethical information regarding the entity due to the fact that
financial audit reports present few information regarding ethical problems;
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- Social pressure that derives as an external factor and influences the public image
and opinion regarding the entity‘ activity;
- Management risk, a key factor that is significantly considered by the financial
audit and many times has as result accounting fraud scandals that must be
avoided;
- The desire to bring benefits both financial and non-financial just by having a
proper ethical behavior from the point of view of the entity.
The ethical audit is a new term, process although business ethics represents an old and
widely discussed topic. In Europe it is applied usually by an ethical code for each entity
although in the United States in the recent period many entities have a management
department with primary objective the promotion of ethical behavior through the entity.
As the financial audit presents an opinion regarding the fairness (or not) of the
financial statements in order for the financial users to decide their future actions concerning
that entity, the ethical audit has as main objective to present the ethical profile of the entity,
the entity‘ reputation that affects not only the employees or investors but also the customers
and suppliers. It performs in the following areas:
- learn and apply better issues that motivate the personnel due to other factors
existence, not only the financial factors;
- identify and solve special areas that are vulnerable for the entity and could cause
financial and non-financial issues;
- assess a certain start-up point in order to allow future progress;
- improve the stakeholder‘s opinion regarding the entity and provide guiding lines for
expectation of entity‘s ethical behavior;
In conclusion, the ethical audit determines a certain climate that the entity evaluates in
and analyses the values on which entity‘s actions are based by testing the values that should
be taken into consideration with the moral actions that the entity applies. It represents a
different concept not like social auditing which has as main objective the social impact of the
entity on its environment.
2. Stakeholders and their influence on the entity subject of ethical audit
One of the most important and being able to deteriorate or improve the entity‘ activity
is represented by the customer, which translates into the influence, the power the consumer
has on the entity. The mechanism and methods of the consumer (or possible consumer) to
determine an entity to change its actions regarding a certain topic is increasing and widely
spread. For example, on the social networks, some persons were encouraging others of
boycotting the sales of a petrol producer and reseller in Romania due to that entity‘ proven
financial fraud and prejudice brought to the tax authorities and the Romanian economy.
It is obvious that the financial audit is the main method to combat financial frauds but
we must take into consideration also the ethical audit. If that petrol producer and reseller
would have taken into consideration, not only the effects of fraudulent reports and financial
fraud, but also the public negative effect their actions would have that situation could have
been avoided; one of the greatest benefits of ethical audits are to analyze the ethical
environment of the entity and to identify the these pressure groups that have the ability to
influence an entity‘s activity, even to bankruptcy.
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The ethical audit prevents negative events from happening and pressure groups of
being unsatisfied. This is the reason that this kind of audit has to be taken into consideration
by any entity that has claims, financial and non-financial.
One of the greatest benefits of the ethical audit is that it assists the company to scan
the environment to identify the issues which are most likely to provoke action by pressure
groups, and in turn gives the company the opportunity to encourage such groups to participate
in the decision making process, or at the very least to inform them fully of the company's
position.
What must be highlighted is that the entity should have in consideration the network of
relationships, relationships with personnel, shareholders, especially customers and society at
large. These stakeholders can influence the entity‘s activity; let us take the previous example
with the petrol company, like any other entity, it should have considered important the
customer, its key stakeholder, it should have asked the customer‘s opinion on services and
allow the customer to play an active and positive role in its development; most important it
shouldn‘t have committed financial fraud which is a very delicate topic in countries like
Romania, especially in a recession period.
Ethical auditing determines entities to achieve a better relationship with its
stakeholders; such a relationship has at the base values as trust and fair dealing, an entity
advantage to others is finding the expectations and perceptions that offer a stronger and more
reliable relationship than other entities do.
The dynamics of ethical audit involve the accountability and transparency towards
stakeholders and effective internal control related to ethical objectives; these two key factors
are influenced and fulfilled by:
a. The stakeholders obtain the information needed and entitled to due to the
existence of a minimum set of current legal standards and the importance of
certain stakeholders that the entity wishes to emphasize and recognize;
b. The stakeholders assess also the progress through years and determine if there is
still work to be done regarding audit objectives
So, the ethical audit will result in the identification of (actual) organizational values on
the one hand, and in a general direction as to how the company wants to develop its value
system on the other. The findings will therefore need to be translated into action planning for
the following year. If the ethical audit is performed every year or every other year, a company
should be able to track its progress based upon the baseline information provided by the
different elements of the ethical audit. Hence, the ethical audit provides a snapshot of the
ethical behavior of a company, but at the same time ethical bookkeeping, ethical accounting,
internal and external ethical assessment, external validation and the resulting action planning
can influence organizational values and thus corporate ethical behavior.
3. General ethical standards and audit procedures
Accounting and financial professionals must abide by ethical standards that regulate
what kind of business they conduct, who they serve and how they use their skills. Ethical
standards are determined largely by professional accounting and finance organizations and the
Financial Accounting Standards Board.
In order to be able to conduct an ethical audit, the auditor himself / herself, especially
a financial auditor, should apply the following professional principles:
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a. Competence: one of the key ethical standards finance professionals must uphold
is to be competent, accountants and financial professionals must not only have
secured education and practice that prepares them for their positions, but they
must also continue that education by learning new information that can affect
their practices. Among other things, they must stay up-to-date with national and
international standards and regulations; also financial professionals must be
honest and display integrity;
b. Objectivity: financial professionals must be objective, avoiding conflicts of
interest; they must not, for instance, perform accounting services or ethical audits
for firms that they have a vested interest in. Even if they can conduct themselves
objectively, working for a company owned by a relative, for example, would not
look objective and could cast doubt on the finance professional's intentions;
c. Confidentiality: financial professionals have access to a great deal of personal
information, this is not only limited to financial information but also includes the
names and contact information of employees as well as the names and locations
of firms with which the company does business. Ethical standards require
financial professionals to keep that information private except when ordered to
disclose it by a court of law; financial professionals also must not use this
information to gain ―unethical or illegal advantage‖.
Regarding audit procedures for ethical behavior the most effective tool that entities
have for accomplishing a profitable relationship between an entity and its customers is the
ethics audit. Ethics audit is influences by the following audit procedures:
a. Audit independence: Ethical behavior audit teams must be free from interference
or impairment from any department or management function. Conflicts of interest
are avoided by ensuring individual auditors are not assigned to evaluate the
department the auditor reports to;
b. Written code: ensure that the organization being audited has established a written
code of conduct; the audit will evaluate whether or not the code addresses all of the
business practices of the entity and the standards of behavior employees are
expected to follow;
c. Leadership commitment: an ethics audit also determines if the organization's
leadership has made a commitment to enforcing ethical behavior from the top of
the company down to the lowest levels of the organization; the audit determines if
leadership has accepted responsibility for the creation of a culture that insists on
ethical behavior from every employee; leadership's commitment to ethics can be
quantified by surveys from customers and other stakeholders; an ethical company
culture creates value when customers perceive they will be treated with dignity and
integrity.
Ethical behavior on the part of the entity and its personnel translate into honest and
valued relationships with both customers and business partners. Maintaining an ethical
environment by applying ethical standards involves setting expectations, providing guidance
along the way and consistently choosing to do the right thing.
An ethical environment can be achieved by applying the following methods:
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a. Developing an ethical standards guide that both entity management and employees
to act in an honest and trustworthy manner in all interactions; these standards should
encourage employees to make the right decisions for the company, not the individual,
and give them the courage to come forward should they notice dishonest and unethical
behavior. Company programs focused on ethics help lay out company standards and
expected practices as they relate to ethical behavior and decisions. This can include
providing clear guidance on common ethical dilemmas, such as using company
software programs for personal projects.
b. Establishing core values and working to develop a culture of respect, trust and honest
communication represents a vital part of establishing and maintaining ethical business
operations; entities should choose to reward employees for consistently meeting
ethical standards set in place, instead of emphasizing financial gain.
c. Developing ethical managerial standards. The actions and behaviors of
management, and other senior staff, help steer departments and employees toward
proper and accepted business practices. Part of this responsibility includes enforcing
rules, guidelines and policies fairly and equally across all levels of the organization.
Managers may also be tasked with helping employees navigate ethical dilemmas and
solving difficult situations to keep the corporation on the right path.
d. Ethical personnel policy. Addressing ethical standards for an entity starts with the
hiring process; recruiting talented and ethical individuals is a must. Background
checks represent just one tool available for recruiters when looking to hire ethical and
trustworthy individuals. In addition to hiring the right employees, employers must take
action to penalize those who display dishonest and unethical behavior. Continuing to
employ those employees who cannot behave in an ethical manner sends the wrong
message to all employees.
4. Conclusions and proposals regarding the conduct of an ethical audit
Financial audits are especially designed to verify the entity‘ records in order to ensure
reliability and accuracy in areas like accounting systems, financial reporting and legal
compliance. Audits generally deal with quantitative, easily measurable data. Ethical issues, on
the other hand, are more often qualitative or subjective in nature. A number of qualitative
research techniques make an ethical audit possible, but an ethical audit still necessarily
functions differently from any kind of financial audit.
An ethical audit must be conducted in starting from the entity‘ formal codes of ethics,
continuing with the past ethics events in the entity‘s history and ending questioning both
employees and personnel and finalizing with and audit opinion. This 4 step method is
described below:
1. Review the company's formal codes of ethics, ethics training programs and
compliance policies for legal and industry guidelines regarding ethics.
A commitment to ethics begins with formal policies in the employee handbook.
Although having such policies in place does not guarantee real-world compliance, it is a vital
first step in building a culture of strong ethics, and it can show how serious management is
about ethical issues. The auditor should ensure that ethics policies cover the full range of
common issues in business, such as: discrimination, equal employment opportunity, financial
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management, sourcing, customer relations and the impact of company operations on the
environment, the community and the world;
2. Past breaches of ethics through company records and archived online news sources.
The auditor should continue by asking the shareholders or an executive to discuss any
legal issues the company has experienced, but should not let the impression that the auditor
intends to investigate. If the auditor discovers something the entity‘ representative tried to
hide, this represents an alarm signal pointing to a culture of dishonesty.
When searching past news releases, the auditor should look for any negative press
about the entity, and scrutinize the story for breaches of ethics. If any previous ethical lapses
have occurred, the auditor should speak with the entity shareholder/s or an executive about
what the company has done to prevent similar incidents from occurring since then and in the
future. To make this information more measurable, the auditor should create a timeline listing
each past incident of a public breach of ethics, and analyze the frequency, rate and momentum
of the occurrences.
3. Employees questioning regarding their impressions of the company's commitment to
ethics.
The auditor should the employees to share their experiences about co-workers,
managers and executives and assure that all employees know their interviews are confidential
and that honest answers will help to improve their organizations. Insiders know a large
amount of information that the public, the press and government regulators are not aware of.
Not every breach of ethics is illegal, either, and employees can be an insightful source of
information on legal breaches of ethics occurring on a regular basis. To make this information
more quantitative, the auditor should look for patterns in the responses received and record
the number of times specific issues come up. If the auditor discovers employees frequently
speaking about management‘s rude treatment of females, for example, the auditor should note
the number of times the issue came up and calculate the percentage of interviewees who
mentioned it.
4. The ethical audit opinion; the ethical audit will result in the identification of entity‘
values on the one hand, and in a general direction as to how the company wants to
develop its value system on the other. The findings will therefore need to be translated
into action planning for the following year. If the ethical audit is performed every year
or every other year, an entity should be able to track its progress based upon the
baseline information provided by the different elements of the ethical audit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ISA 240 ―The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of Financial
Statements‖;
2. ISA 250 ―Consideration of Laws and Regulations in an Audit of Financial
Statements‖;
3. ISA 260 ―Communication with Those Charged with Governance‖;
4. Antle, R., Griffin, P. A., Teece, D. J. & Williamson, O. E. 1997, ‗An economic
analysis of auditor independence for a multi-client, multi-service public accounting
firm‘, prepared by The Law & Economics Consulting Group, Inc. on behalf of the
American Institute of Certified Public Accountants;
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5. Barkess, L. & Simnett, R. 1994, ‗The provision of other services by auditors:
Independence and pricing issues‘, Accounting and Business Research, vol. 24, no. 94,
pp. 91-108;
6. Lisa Papania, Daniel M. Shapiro & John Peloza (2008). Social Impact as a Measure of
Fit between Firm Activities and Stakeholder Expectations. International Journal of
Business Governance and Ethics 4 (1):3-16;
7. Marc J. Epstein, Ruth Ann McEwen & Roxanne M. Spindle (1994). Shareholder
Preferences Concerning Corporate Ethical Performance. Journal of Business Ethics 13
(6):447 – 453;
8. Réal Labelle, Rim Makni Gargouri & Claude Francoeur (2010). Ethics, Diversity
Management, and Financial Reporting Quality. Journal of Business Ethics 93 (2):335
– 355;
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NATIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AS AN ATTRACTOR FOR
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENTS
Raluca Elena Iloie, PhD Student, ”Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Investments are the primordial factor in the development and strategy of national
economies, affecting all areas and economic sectors, representing a condition of increasing
individual and national income, improving living standards. Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) are
increasing the firms‘ efficiency and productivity, reducing unemployment, improving managerial
skills at the organizational level, advanced technology transfer and access to foreign markets.
These, according to several statistical results, are the reasons behind the nations‘ efforts for
attracting foreign direct investment. At the same time, the amount of FDI varies from country to
country, in accordance to their ―attractivity‖ in the eyes of the international business community.
This paper intends to focus upon the correlation between FDI flows and national culture,
according to Hofstede‘s model (model that can be employed for describing organizational and
national culture, both), for CEE (Central Eastern Europe) area, in an effort to ascertain if national
culture represents one of the host-country ―attractors‖ for foreign investments. The analysis will be
two folded: first, we will study if there is a connection between the FDI flows and the host nation‘s
culture, in other words if there is an ―attractive‖ national culture for foreign finances. Second, we
will test the hypothesis that states that countries with a certain type of culture tend to invest in host-
systems that have similar cultural values – that is, we will identify if the major investors (by
geographical origin) in an CEE (Central and Eastern Europe) country have a propensity to direct
their investments toward countries with similar national cultural systems. As stated above, the unit
of analysis will be CEE countries, and the data encompass a period of 11 years (2001-2012).
Keywords: FDI, economic growth, national and organizational culture, uncertainty, risk-avoidance
1. Introduction
In order to ensure economic growth and competitiveness in various economic sectors, to be
able to create new jobs, increase household incomes, promote exports and transfer advanced
knowledge and technology countries, mainly, need FDI, which is the purpose of integration into the
European economic system.
The decision to invest in a certain organization, institution or country is taken by individuals
like managers and leaders or by a group of people. These managers, leaders, as well as the people
they work with – at the level of organizations - are part of national societies (national cultures). ―If
we want to understand their behavior, we have to understand their societies. In culture there is no
shortcut to the business world.‖ (Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, 2005, p.20)
Many researchers, sociologists, anthropologists, population biologists and even economists
(Stiglitz, Joseph E. 2006) tried to explain why Globalization isn`t working in the same way for
every nation. Globalization, as a general concept, involves the international circulation of ideas,
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information, shared cultural experiences, a global civil society and global environmental
movement.
Strictly economic, Globalization involves intensified circulation of goods, services, capital
and labor, contributing to raising living standards throughout the countries and foreign investors‘
access to new markets, open borders for people who want to travel, to train and even to work.
But, as observed in the late 80s, this process meets with fierce local resistance because
economic systems are not culture free. ―We cannot change the way people in a country think, feel
and act by simply importing foreign institutions‖ (Hofstede, 2005, p.20), because there is a ‖general
spirit of a nation‖ and institutions/ organizations that function in a geographical area follow mental
programs by adapting to local/ national culture (Montesquieu, C.-L., 1979 [1742], p.310).
―One point anthropologists have always made is that aspects of life which do not seem to be
related to another, actually are related (Marvin Harris, 1981, p. 8)‖. The norms, values and patterns
of behavior exhibited by the employees of a certain organization are the product of a merging
process between the values and norms of the host-culture (national culture = the culture of the
society within which that organization functions) and those created by the rules, regulations and
structure of that particular organization.
Organizational culture improves stability and provides its members the understanding they
need to discover the meaning of events and activities taking place in the organization (within daily
activities). Thus, Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayo and Sanders (1990) have shown that the essence of
organizational culture seems to be more in daily practice than shared values. This conclusion was
derived from a study of twenty organizations in Denmark and the Netherlands, which revealed that
the employee values differ more according to demographic characteristics such as nationality, age
or education, rather than organizational characteristics.
After many conceptual reasoning and statistical studies, the emphasis was placed more and
more on national cultures and its` dimensions. Researchers believed that all societies (modern and
traditional) face the same basic problems (Benedict, R. 1934,Mead, M. 1962). Also, in 1954 was
published a broad survey of the English-language literature on national culture, where psychologist
Daniel Levinson and sociologist Alex Inkeles suggested that issues like relation to authority,
conception of self (in particular, the relationship between individual and society and the
individuals` concept of masculinity/ femininity) and ways of dealing with conflicts were the basic
problems worldwide.
The most important statistical study was developed by Geert Hofstede (1960 - 1970) on
values of people in more than fifty countries around the world (IBM study). In this study he
discovered that different countries confront themselves with common problems in areas like social
inequality (power distance – first dimension of national culture), the control of aggression and the
expression of emotions (uncertainty avoidance – second dimension of national culture), the
relationship between individual and the group (individualism versus collectivism – third
dimension of national culture), and the social and emotional implications of having been born as a
boy or a girl (masculinity vs. femininity – the fourth dimension of national culture). Meanwhile,
his study continued and there were added another two dimensions:long- versus short-term
orientation (the fifth dimension-stability, perseverance, oriented toward future vs. oriented toward
present, thinking for oneself) and indulgence versus restraint (the sixth dimension-enjoying life
and having fun vs. strict social norms).
This paper will focus mainly on the dimensions of national cultures mentioned above
because, as scientists agree, organizations and their people, along with organizational cultures, are
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part of the national culture of the host – country they function in. The Central Eastern European
(CEE) countries analyzed will be: Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Czech Republic,
Romania, Hungary, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia and Moldova.
1.1 Foreign Direct Investments
Foreign direct investment is the name given to the process where a firm / company from one
country invests capital in a business / company existing or newly created in another country.
―Broadly, foreign direct investment includes mergers and acquisitions, building new
facilities, reinvesting profits earned from overseas operations and intra company loans.‖
(Wikipedia)
However, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) calls
direct investment (FDI) as more than just movement of capital - investment that adds to, deducts
from or by which you can have a long-term interest and profit in a firm / company operating in the
economy, capital - direct investment coming from a country other than the firms` / company
receiving the investment and implies that the investor exerts a significant influence on the
management of the investee company.( OECD 1996, pg. 7)
Types of FDI
• Greenfield refers to the establishment of companies - Greenfield investment;
• Mergers and acquisitions: full or partial takeover of companies by foreign investors;
• Business development: increasing FDI holdings in companies - foreign direct
investment.
FDI Flows:
Data on FDI flows are on a net basis (capital transactions´ credits less debits between direct
investors and their foreign affiliates). FDI flows with a negative sign indicate that at least one of the
three components of FDI (equity capital, reinvested earnings or intra-company loans) is negative
and not offset by positive amounts of the remaining components. These are instances of reverse
investment or disinvestment. (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development – UNCTAD,
World Investment Report 2014, www.unctad.org)
Reasons why companies engage in FDI:
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT CLASSIFIED BY MOTIVATION
Resource seeking
FDI in natural resources (minerals, raw materials, and agricultural products)
FDI seeking low-cost or specialized labor
Market seeking
FDI into markets previously served by exports, or into closed markets protected by high
import or other barriers
FDI by supplier companies following their customers overseas
Efficiency
FDI seeking
that aims to adapt products to local tastes and needs, and to use local resources
Rationalized or integrated operations (regionally/globally) leading to cross-border product
Strategic
or process asset seeking
specialization
Acquisitions and alliances to promote long-term corporate objectives
Source: World Bank Group – Investment Climate 2014
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1.2 Organizational Culture
Organizational culture is defined as ―the collective programming of the mind that
distinguishes the members of one organization from another.‖ (Hofstede, G. 2005, p. 402)
For Hofstede, organizational culture is the interface between society and organization, a
result of the interaction and combination of values from these two different levels (Hatch, 2006).
Geert Hofstede‘s model regarding organizational culture is structured along six dimensions
of practices in organizations:
process-oriented versus results-oriented,
job-oriented versus employee-oriented,
professional versus parochial,
open systems versus closed systems,
tightly versus loosely controlled,
pragmatic versus normative.
The dimensions of organizational culture are about organizational units. Also, these
dimensions show us how to manage different types of organizational culture. Organizations place
themselves on dimensions depending on the business or industry they are part of.
1.3 National Culture
National culture is ―the programming of the mind acquired by growing up in a particular
country.‖ (Hofstede, G. 2005, p.402)
The relative position of a country on a scale from 0 (low) to 100 (highest) on each of the six
cultural dimensions is a good predictor of human behavior and social norms in family and
education, workplace behavior, organization of state institutions, politics, national and
organizational decision making.As researchers claim, we may say that people`s way of thinking are
culturally determined.
The 6 dimensions of nationalculture:
Power distance (PDI),
Uncertainty avoidance (UAI),
Individualism versus collectivism (IDV),
Masculinity vs. femininity (MAS),
Long- versus short-term orientation (LTO),
Indulgence versus restraint (IVR).
These dimensions will not directly predict any future events or nation`s dynamics, but
onlythe understanding of what is likely to happen. Also, these dimensions have to be correlated
with national history, national wealth, personalities and coincidences.They are very useful when we
want to see and study cases of trends, averages or expectations.
2. Data and Empirical Methodology
In the present article we will analyze two hypotheses: first, we will study if there is a
connection between the FDI flows and the host nation‘s culture (if there is an ―attractive‖ national
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culture for foreign investors), and second, we will identify if the major investors (by
geographical origin) in an Eastern or Central European country tend to invest in host-systems
that have similar national cultures. Data gathered about FDI flows (foreign direct investments
flows) and national culturefor Central Eastern Europe (CEE countries)will cover a period of
11 years from 2001 to 2012.
Table1. Hierarchy of 14CEE countries by FDI flows in millions of US dollars, from
2001 – 2012, and their major investors by geographical origin
Source: UNCTAD – WORLD Investment Report 2014 (countries profile),
http://unctad.org/en , Own computation
AFR=Africa, AHO=Netherland Antilles,AUS=Australia, AUT=Austria,
BAH=Bahamas, BEL=Belgium, BER=Bermuda, BIH=Bosnia & Herzegovina, BRA=Brazil,
BUL=Bulgaria,CAN=Canada, CAR=Caribbean, CAY=Cayman Islands, CHN=China,
CRO=Croatia, CYP=Cyprus, CZE=Czech Republic, DEN=Denmark, ESP=Spain,
EST=Estonia,FIN=Finland, FRA=France, GBR=United Kingdom, GER=Germany,
GRE=Greece, HUN=Hungary, IRL=Ireland, ISR=Israel,ITA=Italy, JPN=Japan,
KAZ=Kazakhstan, KOR=Korea,L.A.&C= Latin America & Caribbean,
LIE=Liechtenstein,LUX=Luxembourg, MLT=Malta, MNE=Montenegro,NED=Netherlands,
NOR=Norway,O.DC=Other Developed Countries, O.DE=Other Developed Economies,
O.DGE=Other Developing Economies, O.EC=Other European Countries, O.EU=Other
European Union, PAN=Panama, POL=Poland, POR=Portugal, QAT=Qatar, ROU=Romania,
RUS=Russia, SIN=Singapore, SLO=Slovenia, SRB=Serbia,SUI=Switzerland, SWE=Sweden,
SVK=Slovakia,TUR=Turkey, UNS=UNSPECIFIED, USA=United States, UKR=Ukraine.
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From Table 1. we can see that the CEE countries that benefit from a large flow of
investments from 2001 – 2012 are Germany (428 886 millions of US dollars), Switzerland
(223 845 millions of US dollars) and Poland (149 363 mill. of US dollars), being the first 3
countries, in this order, from the 14 countries we analyzed. Next in line are Austria, Czech
Republic, Romania, Hungary, Ukraine and Bulgaria. The countries which benefit less from
FDI flows in the 11 years studied are: Slovenia (9 135 mill. of US dollars) and Moldova (2
890 mill. of US dollars). Some data in Table 1. were available only for regions like Africa,
Caribbean, Latin America & Caribbean, Other Developed Economies, Other Developing
Economies, Other European Countries, or Other European Union, not for individual
countries. ―FDI flows with a negative sign indicate that at least one of the three components
of FDI (equity capital, reinvested earnings or intra-company loans) is negative and not offset
by positive amounts of the remaining components. These are instances of reverse investment
or disinvestment.‖
(UNCTAD – FDI flows,
http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/Investment%20and%20Enterprise/FDI_Flows.aspx)
Figure 1. Representation on 6 dimensions of National Cultures – 14 CEE countries
Scale: 0 – 100 (from 0 – 50 = low score, 51 – 100 = high score)
National Culture
100
90
80
70
60
SCALE
50
40
30
20
10
0
pdi idv mas uai ltowvs ivr
Dimensions
Austria Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep Germany Hungary Moldova Poland Romania
Serbia Slovak Rep Slovenia Switzerland Ukraine
From Figure 1. we can observe the scores of CEE countries` national culture, on each
dimension (Power Distance, Individualism vs. Collectivism, Masculinity vs. Femininity,
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Uncertainty Avoidance, Long-term Orientation vs. Short-term Orientation and Indulgence
versus Restraint).
We can see that Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and
Slovakia have high scores on Individualism (IDV) and Masculinity (MAS) dimensions. The
same countries plus Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia, have high scores on
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI). Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia have low
scores on Individualism and Masculinity dimensions. Power Distance (PDI) dimension scores
low for Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Hungary and high for Poland, Czech Republic,
Romania, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Serbia and Slovenia. Data about these dimensions are not
available for Ukraine and Moldova. We have only 2 countries that ―manifest‖ Short-term
Orientation namely Poland and Slovenia, and also only 2 countries that score high on
Indulgence versus Restraint dimension (IVR), like Switzerland and Austria.
3. Findings based on the first set of gathered data
If we correlate Table 1. with Figure 1 we can observe that countries with very high
levels of foreign direct investment flows have in common high scores on IDV, MAS and UAI
dimensions (Germany, Switzerland, Poland, Austria, Czech Republic). Also, the countries
with lower or very low level of FDI flows have high scores on Power Distance (PDI)
dimension (Bulgaria, Slovakia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia). There are two exceptions from
these ―rules‖: Romania and Hungary. Even though Romania scores high on PDI dimension
and low on IDV and MAS dimensions (with high score on UAI dimension), and Hungary
scores low on PDI and high on IDV, MAS, UAI dimensions, Romania got more foreign
investments over the period of 11 years (2001-2012) than Hungary. Slovakia`s national
culture scores high on IDV, MAS, UAI, but also has the highest score on PDI, which can
explain its` 10th place in the hierarchy of FDI flows from the 14 CEE countries analyzed.
Again, there is no data available on these dimensions for Ukraine and Moldova.
Based on gathered data and correlations between them we can say that the national
culture that ―attracts‖ the most FDI flows is a culture that values more individualism,
masculinity, avoidance of uncertainty and has a democratic national/ institutional system (low
score PDI).
Figure 2. SPSS statistical reprezentation of country groupings around the world, in
clusters with similar national culture, based on the 6 cultural dimensions (PDI, IDV, MAS,
UAI, LTO, IVR).
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Source: www.geerthofstede.com, Own SPSS computation
From Figure 2. we can extract and group countries from aroundthe world that have
similar national cultures. We are interested, in this second part of our analyses, to study the
similitude of national cultures between CEE countries and their major investors.The grouping
will be into 7 major clusters,as follows:
- Cluster A: Australia, United States, Canada, New Zeeland, Ireland, Great Britain,
Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Nederland;
- Cluster B: Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Africa West, Trinidad & Tobago;
- Cluster C: Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia;
- Cluster D: Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Austria, Belgium, France, Hungary,
Italy, Czech Republic, Poland, Japan;
- Cluster E: Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam, Hong Kong, India, China,
Singapore;
- Cluster F: Africa East, Thailand, Arab Countries, Morocco, Iran, Chile, El Salvador,
Portugal, Uruguay, Peru, Slovenia, Brazil, Turkey, Spain, Malta, Greece, Argentina;
- Cluster G: Korea South, Taiwan, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, Croatia, Russia,
Bangladesh, Pakistan.
Slovakia is the exception because, its` national cultural dimensions can be included in
any of the other clusters, except cluster A.
Ukraine and Moldova do not appear in any of the clusters because there isn`t sufficient
data about the 6 dimensions of their national culture.
4. Findings based on the second set of gathered data
From Table1. and Figure 2. we observe that 7 countries from 14 CEE analyzed have
between 7 - 12 major investors from the same cluster as their own. From the point of view of
the FDI flows these investors are among the most important ones for the host countries.As
such, Germany benefits from FDI flows from Luxembourg, Italy, Switzerland, Austria,
France, Belgium and Japan in this order; Switzerland gets FDI flows from Austria, France,
Germany, Luxembourg, Japan, Italy, Belgium; Poland from Germany, France, Austria, Italy,
Belgium, Japan and Hungary; Austria from Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg,
Belgium and France; Czech Republic from Germany, Austria, France, Luxembourg,
Switzerland, Belgium, Poland and Italy. Hungary follows the same ―trend‖ in receiving FDI
flows from the same countries from Cluster D, as well as the exception Slovakia.
Slovenia, from Cluster F, didn`t have, on the first 20 major investors by geographical
origin, any investors from the same cluster, but only from the next closest cluster (Cluster G:
Croatia, Serbia and Russia). Countries from Cluster G, like Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia and
Serbia had very few major investors from the same cluster, all of them benefiting of FDI
flows more from countries in Cluster F. Romania had no investor from Cluster G, but 3 from
cluster F (Spain, Greece and Turkey), Bulgaria had only one investor from Cluster G
(Russia), and the same investors from Cluster F, Croatia also got FDI flows from Russia and
Cluster F (Spain, Slovenia, Malta).
And so, 7 from 14 CEE countries have major foreign investors from countries with
similar national culture, 5 CEE countries analyzed have very few investors from the same
cultural cluster and 2 countries couldn`t be analyzed in this context (Ukraine and Moldova),
because of lack of data.
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As a result, we can state that the second hypothesis (that postulated that countries with
a certain type of culture tend to invest in host-systems that have similar national culture) is
uncertain, the information available only partially supporting it.
5. Conclusions
The confirmation of our first hypothesis is backed up by studies that demonstrate
correlations between high scores in IDV, MAS, UAI and low scores for PDI cultural
dimension. Nearly all wealthy countries score high in Individualism or Masculinity and score
low in PDI (power distance dimension).
For example, high scores in PDI are related to bribery and scandals that are usually
covered up in corrupt countries.
Individualism is usually correlated to small power distance were the role of state in the
economic system is restrained, joint stock companies are owned by individuals and Per
Capita GNP tend to be higher, indicating the level of wealth forthosecountries.
In countries that manifest Masculine culture there is a preference for large
organizations, more status product are sold, people live in order to work, you find more
opportunities for high earnings, competitive manufacturing and economic growth at the
national level.
Also, high scored UAI countries like law and order, dislike ambiguity and chaos, have
more specialists in organizations that show an inner urge to work hard and like precision and
formalization.
For the first and second hypothesis, the small difference in FDI flows between
Romania and Hungary (even though Hungary has more similar cultural dimensions and
comes from the same Cluster D as Germany, Switzerland, Poland and Austria) can be
explained by Romania‘s sea access to international trade. In the case of Slovakia weobserve
an extremely high score on the PDI cultural dimension. Multinational companies avoid
countries like this because they want to invest in democratic systems, where decentralization
is popular and there is fewer supervisory personnel, qualities much needed for companies`
long-distance management; this country also has an extremely high score of MAS dimension
which indicates that their national culture shows disrespect for cooperation and employment
security.
National culture represents only one of many factors that can explain the FDI flows
within host economies and there is need of further research to completely explore this
relationship to its full extent.
References:
Harris, M. 1981, America now: The anthropology of a changing culture, New York:
Simon & Schuster;
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G.J., 2005, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind,
ed. McGraw Hill;
Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohayv, D., & Sanders, G. (1990). Measuring organizational
cultures:
A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. Administrative
ScienceQuarterly, 35, 286-316;
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Mead, M. 1962, Male and Female, London: Penguin Books [Original work published
1950];
Montesquieu, C.-L. de. 1979, De l'esprit des lois, vol. I, Paris: GF – Flammarion.
[Original work published 1742];
Porter, Michael, 2008, DespreConcurență, Ed. Meteor Business;
Rainelli, Michel, 2004ComerțulInternațional, Perspective generale/ NouaTeorie a
ComerțuluiInternațional, Ed. Arc;
Stiglitz, Joseph E.,2008,MecanismeleGlobalizării, Ed. Polirom, Bucuresti
http://www.bnr.ro/Investitiile-straine-directe-%28ISD%29-in-Romania-3174.aspx –
StatisticaAnuala BNR asuprafluxului net de ISD-uri;
http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html - National culture dimensions;
http://geerthofstede.com/dimension-data-matrix - Statistical data base on countries
cultural dimensions;
http://unctad.org/SearchCenter/Pages/Results.aspx?k=investment%20report – World
Investment Report 2014, country profiles;
http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/Investment%20and%20Enterprise/FDI_Flows.aspx -
UNCTAD – FDI flows.
Acknowledgement: This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund
through Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013,
project number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134197 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and
postdoctoral research in Romanian economics science domain‖./ Această lucrare a fost
cofinanțată din Fondul Social European, prin Programul Operațional Sectorial Dezvoltarea
Resurselor Umane 2007-2013, proiect numărul POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134197 „Performanață
şi excelență în cercetarea doctorală și postdoctorală în domeniul ştiințelor economice din
România‖
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INTANGIBLE ASSETS – RECOGNITION AND EVALUATION
Mircea-Iosif Rus, PhD Student, ”Babeș-Bolyai” University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The specialized literature (IAS 38) defines the intangible asset as an asset that is
‖non-monetary, identifiable and without physical substance‖. However we cannot state that
these assets are not as important as the tangible ones since, in some cases, the commercial
fund or a commercial marker considered an intangible asset can be more valuable than some
tangible ones. That is why we should not ignore these assets since their highlighting becomes
more and more important in the financial reports, as well as their assessment to a right
market value reflecting the real asset value, considering the fact that they can generate
economic benefits, even though intangible assets may be related to marketing, client or
supplier, technology or art.
Keywords: intangible assets, recognition, evaluation, commercial fund, intellectual property
1. Introduction
In time, mostly tangible, mobile assets have been traded on the market, such as real
estate, industrial equipment, cars etc., and only a lower rate of the intangible assets, including
intellectual property. This proportion tends to become equal since nowadays the emphasis
falls on the technology transfer, an intangible asset that does not involve a transfer of tangible
assets any more.
The intangible elements are always attached (in the beginning or after the beginning of
the action of any human activity from the political, social or economic field), but they have
become quite recently the focus of the economic research (only on the micro economy
level).[1]
In IAS 38 [2], according to the paragraph 8, the intangible assets are ―non-monetary
assets, identifiable and without physical substance‖, and the paragraph 12 explains the fact
that the registered intangible assets must meet the criteria of identifiability.
Intangible assets may be coherently analyzed by means of at least the following
dimensions:
The legal dimension: intangible assets are traded on the market, they sometimes
generate litigation and require a legal protection at least similar to the one for other
types of property.
The accounting dimension: these assets need to be analyzed, recorded, redeemed, re-
evaluated; therefore the accounting records require a good knowledge of goodwill and
intangible assets distinctively. The accounting work is interested in the registration
and recognition of goodwill, in the purchase prices of a business, as well as in the
assets included in this business.
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The financial dimension: many of the arguments created with respect to the goodwill
and other intangible assets are determined, directly or indirectly, by the financial
assessments and implications.
The intangible asset management dimension is important if these assets stand for
extremely important amounts related to the success of a business. [1]
2. Research methodology
In the current scientific work, I looked for the use of some elements of quality
research. Thus, the observation method when gathering information was really useful,
especially since the specialized literature is not very rich, whereas legal documents setting
provisions of the specialized literature provided the necessary elements for this paper. The
methods for data collection, the analysis of the similar content and the data interpretation were
other basic elements of the quality research in this paper. [3]
3. Recognition of intangible assets
According to the Order of the Ministry of Public Finances (OMPF) no. 3055/2009 [4]
an intangible asset is an identifiable, non-monetary asset, without any material support and
possessed for the purpose of using it in the manufacturing process or during the supply of
goods or services, in order to be rented to third parties or for administrative purposes.
An intangible asset meets the identifiability criteria when:
a) It is separable or dividable from the entity and sold, transferred, authorized, rented or
exchanged, individually or together with a corresponding agreement, an identifiable
asset or an identifiable debt; or
b) It results from contractual rights or of any other legal nature, irrespective of the fact
that these rights are transferable or separable from the entity or from any other rights
and obligations.
An intangible asset is property of an entity as long as this entity can get future
economic benefits as a result of that particular asset and it does not allow the access of other
entities or it limits their access to the above-mentioned economic benefits. The future
economic benefits may derive whether from capitalizing the products or services generated by
the asset, from cost savings or from other benefits generated by the entity‘s use of the asset.
The costs falling on an entity in order to create an intangible asset, as its property until
its capitalization on the market, include both the initial capital, and the subsequent operating
and maintenance costs.[5]
The intangible assets include the following categories:
start-up expenditures;
development expenditures;
franchising, patents, licenses, trademarks, royalties and similar assets, except for the
ones internally generated by the entity;
commercial fund;
other commercial assets;
advance payments to intangible asset suppliers, and
in-process intangible assets.
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Another classification of the intangible assets divides them into marketing assets,
client or supplier-related assets, technological or artistic work assets. The intangible assets
may be contractual or non-contractual in each of the above-mentioned categories.
Marketing intangible assets are mainly used for product or service marketing or
promoting purposes. The examples include trademarks, brands, unique commercial design,
internet domain name and non-competition agreements.
The client or supplier-related intangible assets derive from the relationships with or
the knowledge about clients or suppliers. Examples can be service or purchase agreements,
license or royalty agreements, order registers, labor contracts and relationships with clients.
Technological intangible assets derive from contractual or non-contractual rights to
use patented or non-patented technology, databases, formulas, projects, software, processes or
networks.
Artistic work intangible assets derive from rights to benefits such as royalties from
art works, e.g. playwrights, books, movies and music, as well as non-contractual copyright
protection.
The commercial fund represents a special situation. Again according to OMPF no.
3055/2009 [4] ―the commercial fund is usually recognized during consolidation and it
represents the difference between the acquisition cost and the fair value of the part from the
net assets purchased by an entity on the transaction date.
In the individual annual accounting sheets, the commercial fund can be recognized
only if there is a transfer of all assets or parts of them, of debts and capitals, irrespective of
their resulting from purchasing or merging transactions. The transfer is related to a business,
represented by an integrated ensemble of activities and assets that are organized and managed
with the purpose of obtaining profits, low costs or other benefits.
The internally-generated commercial fund is not recognized as an asset since it is not
an identifiable asset (i.e. it is not separable and it does not derive from contractual legal rights
or of other nature) entity-controlled, credibly assessable at cost.‖
4. Evaluation of intangible assets
The evaluation of intangible assets can be performed both on the date of the balance
sheet, together with their inclusion in the financial documents, as well as in order to capitalize
them on a regulated market, when there is one.
4.1. Evaluation of intangible assets on the balance sheet date
According to the law, the evaluation of intangible assets in the balance sheet is marked
at the incoming value, except for the cumulated adjustments [6].
A few aspects have to be mentioned with respect to the intangible assets and their
recording in the accounting documents further to an inventory:
- the inventory of intangible assets shall be carried out by determining their presence
and their belonging to the owning entities, and, in the case of patents, licenses, trademarks and
other intangible assets, a proof of their presence is necessary based on the land rights or other
legal documents certifying certain legal rights; [7]
- in the inventory lists of the in-process intangible assets there shall be mentioned, for
each separate item, based on determination of its presence on the spot, name and determined
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
value according to the execution stage and to the workload already performed on the
inventory date;[8]
- partially or totally operational investments, without issued registration forms as
intangible assets, shall be recorded in distinct inventory lists, whereas the works that stopped
being executed, ceased or abandoned, shall be recorded in separate inventory lists, with the
reason for their cease or abandonment clearly stated, as well as the approval for cease or
abandonment together with the measures suggested for these works. [8]
The correction of the intangible asset value and its adjustment to the inventory level
shall be operated, according to the type of existing depreciation, whether by recording an
additional amortization if there is an irreversible depreciation noticed, or by creating or
supplementing adjustments for depreciation if there is a reversible depreciation noticed.
In order to establish if there are depreciations of intangible assets, other than
determination of the fact during inventory, external or internal information sources can be
taken into account.
The external information sources include the following aspects:
o during a certain period of time, the asset‘s market value decreased significantly more
than expected as a consequence of time and usage;
o during a certain period of time, significant changes occurred, with a negative effect on
the entity, or this kind of transformations will generate such changes in the near future
on the technological, commercial, economic or legal environment where the entity
runs its business or on the market the asset is attached to.
The internal information sources can include the following elements:
there is indication of physical or moral wear-and-tear of the asset;
during a certain period of time, significant changes occurred, with a negative effect on
the entity, or these transformations may generate such changes in the near future,
regarding the level and the way the asset is used or expected to be used. Such changes
include situations where the asset becomes non-productive, plans for restructuring or
cease of the activity the asset is attached to, or plans for surrendering the asset before
the previously estimated date;
the internal reports make available indications of the fact that economic results of an
asset are or shall be weaker than expected.
4.2. Evaluation of intangible assets aiming at their capitalization
As in the case of tangible asset, the methods of the three classic approaches are
applicable with intangible assets:
(a) the market approach (sales comparison);
(b) the income approach;
(c) the cost approach.
The international evaluation standards admit the fact that: ―There are more evaluation
approaches, such as the real option approach… Such approaches can be appropriate for
evaluating intangible assets in certain situations‖.[9]
The choice of a certain evaluation method for an intangible asset always depends on
circumstances. Most of the times, the use of more evaluation methods is required (two at
least) due to the necessity of checking the obtained results.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
4.2.1. The market approach – determines the value of an intangible asset by
reference to the transactions registered on the market where their transaction price is found, as
well as to the sale or purchase offers involving identical or similar assets.
Comparison with previous transactions
Occasionally, an intangible asset can be bought on the market at a price considered the
equivalent of its value. The attempt to certify the acquisition price is no aberration. Certifying
methods are recommended: e.g. cost savings, generation cost, profit advantage. In its turn, the
acquisition price may be useful as a test for the license or franchise values. A number of
intangible assets are sold and bought on the market, but the information obtained on this
market should aim at each type of intangible asset.[10]
Market transactions
Through this method, the value of an intangible asset is set by reference to the
transaction prices or to the ―evaluation multiples‖ involved in the prices of transactions with
identical or similar assets.
It stands as a method where an evaluator, based on true information, considers signed
transactions under similar circumstances to the specific analyzed case, and he takes into
account corrections (positive or negative, based on his own experience) to the circumstances
where the transactions standing as point of reference were signed.
In practice, this approach is often used as a testing tool given that intangible assets are
unique in most cases. One of the reasons the comparison approach is not usually the main
approach consists of the fact that the market where intangible assets are traded can rarely be
considered an ―active market‖.[10]
4.2.2. The income approach – estimates the value of an intangible asset by reference
to the updated value of the estimated flows (income, cash, cost saving etc.), which could be
obtained by a market participant, owner of the analyzed asset.
The application of the income methods are mostly based on predicted financial
information: predicted turnover, estimated operating income, predicted cash flows, duration of
estimated useful life etc.
The relief from royalty
This is an applicable method used mostly for the evaluation of patents and licenses. It
estimates the value of an intangible asset by comparison with the value of hypothetical royalty
payment that would have been saved by taking the asset from a third party.
The owner of intellectual property right may allow others to use this asset in exchange
for a royalty amount which is, in most cases, a percentage applied to the sales volume
generated by the use of the intellectual property. Normally, such rights stand for 3-7% of the
sales, where the highest level reached is 5% from the sales. This percentage varies according
to the type of intangible asset, its volume and the risk of the flows generated by the use of the
asset.[10]
Additional profits (over-profit method)
This evaluation method of intangible assets applies in the situation where the
advantage of possessing and using intangible assets can have a reasonably accurate
estimation, an advantage indicated synthetically after all through the net profit. Practically,
this method is based on the profits directly provided by the intangible assets.
The presence of a profit or an additional cash flow is due to one of the below:
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
- a surplus of sales prices (price premium) compared to those competitors who do not
possess the analyzed intangible asset;
- a relative cost level that is lower than those competitors‘ who do not possess the
analyzed intangible asset (cost savings);
- a combination of the two sources above.
The additional profit method involves comparing the profit or the predicted cash flow
that an economic entity could obtain from using the intangible asset to the one it could obtain
from another economic entity that does not use that particular intangible asset.[10]
Exceeding cash flows
This method determines the value of an intangible asset as the updated cash flow value
attached to the evaluated intangible asset, after deduction of the cash flows attachable to other
assets.
Practically, this method is usually applied for those intangible assets that have a
stronger impact on the cash flows. The ―contributing‖ assets are actually only less important
assets within the invested capital of the economic entity.[10]
4.2.3. The cost approach – estimates the value of an intangible asset by calculating
the cost of its replica, and specifically by determining its replacement cost with an asset
capable of providing identical or similar services.
A few types of intangible assets are more frequently used where their replacement
costs can be estimated:
reproduction cost for trained and qualified work force;
internally generated creation cost for certain software programs;
creation cost for an internet website.
Creation cost
Even though the creation cost of an intangible asset is quite rarely close to its value,
there are situations however where the creation cost method can apply, where the evaluator
develops an evaluating technique based on the creation cost of a similar intangible asset. The
applicability of this method is limited though and imposed by the lack of certain information
able to estimate the consequences of possessing and using such assets. The method is very
useful especially as a means of verification and testing the conclusions resulting from
applying other methods.[10]
One should keep in mind that, besides the result provided by the application of
evaluation methods, adjustments are sometimes necessary, determined by any financial
benefit from the amortization of the intangible asset. Such an adjustment is known as ―Tax
Amortization Benefit‖ (TAB) and it reflects the savings of the profit tax paid by the entity
using that asset as a consequence of the corresponding amortization of the intangible asset.
The formula that calculates the amount of the financial benefit as a result of the
amortization deductibility is as follows:
n
TAB ERNTA x 1
n ( Fcap x s )
where:
ERNTA = updated total net relief from royalty;
TAB = tax amortization benefit,
n = number of years for the patent to be amortized;
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Fcap = capitalizing factor;
s = profit tax rate.[10]
5. Conclusions
Even if at first view these intangible assets do not seem to be of major importance, in
time some of them acquired a special significance, and I am referring here to the intellectual
property rights. They represented the object of many cases of legal litigation, especially
commercial ones, and that is why in other states the law provides harsh punishments for theft
of intellectual property. The same situation occurs as far as licenses and patents are
concerned. The latter, in the absence of an appropriate market to be traded on, are capitalized
by inventors at ridiculous prices, even though they seem to have made the ―deal‖ of a lifetime,
and those purchasing them end up amortizing the amounts paid for these patents in a
relatively short period of time, sometime between 1 and 3 years in my opinion, whereas the
profit reaches its maximum level after this time.
The amounts allocated for keeping these licenses are definitely not minor, but all these
expenditures are amortized by cashing certain royalties for them.
Bibliographic references
[1] Stan., S. (2010), Evaluarea activelor necorporale, Seminar de pregătire continuă
D08, Editura IROVAL, Bucureşti, pag. 10
[2] IAS 38 – Active necorporale (inclus în IFRS/IAS-uri, (2007), Editura CECCAR,
Bucureşti
[3] Caciuc, L., (2012), Metodologia cercetării ştiinţifice, Editura Eikon, Cluj-Napoca
[4] Ordinul Ministerului Finanţelor Publice nr. 3055 pentru aprobarea Reglementărilor
contabile conforme cu directivele europene, cu modificările ulterioare, publicat în M. O. Nr.
766 şi 766 bis din 10.11.2009
[5] Simion, C., Enulescu, C., Rus, M.-I., Comparative analysis of the metods used on
international level for cost estimation and price formation in construction activities, (2008),
Proceedings of the International Conference, Constructions 2008, Acta Technica Napocensis:
Civil Engineering & Architecture, Vol. 51, No. 4, ISSN 1221-5848, pag.73-80
[6] Legea nr. 571 – Codul Fiscal, cu modificările ulterioare, publicat în M. O. nr. 927
din 23.12.2003
[7] Legea nr. 82, a Contabilităţii, cu modificările ulterioare, publicată în M. O. nr. 265
din 27.12.1991
[8] Ordinul Ministerului Finanţelor Publice nr. 2861 pentru aprobarea Normelor
privind organizarea şi efectuarea inventarierii elementelor de natura activelor, datoriilor şi
capitalurilor proprii, cu modificările ulterioare, publicat în M. O. Nr. 704 din 20.10.2009
[9] International Valuation Standards Committee (IVSC), GN 4, Evaluarea activelor
necorporale (revizuit 2010), par. 2.3 (www.ivsc.org)
[10] Anghel, I. (coord.), Negescu, O. M., Anica Popa, A., Popescu, A. M., (2010),
Evaluarea întreprinderii, Editura Economică, Bucureşti
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ANALYSING THE PERFORMANCE OF MAJORITY STATE-OWNED
ECONOMIC ENTITIES IN THE EIGHT DEVELOPMENT REGIONS IN
ROMANIA
Sabin Siserman, PhD Student, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Majority state-owned economic entities are a relatively important component of
Romanian national economy. Often controversial due to their efficiency and contended from
the perspective of social responsibility as regards corporate governance, these entities own
significant patrimonial assets. As they are under the control of local and central public
authorities, it is compulsory that the way in which these societies are governed be revealed to
the public opinion. The present study aims at validating / invalidating the assertion according
to which majority state-owned economic entities are better governed in some of Romania‘s
development regions than in others. At the same time, the research aims at identifying
efficiency markers and establishing the efficiency of corporate governance in these entities,
depending on the eight development regions.
There are premises from which this study starts, taking into account the regionalisation
created in 1998, through the association of county councils, in view of coordinating
Romania‘s economic and social development and implementing regional infrastructure
projects.
Keywords: majority state-owned, development regions, corporate governance, efficiency,
social responsibility.
1. INTRODUCERE
Entităţile economice cu capital majoritar public reprezintă o componentă relativ
importantă a economiei naţionale româneşti. Deseori controversate din punct de vedere al
eficienţei lor, discutabile din punct de vedere al responsabilităţii sociale privind guvernanţa
corporatistă, aceste entităţi sunt deţinatoare a unui patrimoniu semnificativ. Aflându-se sub
controlul autorităţilor publice locale, se impune ca modul cum aceste societăţi sunt
gestionate să fie făcut cunoscut opiniei publice. Cercetarea de faţă îşi propune sa valideze /
invalideze aserţiunea conform căreia entităţile economice cu capital majoritar public în care
acționari / asociați majoritari sunt unitățile administrativ teritoriale, sunt mai bine
administrate în anumite regiuni de dezvoltare ale României decât în altele. Totodată,
cercetarea îşi propune să identifice indicatori de eficienţă şi să măsoare eficienţa
guvernanţei corporatiste a acestor entităţi, centralizată pe cele opt regiuni de dezvoltare.
Sunt premise de la care porneşte acest studiu, ţinând seama de regionalizarea creată
în anul 1998, prin asocierea consiliilor județene, în vederea coordonării dezvoltării
economice şi sociale a României şi pentru implementarea unor proiecte infrastructurale
regionale.
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2. SCURT ISTORIC AL EVOLUȚIEI CONCEPTULUI DE GUVERNANȚĂ
CORPORATISTĂ
Pe plan mondial, ideea de guvernațăa corporatistă s-a conturat abia în ultimele două
decenii. A fost nevoie de câteva evenimente scandaloase, cu mediatizare excesivă în care să
fie antrenate companii care până la un moment dat dețineau o bună reputație în mediul de
afaceri mondial (vezi scandalurile Enron, Parmalat, Wordcom, Tyco) pentru a fi pusă sub
semnul întrebării onestitatea actului managerial, sinceritatea declarațiilor oficiale privind
performanțele unei entități economice, și pentru ca problematica guvernanței corporatiste să
devină una de actualitate și de interes global.
Deși de dată relativ recentă, noțiunea de guvernare corporatistă a cunoscut numeroase
tentative de definire și repozitionare conceptuală în timp. Aceste încercări de definire ale
conceptului de guvernanță corporatistă au pornit de la necesitatea distribuției
responsabilităților și drepturilor într-o companie (opinie enunțată în „Cadbury cod‖ încă din
anul 1992), dar ele înglobează, pe de o parte, atât especțantele investitorilor privind
uzufructul invesției lor financiare pe termen lung (idee exprimată în „The Journal of
Finance", de Shleifer și Vishny, 1997), cât și foarte multe aspecte ce țin de cultura și
climatul organizațional al unei întreprinderi, cum ar fi: „ansambul relațiilor companiei cu
acționarii săi ― (Financial Times, 1997) sau „setul de reguli bazat pe norme, tradiții și modele
comportamentale dezvoltate de fiecare sistem legislativ" (Preda Report, Italia, 1999).
O alta opinie, aparținând președintelui Băncii Mondiale -J. Wolfensohn - publicată
într-un articol din Finanial Times (1999) ia în calcul „promovarea corectitudinii,
transparenței și responsabilității la nivel de companie"1.
Ținând seama de implicarea factorui uman în crearea plusvalorii, cu predilecție a
conducătorului entiățtii economice, nu este lipsită de importanță - chiar dacă aceasta a fost
criticată în multe ocazii și considerată ca fiind reducționistă, egocentrică și imorală – definiția
guvernanței corporatiste dată H. Mathiesen în 2002, in opinia acestuia guvernanța
corporatistă reprezentând „comportamentul deținătorilor de capital pentru motivarea
directorilor de companii astfel încât să fie asigurați că își vor primi rezultatul așteptat pentru
investițiile lor în aceste entități economice‖2.
Această asumție – cea a motivării conducătorului pentru creșterea eficienței entității
economice - a fost dezvoltată mai apoi de de Kashif Rashid și Sardar M. N. Islam (2008) în
lucrarea Corporate Governance and Firm Value. Aceeași abordare se regăsește și în
studiile lui Güler Aras și David Crowther publicate în lucrarea The Governance of Risk
(2013).
Dată fiind volatilitatea pieței și nesiguranța economică în care evoluează entitățile
economice, guvernanța corporatistă își propune să contracareze posibilele derapaje etice ale
conducătorilor entităților economice și să orienteze spre succes actul managerial. Guvernanța
corporativă pune accent pe responsabilitatea socială; în consecință, toate regulile și
procedurile pe care le promoveaza vor avea un singur scop final: creșterea valorii companiei.
Altfel spus, guvernanța corporatistă își propune să balanseze respectarea reglementărilor (de
1
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guvernan%C8%9B%C4%83_corporativ%C4%83.
2
www.encycogov.com H. Mathiesen, 2002.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
orice natură, privitoare la funcționarea unei entități economice) cu performanță efectivă
(măsurabilă) a companiei.
Eficiența unui act de guvernanță al unei companii este acela de a maximiza valoarea
acesteia, văzută din prisma deținatorului de capital. Adausul de plus-valoare ține deci de
modul în care aceste entități știu să se organizeze ca „sistem ideal închis: satisfacerea
cerințelor clienților, angajaților, furnizorilor, distribuitorilor, etc., răsplata fiind, în cazul unor
rezultate bune, valoare sporită și durabilă"3.
Sintetizând, conceptul de guvernanță corporativă înglobează in el un sistem complex
de tehnici și măsuri prin care o companie, indiferent de calitatea și apartenența deținătorilor
de capital, își doreste și își propune să devină eficientă prin folosirea unor structuri
instituționalizate care să asigure acțiunea convergentă, temporal-spațială, a celor cinci
atribute ale actului de management: prevedere (previziune), organizare, coordonare,
antrenare (motivare) sș control - evaluare.
În ceea ce privește România, conceptul de guvernanță corporatistă este un „produs"
recent al legislativului, acesta fiind reglementat relativ târziu pentru companiile în care statul
sau unitățile administrativ teritoriale dețin capitari majoritare (la 14 decembrie 2011).
Prin prisma legislației românești, guvernanța corporativă a întreprinderilor publice
este definită ca „ansamblul de reguli care guvernează sistemul de administrare și control în
cadrul unei întreprinderi publice, raporturile dintre autoritatea publică tutelară și organele
întreprinderii publice, între consiliul de administrație sau de supraveghere, directori, acționari
și alte persoane interesate‖4.
Fără a intra în detalii, Ordonanța de Urgență introduce principiile guvernanței
corporative la regiile autonome și societățile comerciale cu capital majoritar public și
creează condițiile selecției managerilor privați în aceste entități economice ca premisă a
eficientizării acestor entități economice.
Măsura în care în momentul de față un manager privat (mai) poate să aducă
plusvaloare într-o entitate economică în care autoritățile publice locale sunt deținători
majoritari ai capitalului este una din întrebarile care vor face obiectul unor cercetări viitoare.
3. CAPITALUL SOCIAL VS. CAPITALUL PROPRIU CA INDICATORI AI
VALORII UNEI ENTITATI ECONOMICE
Literatura de specialitate definește capitalul social ca fiind „suma tuturor aporturilor
efectuate de asociați în vederea constituirii și funcționarii unei societăți comerciale‖5, fiind în
fapt activul patrimonial al societății, adică activul net contabil în momentul constituirii ei.
Pe parcursul evoluției sale, entitatea economică poate să înregistreze profituri sau
pierderi, ceea ce va face ca în timp activul patrimonial să se modifice.
Valoarea unei entități economice la un moment dat poate fi ușor determinată pe baza
valorii activului net contabil (ANC), acesta reprezentând diferența dintre total active și total
datorii înregistrate de entitate.
3
https://www.academia.edu/6426701/Modele_de_Guvernanta_Corporativa_in_Romania_Studiu_de_Caz
4
Ordonanța de Urgență a Guvernului nr. 109/2011 privind guvernanța corporativă a întreprinderilor publice,
Monitorul Oficial al României, partea I, nr. 883 la data de 14 decembrie 2011.
5
http://www.contabilizat.ro/dictionar_economic_si_financiar~termen-capital_social.html.
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Capitalul propriu reprezintă „ansamblu de bunuri posedate în bani și în natură sau
totalitatea resurselor bănesti investite într-o afacere, existente la un moment dat‖6.
Capitalul propriu al unei societăți comerciale reprezintă o ―imagine instant‖, în
cuantificare monetară (de regulă, din rațiuni legate de aspecte fiscale și administrative, la
sfârșitul unui exercițiu financiar). Capitalul propriu se identifică deci cu „interesul rezidual al
deținătorilor de capital‖7 în aceste entități, în situația în care societatea ar urma să își înceteze
(voluntar sau nu) activitatea în acel moment.
Exprimarea valorică a capitalului propriu la un moment dat se apropie sau se
depărtează de adevăr (adică de valoarea real obtenabilă prin dizolvare și lichidare), funcție
de corectitudinea actului de management în timp, precum și de eventualele manipulari
contabile ale profitului, ambele situații fiind în egală măsură posibile în cazul instabilității
mediului economic sau prin nerespectarea principiilor financiar contabile. Cu alte cuvinte,
valoarea activului net reprezintă suma de bani efectivă care ar putea fi distribuită deținătorilor
de capital dupa dizolvarea societății (transformarea activelor în bani și încasarea creanțelor,
respectiv lichidarea debitelor prin plata către stat și terți a acestor datorii).
Din punct de vedere contabil, capitalul propriu al unei entități economice se compune
din capitalul inițial (capitalul social subscris și vărsat) la care se adaugă: primele legate de
capital, rezervele din reevaluare, rezervele legale și statutare, rezultatul exercițiului financiar
curent și rezultatul reportat, toate acestea constituite pe perioada existenței ei.
Ținând seama de conținutul economic al celor două noțiuni: capital social și capital
propriu, diferența dintre capitalul propriu și capitalul social (capitalul inițial sau de pornire)
reprezintă capitalizarea sau decapitalizarea entității economice în cauză, în orizontul de timp
scurs de la înfiintarea ei până la data analizei bilanțiere. Sub acest aspect, trebuie subliniată
existența a trei situații distincte, pentru orice entitate economică sau grupări de entități
economice (făcute după anumite criterii), luate în analiză :
a) capitalul propriu este mai mare decât capitalul social – capitalizarea în timp fiind
pozitivă, ceea ce indică o evoluție normală a acestor entități sau grupuri de entități
economice;
b) capitalul propriu este mai mic decât capitalul social, iar diferența dintre capitalul
propriu și capitalul social este pozitivă8 – ceea ce indică o decapitalizare moderată a entității
sau grupului de entități, cu șanse de redresare, dar în egală măsură cu posibilitatea intrării în
insolvență a acestora.
c) capitalul propriu este mai mic decât capitalul social, iar diferența dintre capitalul
propriu și capitalul social este negativă – ceea ce indică o decapitalizare severă a entității cu
pericol iminent de intrare în insolvență sau falimentul entității economice.
6
Dictionarul Expilicativ al Limbii Romane.
7
Ordinul nr. 1752/2005 pentru aprobarea reglementarilor contabile armonizate cu Directiva a IV-a a
Comunităților Economice Europene și cu Standardele Internaționale de Contabilitate.
8
Art. 69 din legea 31/1990 a fost modificat prin punctul 1 din Ordonanța de Urgență nr. 52/2008.: „Dacă se
constată o pierdere a activului net, capitalul social subscris va trebui reintregit sau redus înainte de a se putea
face vreo repartizare sau distribuire de profit‖.
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4. ENTITATI ECONOMICE CU CAPITAL SOCIAL MAJORITAR
APARTINAND UNITATILOR ADMINISTRATIV TERITORIALE
Având în vedere că România a încheiat în 2011 un aranjament stand-by de tip
preventiv, cu Fondul Monetar Internaţional și ținând seama de art. 6 lit. a) şi art. 10 alin. (4)
din Hotărârea Guvernului nr. 34/2009 privind organizarea şi funcţionarea Ministerului
Finanţelor Publice, cu modificările şi completările ulterioare, precum și de art. 5.1 din
Ordonanţa de Urgenţă a Guvernului nr. 79/2008 (modificată în anul 2013) privind măsurile
economico-financiare la nivelul unor operatori economici, începând cu anul 2011 autoritățile
fiscale românești și-au concentrat atenția asupra agenților economici cu capital majoritar de
stat și al unităților administrativ teritoriale, obligându-i să raporteze periodic o serie de
indicatori economico-financiari.
Scopul acestor raportări a fost de eliminarea arieratelor și îmbunătățirea actului
administrativ, prin exercitarea unor presiuni administrative și fiscale asupra acestor entități.
Începând cu anul 2011, Agenția Națională de Administrare Fiscală a publicat pe
internet, cu o periodicitate cvasitrimestrială, lista entităților economice pe județe, în care
unitățile administrativ teritoriale (comune, orașe, municipii și județe sunt deținătoare
majoritare de capital.
Lista oficială a acestor entități, publicată în a doua jumătate a lunii iulie 2014 9 fiind
completă (în sensul că identifică toate entitățile în cauză pe baza codului de inregistrare
fiscală și evidențiază toate înscrierile de mențiuni la Registrul Comerțului), a oferit
posibilitatea ca acestor date să fie adăugate informațiile oficiale anuale aferente anului 2013,
privind patrimoniul acestora, bilanțurile acestor entități economice în formă prescurtată
devenite disponibile pe site-ul Ministerului Finanțelor Publice, începând cu finele lunii iunie
2014.
Conform acestei liste, din totalul celor 1170 de entități economice cu capital
majoritar al unităților administrativ teritoriale, la sfârșitul lunii iunie, 969 entități economice
(82,82%) nu prezentau înregistrari de mențiuni la Oficiul Național al Registrului Comerțului
(ONRC), fiind active (și teoretic, viabile) iar 201 întreprinderi (17,18%) reprezentau entități
care traversează sau care au traversat diferite dificultăți economice și / sau administrative, pe
numele acestora fiind înscrise diferite mențiuni referitoare la starea lor.
Am precizat mai sus „societăți teoretic viabile‖ deoarece unele dintre aceste entități,
deși nu au înregistrări la Oficiul Național al Registrului Comerțului (ONRC) au acumulat în
timp, în baza unui management defectuos, suficient de multe tare, care le fac foarte
vulnerabile în competiția de piață (dacă acestea și-ar pierde protecția oferită de apartenența
prin capitalul social la o anumită autoritate publică).
Situația în care se găseau entitățile economice cu capital majoritar public în care UAT
dețineau capitalul majoritar, la sfârșitul lunii iulie 2014, a fost următoarea:
9
http://static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/Declaratii_R/S1001/ListaB_16072014.pdf.
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MENTIUNI INSCRISE LA ONRC RA SA SRL TOTAL
ENTITATI ACTIVE -FARA MENTIUNI LA ONRC 92 281 596 969
IN FALIMENT 41 10 51
IN INSOLVENTA 25 15 40
IN DIZOLVARE LICHIDARE ( CU RADIERE) 2 11 20 33
SUSPENDATE 3 19 22
FARA ACTIVITATE 1 15 16
IN REORGANIZARE 1 7 4 12
IN DIZOLVARE 1 8 9
IN LICHIDARE 4 5 9
DIMINUARE CAPITAL PUBLIC SUB 50% 2 1 3
IN DIZOLVARE -LICHIDARE (FARA RADIERE) 2 2
IN DIZOLVARE FARA LICHIDARE (FUZIUNE) 2 2
ANULARE HCL DE INFIINTARE DE CATRE INSTITUTIA PREFECTULUI 1 1
IN REOGANIZARE IN INSTITUTIi PUBLICE 1 1
TOTAL 95 378 697 1170
Tab. 4.1 Mențiuni înscrise la ONRC privind entitățile cu capital al UAT la
30.06.2014
Din analiza datelor prezentate în tabelul de mai sus, se poate observa că din cele 201
societăți aflate oficial în dificultate, pentru 51 s-a declanșat procedura falimentului, 40 au fost
declarate în insolvență, 33 au fost dizolvate, lichidate și radiate de la ONRC (lichidare
voluntară sau judiciară), 22 și-au suspendat activitatea pe o perioadă de până la 3 ani și 12 au
solicitat reorganizarea judiciară. Celelalte situații în care se află societățile comerciale în
dificultate reprezintă faze intermediare ale încetării definitive a activității sau subterfugii
paliative de menținere în viață a acestora. Exprimarea intuitivă a acestei stări de fapt este dată
de pictograma următoare:
Fig. 4.1 Înscieri de mențiuni la ONRC la 30.06.2014 pentru entități deținute de UAT
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Numărul entităților publice în care unitățile administrativ teritoriale dețin capitalul
social majoritar, deși în esență irelevant (există numeroase societăți înființate - în general
Societăți cu Răspundere Limitată - care nu au desfăsurat niciodată activitate și nici nu au
depus la ANAF sau la Registrul Comerțului situațiile financiare anuale obligatorii). Așadar,
distribuția acestor entități pe regiuni de dezvoltare are doar o valoare statistică :
Fig. 4.2 Distribuția entităților cu capital majoritar al UAT după forma de organizare,
pe regiuni de dezvoltare la 30.06.2014
Distribuția dupa forma de organizare juridică, pe cele 8 regiuni de dezvoltare
economică se prezintă conform diagramelor de mai jos :
Fig. 4.3 RA la 30.06.2014 Fig. 4.4 SA la 30.06.2014 Fig. 4.5 SRL la 30.06.2014
Se poate aprecia că există o determinare obiectivă a numărului de entități economice
cu capital social deținut de către unitățile administrativ teritoriale doar în cazul regiilor
autonome (RA). Existența acestor entități economice este în general legată de exploatările
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forestiere care au obligat unitățile administrativ teritoriale să înființeze ocoale silvice, cu
formă juridică de organizare Regie Autonomă. Așa cum se poate vedea din graficele de mai
sus, Regiile Autonome sunt foarte bine reprezentate în cazul regiunilor de dezvoltare VI
Nord Vest (29%) și VII Centru (32%), regiuni cu mari suprafețe împădurite și cu o dispersie
mare a comunelor pe teritoriul județelor componente, fapt ce a obligat, din rațiuni de
economicitate, să se înființeze mai multe asemenea entități.
Înființarea Societăților pe Acțiuni (SA) a fost condiționată de asigurarea unor servicii
publice către populația urbană și rurală de interes vital pentru comunități (asigurarea
serviciilor de apă și distribuția apei, servicii de epurare a apelor uzate și canalizare, servicii de
colectare a deșeurilor nepericuloase etc). În ceea ce privește Societățile cu Răspundere
Limitată, acestea au fost constituite de autoritătile publice locale pentru a substitui inexistența
în mediul rural sau al orașelor mici a serviciilor asigurate de Societățile pe Acțiuni enumerate
mai sus și pentru a completa servicii de interes public (cu caracter de nișă) în peisajul
economic local.
Înființarea unor societăți comerciale SA și SRL a fost determinată și de constrângeri
politice (reducerea numărului de bugetari începând cu anul 2010 a obligat autoritățile locale
să găsească soluții compensatorii pentru personalul disponibilizat). Cea mai la îndemână
posibilitate de protecție socială pentru personalul disponibilizat a fost cea a reorganizării
interne a primăriilor și externalizarea serviciilor publice către firme nou înființate, în baza
unor Hotărâri ale Consiliilor Locale, în care unitățile admnistrativ teritoriale dețineau
majoritar sau integral capitalul social.
5. ANALIZA DIATOPICĂ A CAPITALIZĂRII ENTITĂȚILOR ECONOMICE
ÎN CARE UNITĂȚILE ADMINISTRATIV TERITORIALE DEȚIN CAPITALUL
SOCIAL MAJORITAR
a) Analiza capitalizarii la nivel national
Capitalizarea sau decapitalizarea unei entități economice reprezintă un indicator de
mare utilitate în analiza performanței manageriale. Analiza diatopică a capitalizării pe unități
administrativ teritoriale (comune, orașe, județe, respectiv regiuni de dezvoltare economică
conform celei create în 1998) oferă o imagine individuală dar, prin agregare, și o imagine de
sistem asupra stării de fapt a entităților în care UAT-urile sunt deținatoare ale capitalurilor
inițiale. La scară națională, UAT care dețin entități economice cu capital majoritar public bine
administrate, și care au înregistrat capitalizări în timp (primele cinci UAT) sunt județele: Cluj,
Maramureș, Timiș, Prahova și Vâlcea. Unitățile Administrativ Teritoriale –județe - în care s-a
dezvoltat un management global neperformant sunt în număr de 24. În aceste UAT în care
decapitaizările au depăsit valoarea capitalului subscris vărsat, cele mai neperformante acte de
management s-au inregistrat la nivelul municipiul București și județele Iași, Galați, Bihor,
Giurgiu.
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Fig. 5.1 Capitaluri proprii vs. Capitaluri sociale la 31.12.2013, pe județe
b) Analiza capitalizării la nivel de regiune de dezvoltare economică
Ținând seama de gruparea județelor conform regionalizării stabilite în anul 1998,
situația capitalizării entităților publice în care UAT dețin capitalurile sociale majoritare, este
următoarea:
Din graficul alăturat se observă
că nicio regiune nu a înregistrat
capitalizări peste capitalul inițial.
Regiunile I Nord-Est și VIII București
Ilfov înregistrează cele mai mari
decapitalizări, per global aceste regiuni
înregistrând capitaluri proprii negative.
Fig. 5.2 Capitaluri sociale vs.
capitaluri proprii, pe regiuni
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Regiunea II Sus-Est Dobrogea, urmată de regiunile VI Nord Vest și V Vest dețin
cele mai mari capitaluri proprii (pozitive), însă nicio regiune nu deține capitaluri proprii la
31.12.2013 care să devanseze capitalul inițial subscris și vărsat.
Dup[ forma de organizare
juridic[ se observă că cele mai mari
capitalizări le-au inregistrat Societățile
cu Răspundere Limitată din regiunea
VIII București Ilfov (218 milioane lei),
Societățile pe Actiuni din regiunea V
Vest (556 milioane lei) și Regiile
Autonome din regiunea II Sud Est
Dobrogea (2.211 milioane lei).
Decapitalizarea cea mai
pronunțată s-a manifestat în cazul
Regiilor Autonome din regiunea VIII
București Ilfov (719 miliane lei),
Societățile pe Actiuni din regiunea I
Nord Est (355 milioane lei) și
Societățile comerciale cu Răspundere
Limitată din regiunea IV sud Vest
Oltenia (185 milioane lei).
Fig. 5.3 Capitaluri proprii la
31.12.2013, dupa forma de organizare
În ceea ce privește capitalizarea entităților
economice în care UAT dețin capitalul social
majoritar, din histograma prezentată, se observă că
valoarea cumulată a acestora pe cele 8 regiuni de
dezvoltare variază între 171 milioane lei – (minimul
Regiunea IV Sud Vest Oltenia) și maximul de 372
milioane lei (Regiunea VI Nord Vest). În același
timp, decapitalizările societăților se înscriu în limitele
de minimum 246 milioane lei în regiunea IV Sud Vest
Oltenia și maximum 2503 milioane lei în cazul
regiunii VIII București Ilfov.
Fig. 5.4 Capitalizări vs decapitalizări pe regiuni
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Referitor la numărul de
angajați care își desfășoară activitatea
în entități economice cu capital
majoritar public aparținând unitătilor
administrativ teritoriale, grupate după
criteriul regional, se observă că
acesta variază într-un ecart de la 11
mii, în regiunea VII Centru, la 18 mii,
în regiunea cu maximă concentrare
urbană (și deci cu nevoi de servicii
publice foarte mari) – respectiv
regiunea VIII București Ilfov. În
celelalte regiuni de dezvoltare
numărul de angajați ai acestor entități
economice este relativ echilibrat și
reprezintă 12-13 mii de persoane.
Fig. 5.5 Număr angajați în
UAT, pe regiuni
In marea lor majoritate entitățile publice în
care unitățile administrativ teritoriale dețin
majoritatea capitalului social, provin din fostele
unități economice de stat. In consecinta, activele fixe
imobilizate de acestea sunt foarte mari. Cele mai mari
imobilizări sub forma mijloacelor fixe se regăsesc în
regiunea II Sud Est Dobrogea (4.443 milioane lei)
fiind obiectivate în infrastructuri ale Societăților pe
Acțiuni și Regii Autonome ce asigură diverse servicii
publice, în regiunea VII Nord Vest (3.092
milioane lei) și regiunea VIII București
Fig 5.6. Active fixe și active circulante
Ilfov (2.599 milioane lei, zonă de asemenea în care
predomină Regii Autonome deservente a unor
importante servicii publice. În ceea ce privește
activele circulante, acestea sunt semnificativ mai
reduse valoric decât activele fixe în marea lor
majoritate acestea indicând o lichiditate imediată
scăzută. Volumul cel mai mare al activelor circulante
se înregistrează în regiunea I Nord Est (1.429 milioane lei), regiunea VII Centru (1.429
milioane lei) și regiunea VIII București Ilfov (1.172 milioane lei).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Un alt indicator semnificativ
al modului de administrare al
entităților publice în care UAT dețin
capitalul inițial majoritar este gradul
de îndatorare efectivă al acestora,
grupate după criteriul geografic al
regiunilor de dezvoltare economică.
Așa cum era de așteptat, regiunea de
dezvoltare cu cele mai mari datorii
este regiunea VIII București Ilfov
(3.818 milioane lei), urmată de
regiunea I Nord Est (2.876 milioane
lei) și regiunea a II Sud-Est Dobrogea
cu 1.935 milioane lei. În ceea ce
privește creanțele, situația cea mai
favorabilă se regăsește în regiunea I
Nord Est (1.218 milioane lei),
regiunea VII Centru (901 milioane
lei) și regiunea VIII București Ilfov
(926 milioane lei).
Fig. 5.7 Creanțe și datorii pe
regiuni
6. CONCLUZII
Din analiza factuală a performanțelor economice ale entităților economice în care
unitățile admnistrativ teritoriale dețin capitalul social majoritar pe cele 8 regiuni de dezvoltare
economico-socială a României, rezultă următoarele:
a) nicio regiune de dezvoltare economico-socială, așa cum au fost stabilite în anul
1998, nu înregistreză pe globalul activităților derulate prin entități aparținătoare UAT,
capitalizări peste capitalul social subscris și vărsat (respectiv patrimoniul Regiilor
Autonome). Regiunile de dezvoltare cu un grad mai ridicat al stabilității economice sunt:
Regiunea V Vest, Regiunea VI Nord Vest și regiunea VII Centru. În cazul acestor regiuni,
probabilitatea apariției insolvențelor și falimentelor entităților economice în care UAT dețin
capitalul majoritar este relativ redusă;
b) două regiuni de dezvoltare înregistrează decapitalizări drastice: regiunea VIII
București Ilfov și regiunea I Nord Est. În aceste regiuni de dezvoltare, pe ansamblul
entităților economice în care UAT dețin capitaluri majoritare, capitalurile proprii sunt
negative, fiind de așteptat în perspectivă un val mai ridicat al insolvențelor și falimentelor
decât în alte regiuni. Având în vedere decapitalizările înregistrate, funcționarea marii
majorități a acestor entități economice ale UAT are doar o singură rațiune: asigurarea
serviciilor publice de necesitate vitală pentru populație (in mare parte susținute de la bugetul
local) cum ar fi : distribuția agentului termic, serviciile de apă canal și de salubritate) pentru
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
a preveni apariția unor nemulțumiri sociale și dezorganizarea altor activități economice din
zonă;
c) numărul entităților economice în care UAT dețin capitalul majoritar poate fi corelat
doar parțial cu anumiți factori obiectivi, cu excepția Regiilor Autonome unde se identifică o
corelare directă puternică cu suprafețele împădurite existente în aceste zone. Societățile pe
Acțiuni sunt condiționate de existența unor concentrări urbane mari, iar Societățile
comerciale cu Răspundere Limitată au fost constituite ca reacții de răspuns la constrângeri
bugetare și ca soluții de nișă pentru exploatarea unor oportunități economice locale;
d) după forma de organizare (RA, SA și SRL) cea mai spectaculoasă capitalizare o
înregistrează Regiile Autonome din zona II Sud Est Dobrogea. Justificarea acestor
capitalizări rezidă în dezvoltarea activităților portuare, de administrare a zonelor comerciale
libere și dezvoltarea activităților de trasport în zona metropolitană;
e) în ceea ce privește numărul de angajați, cu excepția regiunilor VIII București Ilfov
și II Sud Est Dobrogea (in care numărul angajaților în aceste entități au depășit 18 mii,
respectiv 16 mii de persone), în toate celelalte regiuni numărul acestora variază între 11 mii și
13 mii. Explicația este aceeași: existența unor mari concentrări urbane în care trebuie
asigurate servicii publice, indiferent de starea de rentabilitate a activităților prestate, pentru
prevenirea dezorganizării sociale și paralizarea altor activități economice. Pe ansamblul
tuturor regiunilor, dat fiind faptul că totalul capitalurilor proprii la 31.12.2013 este inferior
totalului capitalurilor subscrise și vărsate (respectiv patrimoniul regiilor autonome) se poate
afirma că entitățile economice în care UAT dețin capitalul majoritar asigură mai degrabă
protecție socială angajaților săi decât crearea de plusvaloare în interiorul comunităților în
care acestea ființează;
f) activele fixe imobilizează valori deosebite cu precădere în zona II Sud Est Dobrogea
prin infrastructurile portuare existente, cele de distribuție a agentului termic, de canalizare și
epurare a apelor uzate și de transport urban. Activele circulante – capitalul de lucru al acestor
entități economice - este mult sub nivelul capitalurilor fixe ceea ce se traduce prin dificultăți
în desfășurarea activităților specifice, asigurarea unor salarii în marea lor majoritate apropiate
de salariul minim pe economie și dificultăți la plata obligatiilor către terti, stat și bănci;
g) toate regiunile de dezvoltare înregistrează datorii, în medie, duble creanțelor
sociale. Regiunile de dezvoltare VIII București Ilfov, regiunea I Nord Est și II Sud Est
Dobrogea cumulează cele mai ridicate datorii din toate regiunile de dezvoltare. Dezvoltarea
acestor regiuni pe bază de credit comercial sau bancar este o dezvoltare nesănătoasă care
conduce în cele din urmă la colapsarea instituțiilor, dacă UAT-urile nu asigură subvenționarea
corespunzătoare a activitătilor desfășurate prin entitățile în care dețin capitalul majoritar.
h) analiza cantitativă a performanțelor acestor entități trebuie să fie completată printr-o
analiză diastratică – dupa obiectul de activitate al acestor entități. Această cercetare poate
pune în lumină activitățile de interes public cu potențial de eficiență, care merită și trebuie
păstrate și dezvoltate de comunități. Tot prin aceasta analiză, vor fi evidențiate obiectele de
activitate ale entităților economice gestionate de UAT, ineficiente economic care ar trebui
reorganizate de UAT, lăsate în seama mediului privat sau pentru care este rațională
realizarea unor parteneriate public-private.
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
Ordonanța de Urgență a Guvernului nr. 109/2011 privind guvernanța corporativă a
întreprinderilor publice, Monitorul Oficial al Romaniei, partea I, nr. 883 la data de 14
decembrie 2011.
Ordinul nr. 1752/2005 pentru aprobarea reglementărilor contabile armonizate cu
Directiva a IV-a a Comunităților Economice Europene și cu Standardele Internaționale de
Contabilitate
Legea 31/1990, cu modificările ulterioare
Ordonanța de Urgență nr. 52/2008
Sitografie, consultată online, în perioada iulie 2014-30.09.2014
www. wikipedia.org/wiki/Guvernan%C8%9B%C4%83_corporativ%C4%83
www.encycogov.com;
www.academia.edu/6426701/Modele_de_Guvernanta_Corporativa_in_Romania_Stud
iu_de_Caz
www.contabilizat.ro/dictionar_economic_si_financiar~termen-capital_social.html
www.static.anaf.ro/static/10/Anaf/Declaratii_R/S1001/ListaB_16072014.pdf
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CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING FINANCING ISSUES IN OPERA HOUSES:
SHOWCASING THE NATIONAL OPERA OF BUCHAREST
Diana Florea, PhD Student, ”Lucian Blaga” University of Sibiu
Abstract: My paper sets out to examine two major existing management models of opera
houses in the world, Bucharest National Opera and Wiener Staatsoper, with a focus on their
funding systems and current financial issues. The concept of financial autonomy is explored
against the backdrop of American and European opera houses. Along these lines, the paper
touches on the current public funding model of Bucharest National Opera, arguing that a
hybrid German-American combined funding model may be more apt to maximize on its
outreach and cultural productions.
Keywords: opera house, model, funding, public, private
One of the most complex art forms remains the opera. As part of our humanity
heritage, it uniquely and harmoniously combines theatre, music and literature. The prestige,
taste for and dissemination of opera throughout the world will continue to exist, despite the
financial, management, cultural and governance challenges that opera houses all over the
world are faced with. At a time when both economic stress and cultural stakes are very high,
the mere existence of opera houses worldwide has been severely threatened in the last few
years by increasing costs involved by each performance. Since the average audience for opera
is limited to only 2% or 3% of the population, depending on the region of the world, opera,
wherever performed, has turned more and more into a synonym of high costs performance.
Financing issues have existed in opera houses worldwide for a long time. Typically,
the costs of running opera houses have always been greater than their earned revenues and in
recent recessive economic times the situation has worsened visibly. For many of them, their
last year‘s financial statements indicate their net worth down substantially with sizable debts
that are looming in coming years. One single performance of an opera requires an orchestra
(which rarely consists of fewer than 60 members), solo singers and a chorus of at least 30
members. In addition to the remunerations of all these performers, the house must cover the
costs for stage technicians, hair dressers, make-up artists, props, managers, costumes, sets,
etc., as well as for the maintenance and/or acquisition of essential technological resources
(mechanical transport carts, principally, state-of-the-art engines controlled by computer
equipment). With such high costs, it is generally reflected that opera houses worldwide cannot
possibly acquire financial balance exclusively by means of the production or performance
generated income (however high their ticket prices can raise), therefore they are obliged to
additionally rely both on public funding from governments and tax deductible private
donations and sponsorship. Depending on the country, the local cultural policies and tax laws,
as well as the missions and objectives assigned to opera houses, public funding may account
for the majority or just a small portion of the financial resources.
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The concept of ―financial autonomy‖ represents not only the ultimate strategic
objective of opera houses but also a key to financial stability, success and economic survival.
It refers to the volume effects of theatre size, production volume and physical capacity, the
more directly financial effects of ticket prices and costs, as well as the cost of performances
(Agid and Tarondeau, 2010). In more specific terms, financial autonomy is associated with
the direct funding coming from box offices as a ratio of the total budget, being directly linked
to the size and physical capacity of the respective theatre, a feature which, at least in Europe,
represents a historical given. A well known recent case shows the Italian opera houses, in
their quest for financial autonomy, forced to cancel their performances in 2010 because of
strikes over government efforts to reorganize their administration. These strikes called the
whole world‘s attention to the fact that Italy‘s main opera houses had been in fact part of a
long-running drama, being almost all dependent on government financing and suffering
frequent labour stoppages (and the threat of them), amidst a most powerful struggle between
local and central control (The New York Times, 2010). Financial autonomy is therefore
important and may be achieved by several well-directed management strategies: casting
famous artists, increasing seat occupancy rate, and, last but not least, promoting a good
artistic policy in what regards the choice of opera and artists. Measured by the ratio resulting
from box office divided by total income, several important opera houses in the world display
the following financial autonomy ratio:
Table 1. Financial autonomy of opera houses
Over 30% 15-30% Less than 15%
Chicago Lyric Vienna Staatsoper Brussels Monnaie
Detroit Paris, Opéra National Graz
Zurich Lausanne Berlin
Staatsoper
Seattle Dresden Kőln
New York City Opera London ENO Tallinn
London Royal Opera Munich Stuttgart
Montreal Salt Lake City Berlin
Deutsche
Miami Copenhagen Nuremberg
San Diego San Francisco Mainz
Vancouver Zuid Athens
New York Metropolitan Rostov Turin
Regio
Los Angeles Prague Statni Rome
Santa Fe Hamburg Berlin
Komische
Geneva Amsterdam
Heidelberg
Barcelona Aarhus Lyon
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Houston Helsinki Frankfurt,
Städt.Bȕhnen
Madrid Real Leeds Opera North Oslo
Vienna Volksoper Leipzig
Washington Ostrava
Note: Measured by the ratio: box office divided by total income (after Agid and
Tarondeau, 2010:29).
The first category of opera houses is mainly represented by the American lyrical
theatres whereas the last two categories display opera houses that are scattered mostly across
the European continent. Characteristically, American opera houses are large, well-filled, with
low volume of operatic activities, as compared to their small(er) sister European theatres that
have low(er) occupancy rates and a high volume of operatic activities. Costs-wise, the high
ticket prices combined with low cost per ticket provide more financial autonomy for the
American theatres, whereas the relatively low ticket prices, combined with high cost per ticket
lead to high(er) dependency on external funding for the European opera houses. Hence, a
clearly demarcating distinction between the American and the European operatic spaces of
activity points to a more diverse range of historical and geographical contexts and factors that
have brought about the development and, we claim divergence, of two main funding models,
the German/European on the one hand, and the American model, on the other, as two
dissimilar lines in almost every way. The two dominant models display several differences
regarding their origins and development, macroeconomic structures, production models,
professional, organizational and cultural features, artistic resources and most importantly,
funding systems and financial constraints.
Today, more than one century after the founding of the renowned Met (Metropolitan
Opera 1883), every American state boasts having at least one large size opera house or
company, with a total annual turnover of €700 million for 2,300 performances and 4.3 million
tickets sold (Scorca and Rourke, 2010). Most opera companies in Europe are concentrated in
the German-speaking area (Austria, Germany, Switzerland), with a total annual turnover of
€2,400 millions, 6,600 performances and well over five million tickets sold each season.
Although hosting basically the same total audience as American houses, German opera houses
actually perform three times as often in front of a three times smaller audience and in three
times smaller auditoriums and opera houses (Agid and Tarondeau, 2010:41). Additionally,
German opera houses have adopted the so-called repertory model, which consists of 15 to 40
opera titles with no less than 150-200 performances a year (Uecker, 2008), whereas American
houses have settled for the stagione model, involving 2-10 titles and not more than a total of
80 performances a year. With regard to artistic resources, German/European opera houses
benefit from their own permanent orchestras, in-house singers, ballets and choruses. They
boast unique traditions in the training of young singers, common knowledge being that there
is no better place for young artists to learn and experience in their art than in a European
theatre. In opposition to the permanent character of the artistic resources within the European
operatic space, American opera houses are more (and better) characterized by the term
―flexibility‖, which enables their management system to adjust to external conditions by
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taking the liberty to hire only the people they need and for exactly the purpose and time span
when they are needed. As a result, American young singers do not typically get the chance to
experience first-hand productions, as the number of opera houses is smaller than in Europe
and productions are significantly fewer. Subsequently, in their attempt to make the transition
from student to professional singing, an increasing number of American and Asian young
singers come to Europe and gain their experience here.
These two different dominant models are further distinguished by their financial
economic dimension, i.e., funding. Whereas most opera houses in Europe depend on public
subsidies for more than 80% of their funding, American opera houses operate as economic
entities that rely on the funding of private donours for more than 40%. American box office
revenues represent approximately 38% and, with Government and public money representing
no more than 2%, other earned revenues seem to be complementing the funding (Scorca and
Rourke, 2010). Surprisingly enough, German opera houses display an average box office and
earned revenues of only 10% and 20%, despite the considerably large number of
performances and vast seasonal repertory (Gambert, 2008). The different funding system of
the two dominant models will result in a series of important financial constraints for both the
American opera house model and the German/European one. As each American opera house
is fully dependent on its ownership for its contributed revenue and on its public for box office
and earned revenue, they are extremely sensitive to economic crises and financial swings and
a good many of them are known to have temporarily disappeared due to lack of constant
incoming funds. Nonetheless, private donours contributions usually manage to substantially
ease financial tensions and diminish the many financial constraints caused by working
agreements. Across the German space, Musiktheaters totally depend on their Land‘s public
subsidies and most of the time costs, (Uecker, 2008) derived from working agreements,
outgrow public subsidy, consequently, the future of the German opera house is mostly
dependent on the evolution of public subsidies.
Against the general background examined above, the Bucharest National Opera stands
out as an important South-Eastern European operatic space, whose cultural, artistic
productions are currently subordinated to the Romanian Ministry of Culture and National
Heritage. At a European level, in point of opera audience, Romania is placed at the bottom of
the list, exceeding only Poland, despite the average number of 25-30 performances per month
(Centrul de Studii, 2007). With most funds used for covering salary costs (65%), the most
pressing economic issues of the Bucharest National Opera are generally caused by a mismatch
between the number of employees and production necessities, mis-distributed within its
current functional departments. Ranked with a medium-size auditory (approximately 950
seats), the Bucharest National Opera does not rely on ticket earned income, the ticket prices
being very low, compared to an equally sized Western-European opera house.
Facing a large series of financial, economic, management and administrative
challenges, the Bucharest National Opera House is currently struggling to develop a more
succesfully combined management model so as to expand, promote and innovate its artistic
product. Several common professional training projects have been developed recently
(starting 2013) in partnership with Teatro alla Scala of Milan (Scenart, studi-Opera) and non-
reimbursable funds have been attracted, however they prove inefficient for a large-scale,
national operatic activity that the National Opera House of Bucharest represents and intends
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to promote. Borrowing the German/European pattern alone, seems to be, at least for an
Eastern European medium sized Opera House, hardly any sufficient. This is for now reflected
by the low occupancy rates, high volume of operatic activities, large number of operas, many
old productions and few co-productions as well as relatively low ticket prices combined with
high cost per ticket that leads to high dependency on external funding.The Bucharest National
Opera of Romania, being located in a country that has over the years provided the European
opera scene with quite a few, extremely talented and technically refined artists, has the
capacity to maximize on its artistic resources on its way up towards becoming a prestigious
opera house. With a more aggressive sales policy and lower volume of operatic activities,
including high ticket prices combined with low cost per ticket (promoted by the American
model and ensuring good financial autonomy), the Bucharest National Opera may attract,
build loyalty in and involve a broad(er), wealthy audience, much like an American opera
house, whose common objective this still is (Studi Opera, 2010). Likewise, since the
Romanian opera house cannot continue to manage with public funding alone (as in the
German model), a strictly and carefully managed collaboration with private donours and/or
national sponsors may prove to be extremely beneficial, and coupled with a rise in artistic
quality, the cultural product can be thus financially and economically maximized. As the
Bucharest National Opera House is unable to fully adopt the American management model
due to obvious physical (auditorium size), economic and geographical constraints and the
German model of management is mostly insufficient, under these circumstances, we argue
that a combined, hybrid model may represent a better, viable solution for the present and
future as well. Both models can arguably be tailored to operate more successfully for their
increasing number of consumers worldwide and show enough room on both sides to adjust to
new, more successful combined strategies to overcome forthcoming challenges.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133255, Project
ID 133255 (2014), co-financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational
Program Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013.
Bibliography
Agid, Phillipe and Tarondeau, J.C., (2010), The Management of Opera: An
International Comparative Study, Palgrave Macmillan.
Baumol, W.J. and Bowen, W.G., (1966), Performing Arts, the Economic Dilemma,
The Twentieth Century Fund, New York.
Centrul de studii si cercetari in domeniul culturii, (2007), Sectorul cultural din
Romania-Infrastructura. Resurse. Consum. Editura Polirom, Bucuresti.
Gambert, Elisabeth (2008), Externe Steuerung der Stiftung Oper in Berlin, Berlin,
Universitat Potsdam, Paris Universite Pantheon Sorbonne & Ecole Nationale
d‘Administration.
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Scorca, M.A. and Rourke, Kelly, (2010), Overview of the US Opera Landscape,
Written contribution to the book by Agid, Phillipe and Tarondeau, J.C., (2010) The
Management of Opera: An International Comparative Study, Palgrave Macmillan.
StudiOpera, (2010), Raport de cercetare, available at:
http://www.studiopera.eu/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/Raport_Ro.pdf
Uecker, G., (2008) The German Opera Landscape, Written contribution to the book
by Agid, Phillipe and Tarondeau, J.C., (2010), The Management of Opera: An International
Comparative Study, Palgrave Macmillan.
Wakin, Daniel J. (2010), „At Italy‘s Operas, Fat Ladies Are Quiet‖, in The New York
Times, Published: May 4. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/05/arts/music/05opera.html?_r=0
792
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THE COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE ON MICROECONOMICAL LEVEL IN THE
CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION
Silvia Elena Isachi, PhD Student, ”Victor Slăvescu” Centre for Financial and
Monetary Research
Abstract: Globalization, at the microeconomic level, involves raising the competitiveness and
management. Competitiveness is a multidimensional concept, thus explaining the fact that
theories about how to define this concept, the existent levels of competitiveness, the
determinants, or methods for measuring it are limited. Firm-level competitiveness refers to
the ability of firms to create, produce or market products in a superior manner than the
competition. The superior value compared to the competitions is the one perceived by the
customer and this should be understood by the top management, in order to be converted into
profit for the company. To create a long-term competitive advantage, a supported one, the
company must consider four factors: costs, accumulated knowledge, relationships and how to
organize the company.
Keywords: globalization, competitiveness, firms, microeconomics, cluster.
1. Introducere
Globalizarea este un fenomen complex ce asigură pe de o parte bunăstarea economică,
iar pe de altă parte este privită ca sursa multor probleme de astăzi. Principalele caracteristici
ale globalizării sunt liberalizarea comerţului internaţional, expansiunea investiţiilor străine
directe, precum şi apariţia unor fluxuri transfrontaliere de bani care au condus la creşterea
concurenţei pe pieţele mondiale, limitele de timp şi de spaţiu reducându-se considerabil.
Răspândirea noilor tehnologii a avut un efect profund asupra avantajelor comparative ale
statelor, asupra felului în care poate să concureze o firmă. [1]
Globalizarea a schimbat, în sensul reducerii modalităţilor concrete de a concura cât
mai eficient pe piețe pentru firmele mici şi mijlocii, deoarece nişele au fost abordate din ce în
ce mai mult de către marile companii scăzând profitabilitatea acestora, iar modalitatea de
diferenţiere faţă de acestea s-a redus la nivelul preţului. Toate acestea, corelate cu o scădere a
cererii au dus firma în situația de a fi incapabilă să îşi acopere costurile. De aceea este
important ca o firmă să aibă capacitatea de adaptare necesară supraviețuirii sau performanței.
Considerăm ca este absolut necesar ca un manager să înţeleagă ce înseamnă pentru
propria firmă conceptul de competitivitate, factorii determinanţi şi metodele sau instrumentele
pe care le poate utiliza pentru a o măsura. Faptul că majoritatea definiţiilor dezbătute în
literatura de specialitate definesc acest concept, făcând referire la concurenţă, poate doar să
sublinieze importanţa ce ar trebuie să se acorde informaţiilor din mediu, despre piaţă, numărul
concurenţilor, strategiile aplicate de către aceştia, consumatorii cărora li se adresează etc.
Porter afirma că acest concept al competitivităţii este de fapt „o funcţie a progresului,
a inovării şi o abilitate de a se schimba şi a se îmbunătăţi‖. Pentru că orice firmă parcurge un
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ciclu de viaţă în care ultima etapă este desigur declinul, o adaptare continuă poate fi crucială.
Privită ca şi un „rezultat‖, competitivitatea poate fi măsurată fie prin indicatori tangibili sau
intangibili. Competitivitatea la nivelul firmei este un rezultat al factorilor la nivel macro
precum politicile guvernamentale, infrastructura şi sistemele de telecomunicaţii. [2]
Pentru a crea un avantaj competitiv pe termen lung, adică unul susţinut, firma trebuie
să ţină cont de patru factori şi anume: costurile, cunoştinţele acumulate, relaţiile şi modul de
organizare al firmei.
Resursele unei firme cuprind toate acele elemente corporale, cât şi necorporale, a căror
importanţă a crescut în ultimii ani, firmele investind mai mult în administrarea bunurilor
comercializate, în dezvoltarea sau îmbunătăţirea de produse. Utilitatea fiecărei resurse este
determinată de vârsta, capacitatea şi locul de amplasare al acesteia. Urmează resursele
financiare cum ar fi capitalul, numerarul, debitorii, creditorii şi donatorii fie ei acţionari sau
bănci, sau alte instituţii de microcreditare. A treia categorie este aceea a resurselor umane.
Ceea ce se ia în considerare ar fi profilul demografic, sau cunoştinţele angajaţilor, ce ies la
iveală mai ales în cadrul reţelelor. Resursa intelectuală, reprezintă un element esenţial în
crearea şi menţinerea competitivităţii având valoare creatoare.
Resursele diferă de la o firmă la alta pentru că fiecare firmă a acumulat resurse în mod
diferit şi va şti să le folosească tot într-un mod diferit pentru a beneficia de oportunităţile
viitoare. Combinaţia adecvată de resurse (infrastructură, finanţe, tehnologie, oameni) cu unele
procese competitive (calitate, service, adaptare la nevoile clienţilor, rapiditate) poate duce la
crearea unui avantaj competitiv, reflectat de cota de piaţă, de profit, dezvoltarea întreprinderii,
durabilitate, etc.
Surse clasice ale avantajului competitiv sunt economiile de scară, susţinute de
standardizarea produselor, operaţiunile fiind efectuate la costuri mai reduse, pentru cazul unui
volum de producţie mai mare şi un buget important alocat reclamei, necesar în special în
cazul marketingului produselor de nişă [3]. Aceste surse sunt însă perimate, deoarece ele nu
mai asigură venituri superioare.
Noul mediu competitiv este caracterizat prin hipercompetiţie, adică prin instabilitate şi
schimbare, prin care are loc o continuă bătălie între actorii economici inovativi cu scopul de
a-şi îmbunătăţi poziţia competitivă nu doar într-o economie naţională ci globală.
O altă sursă a avantajului competitiv o reprezintă creşterea importanţei cunoştinţelor
ca resurse intangibile ale firmei, ce trebuie achiziţionate şi dezvoltate în cadrul firmei într-o
„economie a cunoaşterii‖. Aceasta este o economie în cadrul căreia bunăstarea este creată prin
managementul cunoştinţelor şi nu prin cel al activelor financiare şi fizice.
Locaţia poate fi şi ea privită ca şi o importantă sursă a avantajului competitiv,
întrebările de bază fiind ce ţări sau regiuni trebuie să fie alese pentru deschiderea unei filiale
sau chiar a unei fabrici şi apoi ce tip de activitate să fie executată.
Cultura organizaţională este şi ea o sursă importantă pentru firme. Firma trebuie să
dezvoltate o cultură care să reflecte deschidere, responsabilitate, o atmosferă prietenoasă și
orientare focalizată spre dezvoltare, esențiale în generarea de avantaje competitive. Planurile
strategice sunt stabilite de către membrii managementului de vârf.
În companie, o bună comunicare internă precum şi externă reprezintă o altă sursă a
avantajului competitiv. Fără comunicare, informaţiile necesare corectării unei greşeli sau
îmbunătăţirii unui proces nu ar ajunge la departamente, la furnizori sau la alte părţi interesate,
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
iar procesul de învăţare atât de necesar mai ales în dezvoltarea de competenţe nu ar mai avea
loc. Alte surse ar fi diferenţierea, costul scăzut, sau calitatea. În cazul firmelor mici şi mijlocii
costul scăzut este greu de menţinut. [4]
Criza financiară a dus la conștientizarea faptului că interdependența economică la
nivel global există şi că ea poate să aibă, în mod inevitabil, atât efecte pozitive cât şi negative.
Numărul firmelor mici şi mijlocii ce sunt active în întreaga lume este în continuă creştere.
2. Avantajul competitiv la nivel microeconomic
Studiind structurile ofertei şi ale consumului, se constată că există un număr de firme
din una sau câteva industrii (ramuri), provenite din anumite ţări, capabile să se impună pe
pieţele naţionale şi internaţionale. Ele au competitivitate internaţională pentru că ajung să-şi
creeze şi să-şi menţină un avantaj competitiv. Firmele elveţiene deţin asemenea poziţii în
domeniul produselor farmaceutice, din ciocolată, al serviciilor financiar-bancare şi al
anumitor categorii de servicii turistice. În SUA se află cei mai renumiţi concurenţi
internaţionali în domeniul cinematografiei, cărţilor de credit, microcalculatoarelor, cercetării
ştiinţifice şi al unor produse agroalimentare etc. Firmele italiene sunt imbatabile în domeniul
echipamentelor de schi, gresiei, faianţei, echipamentelor sanitare şi de automatizare
industrială, încălţămintei de piele şi confecţiilor de lux. Respectivele firme deţin surse de
avantaje competitive care prin agregare conferă economiilor naţionale capacitatea de a deţine
timp îndelungat poziţii bune pe pieţele mondiale relevante. Studiile de economie teritorială şi
de mediu concurenţial relevă că majoritatea sectoarelor prospere şi competitive dintr-o ţară
cuprind grupuri de firme şi nu participanţi izolaţi. Firmele bine plasate în concurenţa
internaţională sunt de regulă grupate în aceeaşi regiune sau în câteva regiuni, ele formează un
cluster sau GER (grupări economice regionale de firme) în limbajul folosit pentru prima oara
de M. Porter. Un cluster reprezintă o concentrare geografică de firme competitive cu activităţi
de afaceri internaţionale care cooperează, dar se şi concurează. Ca rezultat al celor două
mecanisme, într-o anumită regiune devine dominant şi performant un tip de activitate
economică: software în Bavaria (Germania), Valencia (Spania), Silicon Valley (SUA);
industria aeronautică şi constructoare de maşini în zone specifice din Franţa, Germania, SUA,
Japonia. Clusterul include o parte importantă din zonele care formează sistemul valoric al
unui produs complex sau al câtorva produse înrudite.
Pentru identificarea şi studierea avantajelor competitive (tipuri, surse, forme), Michael
Porter a invocat experienţele anterioare prin introducerea a două concepte-cheie: lanţul
valoric şi sistemul valoric al firmei (produsului) pe baza cărora circumscrie şi politicile
strategice şi orientările tactice ale firmelor. În viziunea modernă, a lui Porter, de abordare a
avantajului concurenţial al firmei şi sursele sale, este adoptată o viziune sistematică asupra
activităţilor pe care le execută firma şi a interacţiunilor dintre ele, concretizate în lanţul
valoric. Înţelegerea şi relevarea avantajului competitiv sunt dificile dacă firma este privită
global, ca un tot. Cele nouă categorii generice de activităţi care formează lanţul valoric se
condiţionează în modalităţi diferite în funcţie de domeniu şi dimensiunea firmei, de gradul de
specializare sau diversificare, de nivelul tehnic şi complexitatea tehnologiei, de alianţele pe
care firma în cauză le realizează cu altele. Elementele lanţului valoric realizează legături nu
doar interne, în cadrul firmei, ci şi pe verticală, în amonte (cu furnizorii) şi în aval
(transportatorii, distribuitorii, cumpărătorii, administraţiile publice şi private, din ţară şi/sau
străinătate). În acest fel, lanţul valoric este inclus într-un flux mai larg care poate fi numit
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sistem valoric, compus din: valoare de input, din amonte (de la furnizori); lanţul valoric
propriu al firmei structurat pe contribuţia fiecăreia dintre cele nouă categorii generice;
valoarea din aval, care ocazionată de numeroasele activităţi care însoţesc drumul produselor
(output-uri) de la producătorul primar spre intermediar, distribuitor respectiv consumator.
Tipurile avantajului concurenţial
Succesul concurenţial al firmei depinde de starea sistemului valoric pe baza căruia se
realizează produsele. Ca rezultat, produsul se impune pe piaţă – internă, comunitară, mondială
– graţie avantajului concurenţial pe care-l deţine. Pot fi identificate mai multe tipuri de
avantaje competitive: avantajul competitiv bazat pe costuri unitare minime semnifică faptul
că respectiva firmă este mai eficace decât concurenţii săi în conceperea, producţia,
comercializarea şi service-ul unui produs dat, asigurându-se un cost unitar minim mai redus în
mărime absolută. Promovarea strategiilor costurilor – adică minimizarea costurilor unitare
minime – întâlnită preponderent în fabricaţiile standard îşi propune ca obiectiv prioritar
obţinerea unor avantaje absolute de cost prin luarea în considerare a firmei ca un tot, a tuturor
activităţilor şi a interacţiunilor dintre ele prin care se creează valoare pentru client, constituite
în lanţul valoric. Activităţile primare pot fi bine individualizate şi, de regulă, îşi concretizează
riguros costurile şi contribuţia (la costurile globale şi la formarea costurilor unitare minime).
Activităţile de sprijin presupun prestaţii care preced, succed sau însoţesc fiecare dintre
activităţile primare; deseori ignorându-se amploarea şi costul lor, punându-se accentul pe
urmărirea şi nivelul costurilor contabile pe care le comportă activităţile primare, tratându-se
superficial impactul activităţilor de sprijin şi ale costurilor acestora. Strategia de cost este cu
atât mai necesară cu cât analizele internaţionale au relevat că în preţul final al majorităţii
produselor importante, costurile de fabricaţie, spre care în mod tradiţional ne concentrăm în
cea mai mare măsură analiza, mai deţin în condiţiile actuale cel mult 20-25% din costurile
totale.
Avantajul competitiv de diferenţiere sau diversificare aparţine firmei care asigură o
ofertă specifică faţă de ceilalţi competitori, având valoare pentru consumatori. Pentru aceasta,
firma studiază şi adoptă decizii şi acţiuni adecvate, luând în calcul: preferinţele
consumatorilor (în funcţie de vârstă, pregătire, localizare geografică), identificând „nişe‖ de
piaţă care au fost ignorate de alţi competitori; verigile lanţului (sistemului) valoric pentru a
identifica elementele care-i conferă avantaje faţă de concurenţi, realizând diferenţiere
intrinsecă (structură, fiabilitate, mentabilitate, durabilitate, întreţinere) sau extrinsecă (mod de
prezentare, comercializare, condiţii de plată), aprecierea de grupuri de consumator, care se
ataşează de respectiva ofertă, devenind chiar captivi. Pentru a reuşi în competiţie,
producătorul alege în funcţie de cumpărătorii ţintă, un anumit element prioritar pe care îl
urmăreşte, căutând să-l realizeze cu cel mai mic cost şi cu „accesorii‖ care să-l diferenţieze de
alţi producători.
Avantajul competitiv de flexibilitate aparţine acelor firme care realizează cea mai bună
reacţie la schimbările cererii, preţurilor, condiţiilor de comercializare şi structura ofertei
dominante. Ele se adaptează rapid la noile realităţi, au întâietate în onorarea oportunităţilor
ivite, obţin rentă datorită faptului că o perioadă sunt în situaţia de unic sau principal ofertant al
unui produs care răspunde unor preferinţe specifice. Dacă deţinerea unui avantaj competitiv
este importantă, decisivă pe termen lung este păstrarea avantajului competitiv. Aceasta
depinde de numeroase împrejurări, dintre care nu pot fi omise:
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a. sursa avantajului competitiv: pot fi avantaje competitive minore (costul redus al
forţei de muncă, deţinerea unor resurse naturale bogate şi ieftine), care se pot pierde relativ
rapid, sau avantaje competitive majore şi durabile concretizate în: tehnologii şi bunuri
deosebite graţie competiţiei interne şi unor aptitudini de nivel superior (ale forţei de muncă,
tehnologii avansate, greu accesibile concurenţilor, relaţii speciale cu clienţii); capital uman,
inovaţie care vor genera noi tehnologii, materiale şi capital uman specifice, metode de
management, de comercializare, generând schimbări esenţiale în sistemul valoric;
b. numărul surselor de avantaj competitiv pe care le deţine firma; dacă deţine o singură
sursă de avantaj competitiv concurenţii vor urmări anihilarea ei. Toate firmele care au
dominat sau domină de timp îndelungat o anumită industrie au căutat să deţină mai multe
surse de avantaj competitiv;
c. efortul perseverent pentru regenerarea şi aprofundarea avantajului competitiv;
d. calitatea mediului de afaceri – local, naţional – în care firmele îşi desfăşoară
activitatea, sistematizat în conceptul de competitivitate structurală generată de modul de
funcţionare a instituţiilor pieţei, calitatea legislaţiei, etc. – care oferă membrilor acces la
informări şi inovări, la metode moderne de management, la servicii colective performante şi
pe pieţele externe; [5]
e. minimizarea importanţei şi a dependenţei faţă de împrejurările care pot conferi
avantaje competitive artificiale.
3. Elementele determinante ale avantajului competitiv naţional
Elementele determinante ale avantajului competitiv naţional se află într-o relaţie de
interdependenţă, formând un sistem interactiv şi dinamic. Factorii de producţie trebuie priviţi
atât ca surse primare de avantaj competitiv, dar şi ca elemente definitorii ale mediului de
afaceri. Pentru aceasta este necesară o viziune cuprinzătoare asupra factorilor de producţie.
Priviţi în sens larg, ei includ: factorii de producţie clasici şi neo-factori, dar şi împrejurările
economico-sociale, sistemul de instituţii şi organizaţii de care depinde formarea şi atragerea
lor în circuitul economic, utilizarea, respectiv conservarea lor. Volumul, structura şi calitatea
factorilor de producţie se constituie în factori determinanţi ai formării avantajelor competitive.
Pentru analiza - diagnostic a avantajului competitiv şi a perspectivelor sale, sunt utile
gruparea şi structurarea factorilor de producţie după mai multe criterii: după natura lor se
disting: factori de producţie elementari: resurse naturale, climatul, situarea geografică, forţa
de muncă necalificată; factori de producţie complecşi: personalul de înaltă calificare,
infrastructura de comunicaţii, reţeaua de cercetare ştiinţifică, inginerie, învăţământ superior,
informaţia, amploarea şi natura cunoştinţelor. După provenienţa lor, distingem: factori de
producţie moşteniţi, de regulă oferiţi de natură sau creaţi de generaţiile anterioare; factori de
producţie creaţi prin investiţii, a căror orientare şi structură depind de avantaje competitive
existente, dar condiţionându-le pe cele viitoare [6]. După capacitatea de a fi utilizaţi alternativ
se disting: factori de producţie nespecializaţi (reţeaua rutieră, infrastructura feroviară etc.),
care pot fi utilizaţi într-o gamă largă de industrii; factori de producţie specializaţi, care au
caracteristici specifice, care-i fac apţi şi eficienţi pentru a fi folosiţi doar în unele domenii, sau
chiar în unul singur; asemenea factori se obţin preponderent prin investiţii private, sau mai
puţin disponibili, care au ca sursă inovarea şi la rândul lor determină, în măsură decisivă,
capacitatea de inovare şi obţinerea de avantaje competitive durabile. Baza competitivităţii
internaţionale a unei naţiuni rămâne deţinerea şi asigurarea unei înalte calităţi a mecanismelor
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generatoare de factori de producţie specializaţi şi complecşi. Industriile înrudite sunt acelea
care figurează în linia de creare a valorii dintr-un sector şi a căror contribuţie poate fi
individualizată: pun la dispoziţie produse complementare; participă la obţinerea avantajului
competitiv în orice etapă a lanţului valoric prin perfecţionarea tehnologiei de fabricaţie,
marketing, servicii post-vânzare din rândul cărora se detaşează furnizorii de informaţii,
metode de management, forţa de muncă şi utilaje, care sunt o premisă a nivelului
productivităţii muncii şi capitalului. Cele mai bune performanţe se obţin când se constituie
clustere în care sunt concentrate firme reprezentative care desfăşoară activităţi, funcţii şi sub-
funcţii componente ale sistemului valoric. Concentrate în aceeaşi zonă, ele beneficiază de
utilităţi şi bunuri publice comune şi la costuri mai reduse faţă de situaţia când sunt dispersate.
În cluster se pot realiza în mod performant programe comune de formare profesională şi de
cercetare, iar deversarea rezultatelor în practica economică este operativă şi multilaterală.
Abilitatea de a se adapta la schimbările impuse de complementaritate este o componentă
esenţială pentru menţinerea şi dezvoltarea avantajului competitiv. Inerţia determină mutarea
relaţiilor de cooperare în alte locaţii şi implicit deplasarea spaţială a avantajului competitiv.
Cererea exercită una dintre cele mai puternice influenţe în apariţia şi menţinerea avantajului
competitiv. Existenţa cererii este primul criteriu luat în considerare la alocarea resurselor şi
iniţierea unei afaceri. În confruntarea cu cererea internă se afirmă calitatea bunurilor şi sunt
asigurate forme de avantaj competitiv. Firmele şi industriile dintr-o ţară care îşi afirmă
avantajul competitiv pe piaţa relevantă fac dovada că înţeleg, interpretează şi satisfac cererea
pe segmente de cumpărători mai bine decât concurenţii lor. Pentru aceasta prezintă importanţă
cunoaşterea calităţii şi exigenţelor clientelei, segmentarea cererii şi anticiparea nevoilor,
veniturilor şi preferinţelor clienţilor. Ca regulă, o piaţă relevantă cuprinzătoare, cu perspective
de creştere este suport de avantaj competitiv stimulând investiţiile pentru crearea de factori de
producţie specializaţi şi complecşi; pe piaţa internă, firmele locale au anumite avantaje în
raport cu cele străine, de aceea pentru asigurarea accesului pe pieţele străine este utilă
construirea de parteneriate cu firme rezidente, apelarea la firme locale de consultanţă şi
consiliere; deţin avantaj competitiv pe pieţele străine doar firmele şi industriile care s-au
dovedit competitive în satisfacerea cererii interne.
Strategiile, structura şi concurenţa firmelor din fiecare industrie. În evaluarea acestui
factor se au în vedere contextul general în care firmele sunt create, organizate şi conduse,
numărul şi raportul de putere dintre ele, competiţia şi conlucrarea, ceea ce condiţionează
avantajul competitiv şi reuşita pe plan internaţional. Un factor favorizant pentru obţinerea
avantajului competitiv îl reprezintă reducerea şi eliminarea restricţiilor artificiale din calea
intrării în industrie a noi concurenţi autohtoni sau străini.
Statul, politicile economice şi reglementările juridice. Există puncte de vedere care
consideră statul ca fiind cel de-al cincilea determinant al avantajului competitiv în competiţia
internaţională pentru că: statul influenţează formarea şi utilizarea factorilor de producţie prin
politici bugetare, fiscale, de mediu, monetare, de învăţământ şi de cercetare ştiinţifică; el
influenţează dinamica şi structura cererii, atât prin politica fiscală şi bugetară, dar şi prin
comenzile de stat, politicile comerciale şi de protecţie socială. Statul are un obiectiv
fundamental: să asigure cadrul pentru creşterea economică ce aduce bunăstare. Oricare dintre
componentele care formează mediul concurenţial şi de afaceri este influenţată, într-o măsură
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mai mică sau mai mare, de calitatea politicilor, reglementărilor şi acţiunilor autorităţilor
statului.
4. Concluzii
Globalizarea impune exigenţe deosebite pentru economiile naţionale. La nivel
macroeconomic este necesară o strategie capabilă să asigure orientarea activităţii atât spre
macrostabilizare economică, cât şi spre impulsionarea procesului de modernizare a structurii
tehnologice şi productive a economiei, ţinând seama de cerinţele fructificării superioare a
potenţialului naţional, dar şi de încadrarea eficientă a respectivului stat în diviziunea
internaţională a muncii şi în competiţia mondială. La nivel microeconomic trebuie pornit de la
premisa că pe piaţa mondială nu pot pătrunde şi mai ales nu se pot menţine decât firme
viabile, puternice şi capabile să se adapteze la exigenţele pieţei mondiale şi să facă faţă
concurenţei globale.
Delimitarea elementelor cauză de cele efect în crearea şi evoluţia avantajului
competitiv este dificilă. Punctul de pornire este starea factorilor de producţie şi luarea în
calcul a influenţelor pe care celelalte componente le exercită asupra lor. Productivitatea
factorilor de producţie este în ultimă instanţă cauza şi expresia competitivităţii şi avantajului
competitiv. Dar, natura şi calitatea factorilor de producţie depind de performanţele structurilor
implicate în formarea factorilor de producţie specializaţi şi complecşi, de amploarea, calitatea
şi rivalitatea dintre firmele din fiecare industrie, de natura relaţiilor pe care le angajează cu
industriile din amonte şi aval şi cu statul, de modul în care structura şi intensitatea cererii
interne şi externe sunt implicate în deciziile privind orientarea investiţiilor destinate creării şi
modernizării factorilor de producţie.
Bibliografie
[1] Hitt, M. A Ireland, R.D. & Hoskinsson, E.R., - Strategic Management Concept &
Cases Competitiveness and Globalisation, ediţia a 8-a, Editura South-Western, Canada, 2009;
[2] Porter, M., - Competitive Strategy, Editura The Free Press, New York, 1980;
[3] Lynch, R. L., - Strategic management. Editura Pearson, Harlow, 2012;
[4] Mariotti, S., - Entrepreneurship and small business management, Editura Prentice
Hall, Boston, 2012;
[5] Chandrashekhar, G. R., - Unraveling Firm Competitiveness: A Life Cycle
Perspective, Competition Forum, vol. 7, no. 1, 2009;
[6] Borza, A., - Management strategic, Editura Risoprint, Cluj Napoca Grant, 2010.
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CONSUMER’S CHOICE: BEHAVIORAL CHALLENGES TO NEOCLASSICAL
ASSUMPTIONS
Sînziana Bălțătescu, Assist Prof., PhD, Liviu George Maha, Assoc. Prof., PhD,
”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The Neoclassical assumptions regarding the consumer‘s choice represented, untill
recently, a strong point, on which the mainstream consumer‘s theory was leaning. Yet, more
and more voices rise, questioning about the perfectly rational, the complete information
based or maximizing utility based choice. These voices looked for a better understanding of
the psichological incentives behind the economic action of individuals and are broadly
grouped under the name of „behavioral economics‖. Ideas like „bounded rationality‖,
„prospect based choice‖, „incomplete or assymetric information based choice‖,
„intertemporal consumption choice‖ are challenging the neoclassical assumptions and
represents fresh approaches founded on both psychological and economic backgrounds and .
If they will strengthen or shatter the neoclassical assumptions, is a question that still awaits
for an answer. This paper attempts to sinthesize the main behavioral economics contributions
in the field of consumer‘s choice, taking into consideration also the Neoclassical model
upholders responses.
Keywords: behavioral economics; neoclassical assumptions, consumer‘s choice, rationality,
consumer‘s preferences.
Introduction
Assumptions on the behavior of individuals faced with choices that determine the
economic action are as old as the economic science. Present in Adam Smith‘s work and lying
at the foundation of the still mainstream neoclassical economic theory, these assumptions
actually relied on brilliant intuitions about human psychology.
The rapid development of psychology as a science and the progress in sociological
research inherently made room for new behavioral perspectives in economics. Thus,
behavioral economics became a perpetual challenge to neoclassical assumptions, broadening
the research area and trying to insert a bigger amount of realism to the theory itself.
This paper tries to synthesize the inputs that mainstream economics got from the
behavioral approaches.
1. The Neoclassical Consumer’s Theory Assumptions and Behavioral Insights
The neoclassical consumer‘s theory is assuming that the individual involved in
economic actions is perfectly rational and has all the information necessary in order to
evaluate different consumption bundles; he makes his choice by establishing a preference
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order, which is necessary under the constraint of resources rarity, taking into consideration the
price of goods and the available income, namely the budget constraint. The assumption of
perfect rationality is build on the utilitarian idea that every individual will act and decide
chosing one consumption bundle over another in order to maximize his utility.
Consumer equilibrium is thus defined by the situation in which the individual obtains
the maximum amount of utility possible within his budget constraint.
This approach to consumer‘s behavior has been underpinned, mainly, by the works of
Carl Menger, Leon Walras and Stanley Jevons, in the second half of the XIXth century.
Although afterwards the neoclassical schools of economic thought followed different paths
(broadly reffered to as: the English, utilitarian school; the Lausanne, mathematical school and
the Austrian school), everyone of them had an impact on building the neoclassical theory as
we know it today. Thus, the main neoclassical contribution relies on the revolutionary
subjective theory of value according to which goods do not necessarily have an intrinsic
value; instead, the value is attributed subjectively, by individuals, according to the level that
particular good satisfies a specific need of the acting individual. In this way, utility is no
longer intrinsic, but depends on the link between goods and their ability to satisfy needs
(Pohoata, 1996, p. 231). People act following the utilitarian judgement: their behavior is a
permanent act of weighing the specific quantities of utility they can get by consuming
different bundles og goods, in an effort of maximizing their total utility.
So, at the very core of the neoclassical models there are several psychological
assumptions. Irving Fisher and Stanley Jevons extensively used psychological statements in
their theories and ideas. Earlier, the German economist Heinrich Gossen released a theory
concerning human relations and the way they impact human actions („Entwickelung der
Gesetze des menschlichen Verkehrs und der daraus fliessenden Regeln für menschliches
Handeln‖ – „The Laws of Human Relations and the Rules of Human Action‖). He stated the
law according to which the intensity of a need diminishes when we constantly increase the
quantity of the good consumed in order to fulfill that need, untill „satiety is ultimately
reached‖ (Hagendorf, 2010). This law became, in neoclassical terms, the law of diminishing
marginal utility.
During the further development of the theory, the introduction of other
psychologically based assumptions was left aside. The stress was on using and constantly
perfecting the mathematical apparatus in order to create a viable model that could result into
strong predictions and/or suggest normative economics.
The psychological insights are not a new approach in economics. Actually, classical
liberals based their theories on such ideas: Adam Smith developed, in „The Theory of Moral
Sentiments‖ an impressive analyse of human emotions, motivational patterns and factors and
social behavior (Smith, [1790], 2005); this analyse later became the psychological framework
that sustained his famous economic and social „Inquiry into the Causes and Wealth of
Nations‖ (Smith, [1776], 2011). For instance, observing that the negative impact of involving
in a painfull, unpleasant action is bigger than the positive emotional effect of engaging in a
pleasent action (Smith, [1790], 2005, p. 109) Smith raised an idea which will be the
foundation of Kahneman and Tversky‘s prospect theory: loss aversion.
More or less, psychological insights of the neoclassical theory rest on the assumption
that utility is strictly related to the link between needs and goods. These needs are not
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variable. Inside the model, they are considered fixed; also, the neoclassical assumption is that
needs, as long as utilities attached to goods, are perfectly divisible and can be strictly ranked.
Once the order of preferences being established, it becomes stable, so that, if one individual
chose one good over the other one time, he will always choose the same given the prices and
income. The perfect rationality with which the individual is endowed means that he is never
going to chose to consume a good after the point where the marginal utility of the last unit
consumed is zero (so there can be no negative marginal utility) and also that individuals will
refrain from consuming a good which has a marginal utility inferior to that attached to a
different wanted, available good (Pohoata, 1996, p. 228).
Wondering about the realism of such assumptions and about situations in which the
accuracy of the model would be damaged by the existence of different behavior was lost
under the concern of developing mathematical instruments able to underpin the consumer‘s
theory, the producer‘s theory or the equilibrium theory.
2. The Methodological Challenge
In this context, behavioral economics gives a necessary incentive to reconsider the
neoclassical assumptions, not necessarily in order to replace the existing models, but rather to
broaden and relax its assumptions in a manner that could bring realism and accuracy to the
models. From a historical perspective, the scientifically based psychological inputs in
economics could be considered a necessary, natural evolution. Camerer and Loewenstein
argue, for instance that, at the time when Adam Smith was writing his work, supplying
economics with scientific rigour and coherence, psychology didn‘t exist as a discipline
(Camerer, Loewenstein, 2002, p. 3). Indeed, the agglomeration of ideas and concerns in this
field allowed psychology to rise and rapidly build scientific foundations at the end of the
XIXth century and, stronger, in the first part of the XXth. Once it happened, though, it truely
was a matter of time since preoccupations in behavioral economics would appear.
Economic models and theories are meant to capture patterns of behavior which, in
their turn can be used in order to predict future behaviors or evolutions of economic
phenomena; the neoclassical theories fit this methodological belief. Yet, neoclassical theories
and models rely on assumptions which are not always realistic. Whether the economic
theories should rely on realistic assumption or not is still a question for scientific debate.
Milton Friedman argued, in his work „ The Methodology of Positive Economics‖, that the
realism of the assumptions should not be a measure of judging a theory (Friedman [1953],
2008). Behavior economics researches seek to increase the assumptions realism, acting, in this
way from a critical point of view in this specific methodological issue: the more realistic the
assumptions of the model, the more accurate the predictions (Camerer, 2014, p. 2; Camerer,
Loewenstein, 2002, p. 2).
In that sense, behavioral economics is trying to improve the capacity of the
neoclassical models to supply valuable predictions by expanding the assumptions in a manner
in which they can address and include psychological factors that give these assumptions a
realistic dimension. For instance, interpreting the ‖perfect rationality‖ of the individual who
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acts as a consumer/producer in a different manner, by taking into consideration and analyzing
the seemingly irrational behavior of individuals in different circumstances, widens the
capacity of the consumer‘s theory to cover a bigger part of economic behavior, thus
improving its capability of delivering accurate predictions.
3. Preferences And Perfect Rationality Challenged
Synthesizing, the neoclassical assumptions which were challenged by behavioral
economics researchers are: the perfect rationality assumption; the stable preferences
assumption; the perfectly informed individual assumption; the preferences order assumptions;
the homogenous goods assumption; the perfectly divisible needs and utilities assumption.
In his book, ―Administrative Behavior‖ published in 1947, Herbert Simon was the first
to challenge the perfect rationality assumption. While agreeing that most of the individual
choices follow the rationality rule, Herbert Simon states that some decisions do not have as an
outcome the optimal choice, but the most preferred choice after evaluating known alternatives
(Simonsen, 1994, p. 4). When time is a scarce resource, the perfect information assumption
fails to be realistic; in these circumstances, faced with instant decision processes, the
individuals act rationally related to their goal of maximizing utility, but often base their
decision on irrational heuristics. The process of decision making is rational, but the principle
ruling this process of deciding under uncertainty conditions is ―satisficing‖, meaning that
often, the individuals choose the ―good enough‖ alternative (Simon, 1985, p. 295).
The ―bounded rationality‖ assumption was the foundation from which Daniel
Kahneman built (1979) and further developed the prospect theory, along with Amos Tversky.
The theory relies on cognitive psychology statements, integrating, in a complex manner,
psychology researches with economic ones. Not only the rationality assumption is being
challenged this time, but also the neoclassical preference stability. The ―loss - aversion‖
assumption, intuited by Adam Smith in the XVIII th century, was researched and empirically
tested by Kahneman and Tversky: namely, it seems that people tend to dislike to lose goods
from their consumption bundles more than they like to add goods in their bundles (Camerer,
2002, p. 16). The loss aversion assumption contradicts the stable preferences assumption by
inferring that preferences depend on some reference point.
George Akerlof, also, studied decisions individuals make in market characterized by
asymmetric informations. Also, his research on psychological factors that influence decision
revealed new perspectives in defining preferences; in George Akerlof and Rachel Kranton‘s
book ―Identity Economics: How Our Identities Shape Our Work, Wages and Well-Being‖ non
economic factors are identified behind economic action. They differentiate between basic
preferences of which neoclassical theory is concerned about and preferences derived from
social norm and rules (Akerlof, Kranton, 2011, p. 10) which actually change the preferences
stability assumption and challenges at its core the neoclassical assumption that people are
basically choosing the bundle that best suites their need given the budget constraint. Thus, the
economic act of choosing one bundles over another may be motivated and/or limited not only
by the budget constraint, but also by social rules to which they adapt their behavior.
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Preferences would be, in this situation, dependant on the social context and the rules emerged
from it.
The identity utility is defined as the benefit obtained by following one‘s social norms;
a disutility appears when one‘s behavior does not suit the accepted social rules. Maximizing
the identity utility would mean choosing the specific bundles that ensures the best conformity
to the social rules and not necessarily the bundles that best suits one basic need (Akerlof,
Kranton, 2011, pp 27-28). The authors analyze has the explicit goal of reintroducing human
passions and social institution in economics (Akerlof, Kranton, 2011, p. 16), thus bringing
back in front of the behavioral researchers the insights that Gary Becker had on human
behavior and needs.
The effort of Akerloff and Kranton towards integrating psychological and sociological
approaches of preferences is not unique. Dan Ariely, George Loewenstein, Colin Camerer and
others researched about non economical motivation of economic actions, further integrating
economics with psychology, social psychology and anthropology approaches.
Conclusions
What behavioral economics tries and manages to do is to increase the explanatory
power of neoclassical models, instead of replacing them with new ones, capable of better
explaining economic phenomena. When reconsidering neoclasical assumptions, behavioral
economics researchers are actually improving the approach to economics based on utility
maximization and equilibrium, by building a better empirical and theoretical foundation.
In the process, new questions rise and new research directions appear. While the
behavioral approach to economics may broaden the neoclassical assumptions, making the
models and theories more accurate in terms of predicting outcomes, the question can be asked
weather reaserching too thoroughly the out of the ordinary situations and circumstances of the
general theory doesn‘t actually have a restrictive impact on the generality of the theory. The
answer is yet to be obtained. Nonetheless, permanent inputs and further challenges to
mainstrean economics constantly signals toward the vivacity of the scientific‘s economic
debate.
References:
Akerlof, George A., Kranton, Rachel E. (2011), „Economia identitatii. Cum identitatea
ne influenteaza munca, salariile si bunastarea‖, Publica Publishing House, Bucharest
Camerer, C. F. (2005). ―Behavioral Economics‖, World Congress of the Econometric
Society,
London, pp. 18-24 (Unpublished), accessed on November 2012 at
http://authors.library.caltech.edu/ 21990/2/worldcongress05v18.pdf
Camerer, C.F., Loewenstein, G. (2004). Behavioral Economics: Past, Present and
Future, in
Camerer, C.F., Loewenstein, G., Rabin, M. (editors) Advances in Behavioral
Economics, pp. 3-53, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
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Etzioni, A. (2010). ―Behavioral economics: A methodological note‖, Journal of
Economic
Psychology, Volume 31, Issue 1, pp. 51-54, accessed on October 2014 at
http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/etzioni/documents/A407%20behavioral%20economics.pdf
Friedman, Milton. ‗The Methodology of Positive Economics‖ in Hausman, Daniel
(ed., 2008). ―The Philosophy of Economics. An Anthology‖, Cambridge University Press, pp.
145-179
Hagendorf, Klaus (2010). ―A Critique of Gossen‘s Fundamental Theorem of the
Theory of
Pleasure‖, Universite Paris Ouest, Nanterre, accessed on October 2014 at
file:///D:/downloads/SSRN-id1615522.pdf
List, John A. (2003). ―Neoclassical Theory versus Prospect Theory: Evidence From
the
Marketplace‖, Econometrica, 2004, v72(2,Mar), 615-625, accessed on October 2014
at
http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~harbaugh/Readings/Rational%20choice/List%20Econometrica
%202004,%20neoclassical%20prospect.pdf
Pohoata, Ion (1996). ―Doctrine economice universale. Predecesori si fondatori‖,
Editura
Fundatiei Academice ―Ghe. Zane‖ Publishing House, Iasi
Simon, Herbert A. (1985). ―Human Nature in Politics: The Dialogue of Psychology
With
Political Science‖, The American Political Science Review, Vol. 79, N. 2, (Jun.,
1985), pp. 293-304, accessed on October 2014 at
http://www.unc.edu/~fbaum/teaching/Sciences_Po_2007/Simon_APSR_1985.pdf
Simonsen, Jesper (1994). ―Herbert A. Simon: Administrative Behavior. How
Organizations
Can Be Understood in Terms of Decision Processes‖, Roskilde University, accessed
on October 2014 at http://jespersimonsen.dk/Downloads/Simon-introduction.pdf
Smith, A. ([1776]2011). ―An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations‖,
Indiana: Liberty Fund, Inc., Online Library of Liberty, accessed on October 2014 at
http://files.libertyfund.org/files/237/Smith_0206-01_EBk_v6.0.pdf
Smith, Adam ([1790]2006). ―The Theory of Moral Sentiments‖, Sao Paolo: Metalibri
This work was supported by the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007 – 2013, project
number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/142115, project title “Performance and Excellence
in Doctoral and Postdoctoral Research in Economic Sciences Domain in
Romania”.
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THE SYNCHRONIZATION PROCESS OF CREDIT CYCLES: EVIDENCE
FROM EU COUNTRIES
Stanislav Percic, PhD Student, Constantin-Marius Apostoaie, PhD, ”Al. Ioan
Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The scope of this study is to analyze the synchronization process of credit cycles in
EU countries. The importance for such a study derives from the fact that synchronized credit
cycles are perceived as a condition for the efficient implementation of common economic
policies within the EU, as well as a precondition for a deeper economic integration within
this area. The study focuses on twelve developing as well as advanced economies from the
European Union over a period span of 24 years. The following steps are taken: a) firstly, the
study focuses on the overall synchronicity of the credit cycles where a static analysis is being
performed (on the basis of cross-correlation matrix) on the credit given to the private non-
financial sector, and b) secondly, using a rolling correlation method, the study looks at the
evolution of the synchronization process of the credit cycles within the EU countries. The
findings revealed credit cycles are quite heterogeneous in the analyzed sample. Countries
from Northern, Southern and South-Eastern Europe exhibit the most consistent
synchronization movement, while, in contrast, Western Europe shows the least conformity.
The second part of the investigation revealed that the credit cycles synchronicity among
European countries was affected by two prolific economic events that occurred between 1990
and 2013: the establishment of the Eurozone and the global financial crisis.
Keywords: credit cycle, cross-correlation matrix, rolling correlation, synchronization,
European Union
1. INTRODUCTION
The analysis of economic phenomena synchronicity is a topic of great interest for
researchers, but especially for policy makers within the economic and monetary unions. The
synchronicity of economic phenomena is the barometer of efficiency of economic policies
implemented at the level of a group of states.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the synchronicity of credit cycles on a sample of
12 member states of the European Union, members and non-members of the Eurozone, from
1990 to 2013.
An in-depth analysis of the literature, using the most relevant databases revealed, in
the limits of our knowledge, a poor representation of studies dealing with credit cycle
synchronicity (the vast majority of them focusing on the synchronicity of economic cycles).
However, as demonstrated by studies of Lown and Morgan (2006) or Cocriş,
Apostoaie and Percic (2013), the relationship between credit cycles and economic cycles is
one of interdependence and mutual influence, for which the credit cycle behavior is very close
to that of the economic cycle. Thus, a review of studies on business cycles synchronicity will
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provide us the research methodology and tools required for the analysis of credit cycles
synchronicity.
The rest of the paper is structured as follows: part 2 captures briefly the current state of
the literature in the field, part 3 presents the dataset and methodology used in the study, part 4
presents the results of the empirical analysis and part 5 resumes the main findings and
presents the future directions of the research.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
The synchronicity of economic phenomena, and especially of cyclical economic
phenomena (business cycles), remains a subject of great interest among researchers. The
theoretical foundations of business cycles synchronicity could be found in the Theory of
Optimum Currency Areas (OCA), formulated and proposed by Mundell (1961).
The authors noticed that in the last decade, there was an increased interest in
examining whether the Eurozone can be classified as an OCA. One of the research directions
analyses whether the deepening of economic integration is followed by an increase in the
synchronization of business cycles. In this context, arise two well-founded but at the same
time contradictory viewpoints.
On the one hand, the ―specialization hypothesis‖ presented by Krugman (1993),
argues that, as a result of the effects of the economies of scale and the externalities of
agglomeration, economic integration leads to concentration of industrial activities in the
regions. This increasing specialization transforms the sectorial shocks into the region-specific
shocks (regional shocks) which will raise the share of asymmetric shocks and differentiation
of regional economic cycles. Therefore, this pessimistic perspective argues that along with the
creation of the Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), business cycles (especially regional
ones) could become more divergent. In support of this hypothesis, Papageorgiou, Michaelides
and Milios (2010) show that during the 1992-1999 period span, the EU states have inclined to
synchronize their economic cycles in a greater proportion than in the period that followed the
introduction of the euro. After the 1999‘s the synchronicity of business cycles has weakened
at EU level, but increased within different groups of states. Filis et al. (2010), when analyzing
the economic cycles of Bulgaria and the rest of the European Union, found a low degree of
convergence between them.
On the other hand, the ―endogenous hypothesis‖ proposed by Frankel and Rose
(1998), claims that an intensification of trade between countries and regions of a currency
area as a result of the elimination of trade barriers will reduce disparities between countries
and will increase the synchronicity of business cycles. Moreover, the coordination of
economic policy will also amplify the convergence between the currency area member states.
According to this hypothesis, the OCA criteria could be fulfilled ex-post under the influence
of a single currency and a common monetary policy. The economic literature captures a large
number of studies that come to prove this hypothesis. For example, Crespo-Cuaresma and
Fernández-Amador (2010) analyzed the business cycles among European countries and
concluded that since the EMU creation, the synchronicity of economic cycles intensified
between member states. De Haan, Inklaar and Jong-a-Pin (2005) argue that the degree of
business cycles synchronization within the Eurozone increased and emphasize that the main
reason for this is the intensification of mutual trade between these countries.
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The literature proposes various methods of analysis and measurement of cyclical
economic phenomena synchronicity, among them the most relevant being the cross-
correlation matrix (Correia and Gouveia, 2013; Obradovic and Mihajlovic, 2013, etc.),
rolling correlation analysis (Papageorgiou, Michaelides and Milios, 2010; Gouveia, 2014,
etc.), concordance analysis (Sergo, Poropat and Gržinić, 2012; Jiménez-Rodrìguez Morales-
Zumaquero and Egert, 2013, etc.), comparative visual analysis of records etc.
3. METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
Data used
In order to analyze the credit cycle synchronicity among the member states of the
European Union, we chose a sample of 12 countries that represent Northern, Central,
Western, Southern and South-Eastern geographical areas (see Table 1).
Table 1 Sample list of European Union member states distributed by geographical
areas
Southern and South-
Central Europe Western Europe Northern Europe
Eastern Europe
Country Acrony Country Acrony Country Acrony Country Acrony
m m m m
Austria AT Belgium BE Denmark DK Greece EL
German DE France FR Finland FI Italy IT
y
Ireland IE Sweden SE Portugal PO
Spain ES
2 3 3 4
Source: authors‘ elaboration
The selected states cover all the geographical areas of the EU, this approach aiming to
fulfill thus the uniform geographical distribution and to facilitate the possibility of applying
the method of comparing geographical areas and highlighting their specific features (e.g.
comparing the Nordic countries, which are more cautious and prudent with the southern,
which are more wasteful). Also it was taken into account to include in the proposed sample,
the so called PIIGS countries (Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece and Spain) in order to capture
the common trends and to propose some explanations for their sluggish progress during the
recent financial crisis.
In the present research we included sets of data of the total volume of credit to private
non-financial sectors by domestic banks as describing variable of credit cycle in European
Union.
In terms of financial instruments, credit covers loans and debt securities. The series
have quarterly frequency, capture the outstanding amount of credit at the end of the reference
quarter and covers the period from the fourth quarter of 1990 to the fourth quarter of 2013
(1990: Q4 - 2013: Q4). We chose this period to include the new historical interval in Europe
that started with the collapse of the socialist system and the reunification of Germany on
October 3rd, 1990.
The primary data source is the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) data base.
Since the volumes of credit for Denmark and Sweden are presented in their national
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currencies, the Danish krone (DKK) and Swedish krone (SEK) (the volumes of credit for the
rest of the countries are presented in euro, as they are part of the Eurozone), for uniformity we
have transformed them into the European single currency, making use of the quarterly
average of DKK and SEK to EUR / ECU available on Eurostat.
Methodology and tests
The first phase of the research consists in a preliminary analysis of the time series,
aiming to test the normality of the data distribution and their stationarity. Moreover, this step
involves the transformation and adjustment of the time series in order to ensure assumptions
of normality and stationarity.
We used the numerical method Jarque-Bera test (JB) to verify the normality of
distribution of the data series. In order to transform the data series so that they follow a
normal distribution and to homogenize all the analyzed data sets, it was decided to apply the
logarithm function (natural logarithm) on all data series proposed for research.
To test the stationarity of the data series, the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test was
employed. The number of lags used was selected according to the AIC (Akaike Information
Criteria) and SIC (Schwarz Information Criteria) information criteria.
The second phase of the research consists in the analysis of credit cycles synchronicity
among the EU states. For our study we chose the cross-correlation matrix analysis of
previously filtered data, which is the method most commonly used by researchers to study
economic phenomena synchronicity.
Basically, for a pair of variable, the cross correlation captures the linear
interdependence between them and estimate the extent to which these two variables
synchronize their movements. Cross correlation is determined by the formula:
,
where rc is the correlation coefficient, x and y are the analysed variables, while mx and
my are the average values of the variables.
The preceding step for construction and analysis of the correlation matrix is to filter
the available data by separating the cyclical trend component. The literature suggests several
methods of filtration, the most common being the Hodrick-Prescott (HP), Baxter-King (BK)
and Christiano-Fitzgerald (CF) filters. In this paper the HP filter was used, being the most
widely used among researchers in the field.
In order to deepen the analysis of credit cycles synchronicity the authors have decided
to apply the rolling correlations method. In this study we made use of 4 quarters rolling
windows, considered to be reasonable in terms of the length of the credit cycle.
4. EMPIRICAL RESULTS
Preliminary analysis of the time series
In order to ensure optimal conditions for the analysis of the time series we made a
series of econometric tests and adjustments on them. Therefore, we used the JB test.
Table 2 The results of the Jarque-Bera normality test
Central Southern and South-
Region Western Europe Northern Europe
Europe Eastern Europe
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Germany
Denmark
Countr
Belgium
Portugal
Sweden
Finland
Austria
Greece
Ireland
France
y
Spain
Italy
J-B 7,258 16,41 5,817 11,69 8,953 10,81 10,60 15,49 11,12 9,412 8,658 11,28
test 0 54 1 90 3 38 42 58 27 7 9 23
Prob. 0,027 0,000 0,055 0,003 0,011 0,004 0,005 0,000 0,004 0,009 0,013 0,004
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Analyzing the JB normality test results (see Table 2) we can notice that the data series
as a whole do not follow a standard normal distribution. There would be a small exception in
the case of Belgium, where the relevance of the test exceeds the 5% threshold. However,
given the fact that the literature allows lifting relevance threshold to 10%, we strongly believe
that the data series do not follow a standard normal distribution. In order to transform the data
series so that they follow a normal distribution and to homogenize the data sets, it was
decided to apply the logarithm function (natural logarithm) on all the data series of the
research.
The next step of the preliminary analysis of time series was to test the stationarity of
the data series which was made using the ADF test, with a number of lags selected according
to the AIC and SIC information criteria. The final results of the stationarity tests are
summarized in Table 3.
Table 3 The results of the stationarity tests
Central Southern and South-
Region Western Europe Northern Europe
Europe Eastern Europe
Germany
Denmark
Countr
Belgium
Portugal
Sweden
Finland
Austria
Greece
Ireland
France
y Spain
Italy
ADF I(2) I(2) I(1)* I(2) I(2) I(2) I(1) I(1) I(2) I(2) I(2) I(2)
test * * * * * * * * * * * *
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Note: * and ** denote the significance at the levels 1% and 5%
The results of the stationarity test lead us to conclude that the vast majority of the data
series are integrated of order II. These series are non-stationary (called generic DSP series –
―difference stationary processes‖) and their trend is further eliminated by calculating the
second order differences. In order to preserve the homogeneous nature of the data series used,
it was decided to calculate the second order difference for all.
Cross-correlation matrix analysis
The analysis of the cross-correlation matrix processed using the HP filter (see Graphic
1) shows that only 80.43% of the analyzed pairs of countries are positive correlated, while
nearly 20% of them follow a negative correlation. Most of the adverse pairs are formed by
Sweden, Germany, Belgium, France and Finland. Graphic 1 reveals that credit cycles are not
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synchronized between Germany and Belgium, on the one hand, and most of the Nordic
countries, on the other hand. Sweden does not synchronize credit cycles with all analyzed
geographic regions equally.
Graphic 1 Cross-correlation matrix
Austri Belgiu Germa DenmaGreec Finlan Franc Irelan Portu Swede
a m ny rk e Spain d e d Italy gal n
Austria 1.0000
00
Belgiu 0.6591 1.0000
m * 00
Germa 0.6335 0.6793 1.0000
ny * * 00
-
Denma 0.4447 0.0273 0.3400 1.0000
+
rk * * 00
0.8334 0.4253 0.2179 0.8086 1.0000
Greece * * ** * 00
0.7387 0.3328 0.0283 0.9088 0.9753 1.0000
+
Spain * * * * 00
- - -
Finlan 0.0900 0.3306 0.6997 0.7962 0.3815 0.5572 1.0000
+
d * * * * * 00
- - -
0.0054 0.3100 0.7600 0.7783 0.3713 0.5472 0.8665 1.0000
France + * * * * * * 00
Ireland 0.6928 0.4255 0.2194 0.7906 0.8964 0.8883 0.4270 0.2451 1.0000
* * ** * * * * ** 00
0.7768 0.4054 0.1356 0.6645 0.8637 0.8594 0.3500 0.4893 0.5866 1.0000
+
Italy * * * * * *0 * * 00
- -
Portug 0.9253 0.6014 0.7331 0.3706 0.7721 0.6618 0.0804 0.177* 0.7501 0.6132 1.0000
+
al * * * * * * ** * * 00
- - - - - -
Swede 0.4064 0.6140 0.8949 0.4917 0.0621 0.1446 0.8165 0.8536 0.0726 0.0455 0.4773 1.0000
+ + + +
n * * * * * * * 00
-
-1,0: --0,79:- -0,59:- -0,39:- 0,21:0, 0,41:0, 0,61:0, 0,81:1,
0,19:0, 0,0:0,2
0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 4 6 8 0
0
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Note: * and ** denote the significance at the levels 1% and 5%
+
Probability values are higher than the threshold of 10%
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
It appears that the percentage of pairs of states that show a very strong positive
correlation (c> 0.8) is only of 18.48%, the share of strong positive correlated pairs (0.6 <c
<0.79) reaches 25%, while the percentage of aggregate pairs with moderate positive
correlation (0.4 <c <0.59) and weak to moderate positive correlation (0 <c <0.39) is more
than 36.96% of the analyzed pairs.
The strongest level of correlation is recorded between Spain and Greece (c = 0.9753),
Portugal and Austria (c = 0.9253), Denmark and Spain (c = 0.9088), while the smallest
indicators can be traced between Denmark and Belgium (c = 0.0273) or Spain and Germany
(0.0283). Moreover, we can observe very high negative correlation coefficients between
Germany on the one hand, and Sweden (c = -0.8949), France (c = -0.7600) and Finland (c = -
0.6997) on the other hand.
The lack of synchronicity between credit cycles in Germany and the mentioned
countries might be due to the special status of the country, but also to the acyclic behavior of
this so called EU ―locomotive‖: saving during the expansion periods and spending during the
periods of economic stagnation.
Graphic 2 Cross-correlation matrices (geographical distribution)
Central Europe Northern Europe
Austria Germany DenmarkFinland Sweden
Austria 1.000000 Denmark 1.000000
Germany 0.6335* 1.000000 Finland 0.7962* 1.000000
Sweden 0.4917* 0.8165* 1.000000
Western Europe Southern and South-Eastern Europe
Belgium France Ireland Greece Spain Italy Portugal
Belgium 1.000000 Greece 1.000000
France -0.3100* 1.000000 Spain 0.9753* 1.000000
Ireland 0.4255* 0.2451**1.000000 Italy 0.8637* 0.8594* 1.000000
Portugal 0.7721* 0.6618* 0.6132* 1.000000
-1,0: - -0,79:- -
-0,59:-0,4 -0,39:-0,2 0,0:0,2 0,21:0,4 0,41:0,6 0,61:0,8 0,81:1,0
0,8 0,6 0,19:0,0
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Note: * and ** denote the significance at the levels 1% and 5%
+
Probability values are higher than the threshold of 10%
When analysing the cross-correlation matrices in each region (see Graphic 2), we
noticed a strong synchronicity of credit cycles in the countries of Southern and South-Eastern
Europe, moderate to strong in the case of the Nordic countries and Central Europe, and weak
between the states of Western Europe. In Northern Europe the correlation coefficients
fluctuate between 0.49 and 0.82, with a higher synchronicity recorded between a member and
a non-member states of the Eurozone (0.80 <c <0.82) than between two non-member states (c
= 0.49). Regarding Western Europe, synchronicity is weak and inconsistent, the correlation
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
coefficients ranging between -0.31 and 0.43. The largest discrepancies are recorded between
France and Belgium, where it reached -0.31.
Southern and South-Eastern Europe has the highest level of synchronicity. Moreover,
it preserves a homogeneous character within the entire analyzed region. The correlation
coefficients related the southern states vary between 0.61 and 0.98, the highest synchronicity
being recorded between Spain and Greece, and the lowest between Portugal and Italy.
Graphic 3 Cross-correlation matrix (PIIGS states)
Greece Spain Ireland Italy Portugal
Greece 1.000000
Spain 0.9753* 1.000000
Ireland 0.8964* 0.8883* 1.000000
Italy 0.8637* 0.8594* 0.5866* 1.000000
Portugal 0.7721* 0.6618* 0.7501* 0.6132* 1.000000
- - -
-1,0: -
0,79:- 0,59:- 0,39:- 0,0:0,2 0,21:0,4 0,41:0,6 0,61:0,8 0,81:1,0
-0,8 0,19:0,0
0,6 0,4 0,2
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Note: * and ** denote the significance at the levels 1% and 5%
+
Probability values are higher than the threshold of 10%
The specific features of the group of states from Southern and South-Eastern Europe
may be associated with the PIIGS group of countries (see Graphic 3), where the credit cycles
of Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain are synchronized in a proportion ranging from 59% to
99%. The PIIGS is a cluster created with the first ‗germs‘ of the global financial crisis, which
is characterized by a constant synchronicity of the credit cycles. This constancy and
persistence observed among the member states is the result of the close historical ties, tight
economic relations, geographical proximity or even cultural affinities of the southern states.
Rolling correlation analysis
When analysing Graphic 4, we found a sharp fluctuation of the correlation coefficients
between the credit cycle of Austria and that of Germany. Despite the geographical proximity,
common cultural affinities, these two countries succeed to synchronize their credit cycles only
during the immediate period after the reunification of Germany and the Eurozone edification
(at the turn of the millennium).
Graphic 4 Graphical representations of the rolling correlations among Central
European countries
Austria
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
ATDE
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
Germany
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
An interesting finding is related to the behavior of credit cycles of Germany and
Austria during the recent financial crisis (and shortly before the outbreak of it): they leave the
synchronicity shortly before the crisis, keeping the same character throughout the entire
period of turbulences.
Graphic 5 Graphical representations of the rolling correlations among Northern
European countries
Denmark Finland
DKFI
1.2
0.8
0.4
Finland 0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 DKSE04
02 06 08 10 12 14 FISE
1.2 1.2
0.8 0.8
0.4 0.4
Sweden 0.0 0.0
-0.4 -0.4
-0.8 -0.8
-1.2 -1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
According to Graphic 5 the credit cycles synchronization among the group of Nordic
countries started with the EU accession of Sweden and Finland in 1995. The credit cycles of
Sweden and Finland have been synchronized even before this date, but this changed as soon
as Finland adopted the euro. Moreover, the Finland's accession to the Eurozone has affected
the credit cycles synchronicity of Denmark. Only after the first signs of overcoming the
financial crisis we can observe a synchronization of credit cycles between all of the three
northern states.
The evolution of the correlation coefficients between the credit cycles of Western
European is very volatile. Credit cycles are synchronized only during 1994 Q2-1997: Q2 and
2006: Q1-2008: Q2.
Graphic 6 Graphical representations of the rolling correlations among Western
European countries
Belgium France
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
BEFR
1.2
0.8
France
0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
-1.2
BEIE
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 FRIE
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.8
Ireland
0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0
-0.4 -0.4
-0.8 -0.8
-1.2 -1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Graphic 7 Graphical representations of the rolling correlations
among Southern and South-Eastern European countries
Greece Italy Portugal
ELIT
Italy
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
-0.4 ELPO ITPO
1.2 1.2
-0.8
Portugal
0.8 0.8
-1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 0.4
0.4
0.0 0.0
-0.4 -0.4
-0.8 -0.8
-1.2 -1.2
ELES ITES ESPO
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
1.2 1.2 1.2
0.8 0.8 0.8
Spain
0.4 0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0 0.0
-0.4 -0.4 -0.4
-0.8 -0.8 -0.8
-1.2 -1.2 -1.2
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06 08 10 12 14
Source: Authors‘ elaboration
Analyzing the Kernel density corresponding to each pair of countries we found that
the share of positive and negative correlation coefficients is approximately equal, with the
exception of the pair formed by Ireland and Belgium, where credit cycles were synchronized
for most of the time.
When analyzing Graphic 7, one can notice that there is a synchronization of the credit
cycles among Southern and South-Eastern European countries for the most of the analyzed
interval. Although Portugal recorded negative coefficients during 1998-2006 in relation to the
rest of the listed states, the Southern and South-Eastern European countries have perfectly
synchronized their credit cycles with the first signs of the financial crisis, a trend maintained
until today.
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CONCLUSIONS
After studying the synchronicity behavior of the credit cycles in 12 member states of
the European Union during the 1990-2013 period, the following conclusions can be depicted:
1. We cannot speak of a perfect synchronicity of the credit cycles among our analyzed
countries. The evolution of credit cycles between European Union member states
are characterized rather by global heterogeneity or regional synchronicity.
2. From a static perspective, the sample of countries from Western Europe (which
includes Belgium, France and Ireland) is characterized by the lowest level of credit
cycles synchronicity, the correlation coefficients recording the lowest values and
the largest discrepancies (-0.31 <c <0.43). The pair of states from Central Europe
(referring here to Austria and Germany), tend to a moderate synchronicity, while
Northern Europe (Denmark, Finland and Sweden) and Southern and South-Eastern
Europe (Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain) are the regions with the highest degree
of synchronicity of credit cycles, the coefficients in these regions exceeding the
threshold of 0.7-0.8, and very often reaching the peak (pair formed by Spain and
Greece recorded coefficients of above 0.98). Most probably, the high level of
synchronicity of the credit cycles among the states from Southern and South-
Eastern Europe are due to causes less fortunate: all of them are part of the PIIGS
cluster that have faced financial troubles during the recent financial crisis.
3. From a dynamic perspective (retrospective radiography) the findings do not differ
greatly from those mentioned earlier. We found a sharp fluctuation of the
correlation coefficients for the Central Europe countries. The credit cycles of the
Western European countries were moderately synchronized throughout the
analyzed period, although there were long periods when credit developments
followed different trends for each of the western states. The correlation
coefficients between the Nordic credit cycles fluctuate in a high degree, but for the
most of the time they got positive values. There is a synchronization of the credit
cycles among Southern and South-Eastern European countries for most of the
analyzed interval. Although Portugal recorded negative coefficients during 1998-
2006 in relation to the rest of the listed states, the Southern and South-Eastern
European countries have perfectly synchronized their credit cycles starting with
the first signs of the financial crisis, a trend maintained until today.
The credit cycles synchronicity is quite heterogeneous in the analyzed sample, which
motivates us to support that the European Union, and especially the Eurozone is not yet ready
for the transition to the next level of economic integration, the banking integration.
We realize that this study is only an insight into the analysis of credit cycle
synchronicity, but in the future, we intend to improve it by expanding the number of
countries, improving the range of descriptive variables and completing the research
methodology with complex econometric tools.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cocriş, V., Apostoaie, C.M., Percic, S. (2013), Analysis of the Credit and Business
Cycles: Evidence from Twelve European Economies. Proceedings of the International
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Economic Conference of Sibiu „Post Crisis Economy: Challenges and Opportunities‖,
XX edition, Sibiu, Romania, 665-674.
2. Correia, L., Gouveia, S. (2013), Business Cycle Synchronisation at the Regional
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EMU: A First Look at the Second Moment. Forschungsschwerpunkt Internationale
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Converge: A Critical Survey of Empirical Research. Centre for Economic Research
Working Paper 2005/08.
5. Filis, G., Floros, C., Costas, L., Beneki, C. (2010), Are EU and Bulgarian Business
Cycles Synchronized? Journal of Money, Investment and Banking, 14: 36-45.
6. Frankel, J., Rose, A. (1998), The Endogeneity of the Optimum Currency Area
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7. Gogas, P., Kothroulas, G. (2009). Two speed Europe and business cycle
synchronization in the European Union: The effect of the common currency.
University Library of Munich, Germany, MPRA Paper 13909.
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countries, International Journal of Economic Sciences and Applied Research 7 (1): 33-
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Synchronization between Euro Area and Central and Eastern European Countries.
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in the European Union, F. Torres e F. Giavazzi (eds), Cambridge University Press,
241-260.
11. Lown, C., Morgan, D.P. (2006), The Credit Cycle and the Business Cycle: New
Findings Using the Loan Officer Opinion Survey. Journal of Money, Credit, and
Banking, Vol. 38, No. 6, 1575-1597.
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Selected European Countries, PANOECONOMICUS, 6, 759-773.
14. Papageorgiou, T., Michaelides, P.G., Milios, G.J. (2010), Business cycles
synchronization and clustering in Europe (1960–2009). Journal of Economics and
Business 62 (2010), 419–470
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South East European Journal of Economics and Business, Volume 7, Issue 1, 29-41.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was cofinanced from the European Social Fund through Sectoral
Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
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POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134197 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral
research in Romanian economics science domain‖.
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SUCCESSFUL PROMOTIONAL STRATEGIES IN THE WINE INDUSTRY: THE
CASE OF WEB MARKETING
Ştefan Matei, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: In the wine industry, marketing has proven to be very useful in fostering
comprehensive, cohesive and effective strategies which wine companies require to effectively
compete in today‘s saturated wine market. Within wine marketing, the promotional mix is the
most important component of the winery that can ensure the success in the market (if it is well
developed) or can shorten the life cycle of the product (or of the company itself). In this
context, the scope of the paper is to investigate a promotion strategy (within the promotional
mix) that not only best describes the wine industry but also has proven to be very successful
from a cost-efficient point of view, i.e. web marketing (using case studies). This is not only a
form of promotion for the winery, but also a mean of communication with the ―ubiquitous‖
consumer. Although wine is a complex, symbolic and highly technical product, unlike other
commodities, it is also a very emotional product. For this reason, many consumers of such a
product incline to have an opinion on the quality and attributes of the wine, but moreover,
they are willing, most of the times, to share these opinions or beliefs with others using social
media.
Keywords: wine economics, wine marketing, promotional mix, communication strategy, web
marketing
1. INTRODUCTION
In the words of the American writer Ernest Hemingway (1932, p. 14) ―…wine is one of the most
civilized things in the world and one of the most natural, brought to the highest perfection; it
gives more satisfaction to the senses than any other product that can be bought‖. In the
contemporary society wine is an indispensable asset in some important moments of life. Being
the result of one of the brilliant ideas that changed humanity, wine is today synonymous with
good taste, fine gastronomy and culture, giving to the connoisseur the quality of a ―sophisticated
person‖. Given the continuing growth in the number of scientific publications or materials, but
also of their quality (at least in the period 1985 to 2014) concerning the study of wine we can
only be witnessing a growing interest (not only from the consumers, but also from scientists) to
this ―potion‖. We confirm thus the findings of authors such as Storchmann (2011) according to
whom the increasing popularity of wine in the scientific and academic circles reveals the
emergence of a new academic field, namely wine-economics.
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Wine producers are currently facing a complex choice about the manner in which they can
produce and market their wine but they must take into account issues related to sales volume,
price sensitivity and brand perception (all being elements of the marketing mix). In these
circumstances, it is extremely important for wine producers to understand the configuration of
a marketing strategy and the implications and opportunities within its implementation in the
activity they carry out. A winery cannot expect to sell the wine only for the fact that it
produces this; they put an attractive price and make it available to consumers on the target
market. Wine companies must communicate with their customers regarding the wine they
offer. Precisely from here the importance of promotional mix derives, as a component of the
marketing mix for a wine company. And within the promotional mix, a promotional technique
is distinguished from all others by efficiency and cost-effectiveness that brings to a wine
company, namely web-marketing, a trend at global level and European in terms of
promotional techniques in the wine industry.
Within the context described above, this article aims at performing an investigation in the role
that the marketing mix plays in the wine industry highlighting the importance of the
promotion strategy within this mix and the emergence of a promotion technique that not only
best describes the wine industry (being also a wine trend in the world as well as at European
level) but also has proven to be very successful from a cost-efficient point of view.
2. THE MARKETING MIX IN THE WINE INDUSTRY
Wine companies should clearly understand what implications of the marketing discipline exist
in the activity they perform, in order to compete effectively on a somewhat saturated wine
market. Only this way, a wine company can offer products that live up to the expectations of
those customers available and able to purchase. Currently there are operating (and not only for
Romania), wine companies which often prove to be inefficiently run by overwhelmed
managers, applying the same old strategies, uncalibrated to the market trends and which do not
incorporate marketing as a vital element in fulfilling the mission of that company. Several
Romanian wine industry entrepreneurs have no thorough training (specialty), their actions being
based primarily on ―experience made over time‖. Agricultural enterprises, in general in
Romania, do not have their own marketing department, its tasks being awarded to the General
Director (for small companies) or individuals designated to sell the company's products, but
without a thorough grounding in terms of marketing wines.
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Westling (2001) noted that most wine companies are geared more towards the production and
sale of wine, but the distribution represents only a part of the process of marketing. In a strict
sense of the term, many companies see in marketing only that part regarding the promotion,
i.e. elements that refer to: label design and other components used in the packaging, shelf
placement, representative agents at the counter, loyalty cards, dedicated tasting events etc.
Indeed, these are all very important elements of marketing applied to the wine sector, but
entrepreneurs‘ attention and efforts should not focus exclusively on them. In conclusion,
advertising or product distribution are not synonymous to marketing, the latter has a particular
reference to the knowledge of what must be produced. If, in our case there are identified the
customer‘s needs and products of high, proper quality wine are created, being distributed and
promoted effectively, these products will be sold very quickly. So the sale and promotion,
along with product and price, are components of a highly complex marketing mix.
The involvement of marketing practices in the wine business implies tackling a wide range of
activities, not just limiting to the process of placement of the product on the market. The
process of sale is therefore only a part of the marketing efforts that a contractor should make.
Peter Drucker goes further and states that ―the aim of marketing is to make selling
superfluous‖ (Kotler, 2009, p. 19). By this is meant that wine and everything related to it
(packaging, promotional activities, pricing, public relations, etc.) could be marketed very
effectively when the needs, desires, wishes and ambitions of the target market are known and
fulfilled. Only when this happens, the product will sell itself. The sale takes into attention the
transformation of the vine grower‘s product into cash, while marketing centres on consumer
satisfaction by providing the product itself (wine) and everything related to it.
Development and implementation of a marketing plan in the field of vineyard can be a long
and difficult process. The components of such a marketing plan are: marketing research and
segmentation, market targeting and positioning, marketing mix, budgeting, implementation
and control. The concern of the present study is directed toward the marketing mix. From the
perspective of ‗vine grower‘, marketing mix shows him how a wine (or an assortment of
wines) will be developed, quantified (at market prices), promoted and placed on the market.
On the other hand, marketing mix from a ‗consumer‘ perspective of grapevine products, it
shall send the following messages: value added or need satisfied (by product), cost sacrificed
(by price), information / the communication received (by promotion) and availability (by
placement).
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We can refer to McCarthy (1960) to describe the components of the marketing mix in the
traditional sense, i.e. the 4Ps expressed supra (i.e., Product, Price, Placement and Promotion).
Subsequently, various authors have extended the range with other items that they considered
necessary to describe the marketing mix in the current context, i.e. PR and political power
(Kotler, 1984), company personnel, physical evidence and Performance (Magrath , 1986) or
Packaging (Sin, 2006). Although these P's (though sometimes interpretable from our point of
view) are applied to a wide range of situations, it is not necessarily the case for wine
marketing, or at least this may have different connotations when used in combination with
wine product.
Hall and Mitchell (2008) demonstrate the complexity of the supply chain of wine and
introduce on the 8P specific to wine marketing, presented as different from the traditional 4Ps
of marketing. Thus, they present the following specific components of the marketing mix in
the wine industry: Product, Placement, Price, Promotion, Pack (packaging), Personal (human
resource), Planning, Positioning. Some items are sometimes very similar to traditional
marketing approaches, but in each case they were adapted to be directly applicable to
marketing in wine industry. For example, the fact that the Placement is related to production,
consumption and marketing of wine, this is a very important element thus having too many
connotations to be associated only to the traditional sense of marketing. A basic concept
associated with wine is terroir, the French term that aims to describe how all the elements
related to a particular place (natural and cultural) are combined in a manner that cannot be
replicated anywhere else. This is just one element that gives wine the complexity that it has
and that inspires its life, giving the wine its soul. Planning is often understood as part of
traditional marketing and many consider that actually this is all that marketing is about.
However, wine experience shows that marketing planning does not receive the attention that it
should. Although the marketing mix applicable in the wine sector borrows elements /
components of traditional marketing (e.g., product, promotion, etc.), it also incorporates or
reiterates coordinates specific to the sector.
3. THE PROMOTION POLICY – AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF THE
MARKETING MIX IN THE WINE INDUSTRY
The communication and promotion policy of a company includes a multitude of internal and
external measures acting on knowledge, conceptions and attitudes of market participants
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towards the organization performance (Bruhn, 1999, p. 213.). In the broad sense of the term,
communication policy includes not only market-oriented communication but also that
manifested inside the company.
In Munteanu's conception (2006, p. 367), promotion appears ―as a result of the
communication process‖. Since the communication process includes several components
(internal communication, marketing, recruiting, financial, political and local), the activity of
promoting the company‘s products and its image is affected mainly by marketing
communication. Promotion therefore appears as an element of communication and given its
importance and connection whole to a part, this is sometimes called ―promotional
communication‖. The goal of any promotion policy regardless of the nature of the industry in
which the company operates, is to influence directly or indirectly the purchasing attitude of the
target market. Or, as understood by Munteanu (2006), the role of promotion is to ―stimulate,
develop and guide the potential customer needs‖ (p. 368). This must inform, persuade or remind
the public about the products or services of a company. Given the increasing competition in the
market as a result of globalization, including the wine industry, the policy of promoting of a
company is, not infrequently, a very important strategic element that can ensure the success of
that company on the market, or it can guarantee failure.
Bruhn (1999) identifies five key phases in the development of communication policies in
companies: 1) the unsystematic communication phase (50s) characterized by a less significant
role of communication policy and a greater focus on supply, given the fact that it was melting
due to a very high demand; 2) the phase of product communication (60 years) was a period in
which policy of communication gained ground, this being required to support sales activities;
3) the phase of communication with target groups (70s) assumed that firms should address
differentiated to customers in the target group and to satisfy a specific need; 4) the
competitive communication phase (the 80s) in this phase being introduced communication to
mediate customers a unique form of USP, aiming at a delimitation of competition; 5)
integrated communication phase (the 90s) when communication becomes a success factor in
market competition, although communication conditions become more difficult. We can fill
this array with a new phase of communication (sixth), the one at level of art (the 2000s), when
companies use tools increasingly more sophisticated and adapted to audience and trends in the
online environment.
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The importance of the promotion policy in the current environment, one characterized by a
multitude of products both in industry and commerce, consists mainly of (Munteanu, 2006, p.
368): a) compensating factors leading to the decline in sales; b) the extension of product life
cycle; c) development of strategic and tactical objectives of the company.
The promotion activity can be quite expensive for a company, but when it is done properly, the
return on the investment can be very high. The challenge that these raise, consists in the
increased difficulty of measuring efficiency of special promotional strategy, and this especially
when market conditions are constantly changing and wine companies are forced to adapt and
reinvent themselves considering the promotion strategies adopted. There is a diversified
portfolio of promotional tools and techniques that wine companies can use, these being grouped
according to criteria such as: the advertised product, the objectives pursued or the means of
promoting (see Brostrom and Brostrom, 2009).
Hall and Mitchell (2008) provide a typology of the most important promotional tools used in
the wine industry starting from the concept of ―brand image agents‖ of wine. Wine, a complex
product, symbolic and very technical, is based on a mix of information and impressions when
its brand image is created. Brand image is, according to Stern, Zinkhan and Jaju (2001), an
abstract concept that incorporates the influences of promoting achieved in the past, the
reputation and the evaluation compared to the alternatives on the market. This information can
come from many sources, some of which can be controlled or influenced by the vineyard while
others are controlled by third parties. From these premises Hall and Mitchell (2008) are
starting their analysis when when looking ionto the formation of brand image agents of wine,
identifying three main categories of wine image agents (see, also, Gartner (1993) and MacKay
and Fesenmaier (1997)): a) induced - they are the result of a conscious effort of image
provided by the manufacturer of wine (at company level or regional level) which gives it total
control; b) autonomous - in this case, third parties provide information or impressions about
wine, these owning control; c) organic - sources of unbiased and reliable information (such as
acquaintances or friends who are knowledgeable about the wine in question).
4. WEB-MARKETING STRATEGIES IN THE WINE INDUSTRY
The Internet has made a significant contribution to the process of globalization and
geographical decoupling of producers and consumers. The latter are no longer constrained by
geographical limitations to meet, and trade relations between them can be summarized in a
single ‗click‘. Being one of the driving forces of globalization but also of ‗anonymisation‘, the
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Internet creates communication channels which can reduce the distance between two people,
but to a certain point.
In recent years, the Internet has evolved significantly from a simple means of information in a
complex mechanism of communication and relationship that some experts call ―social web‖
(Schindler and Liller, 2012). The most recent developments that internet has experienced are
related to social networks or ―social media‖. Producers, including those in the wine industry
are now forced to listen to the voices and opinions of consumers expressed through various
social networks, that if they want to thrive in the market or at least to survive. The evolution
in this area of the internet has its advantage for wine companies: they can easily collect
feedbacks of wine consumers and to adapt more quickly to their needs.
Although there are several definitions in the literature for social media, we stop at one that we
consider relevant to the wine industry. According to Thach (2009), social media refers to the
User Generated Content made available through web technologies and mobile devices that
allow people to communicate, to socialize, to recommend and create content. The most
relevant social media applications that wine companies have at their disposal, as part of web
marketing strategies, to develop the strategy of promoting wine products on the web, are: 1)
social networks like Facebook, Twitter and Tripadvisor; 2) wine blogs and web pages with
news in the field, such as: Vinography and Digg; 3) web pages for image management, such
as Flickr, Pinterest, and Instagram; 4) web pages for videos management (or vlogs), such as
YouTube and Vimeo; 5) mobile applications that allow users to inform the online
environment regarding the geographical location that is at a time and collect information or
discounts about the current location such as Foursquare, Foodspotting, RedLaser and
Shopkick; 6) The web pages where multiple users can work on a joint project by sharing
knowledge, such as Wikipedia, Google Documents, and DropBox.
Wine, unlike other assets, is a product very emotionally charged. Therefore, consumers of such a
product tend to have an opinion on the quality and attributes of wine and are willing, most times,
to share these opinions or beliefs with others. Transforming communication channels and
interactions that these generate could open new opportunities for the wine industry. Although it
is a complex product, unlike other more sophisticated goods and difficult to handle, wine is an
approachable product in terms of intuition and can be appreciated only by our full involvement
with all available senses.
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Currently, information is sought and taken up from the internet rather than using other media
channels, by an important segment of wine consumers, situation confirmed by the latest
statistics. Also in Romania, consumers increasingly use the Internet to get informed and the
percentages are similar to those recorded in other EU countries. Moreover, with the increasing
accessibility of various media and communication channels (gadgets that become cheaper
than comparable fixed stations), the percentages mentioned above will increase. Currently, in
Romania, on social networks the age category 25-54 years is 44%, notably higher than the
same category of users in countries such as Germany (38%), France (37%) and the UK (43%).
At EU level, from the total Internet users belonging to age group 18-34 years, about 80% are
active on social networks (Păduraru 2013).
Beery and Trela (2014) consider that to create a successful marketing campaign for a wine,
three conditions must be necessarily met: a) wine to be of good quality; b) the wine must have a
fascinating story behind that triggers and maintains consumer‘s passion; c) the wine must be
present on the internet, especially on different networks / social media channels. According to
them, most of wine consumers take their necessary information from the Internet. More than
65% of consumers who drink wine at least once a week and about 40% of those who drink wine
rarely seek information about wine on the Internet (Vino California, 2012). A clearer conclusion
than this cannot be drawn from here: web presence, including social media channels, is vital for
wine companies.
The above conclusion is supported by other studies. Newman (2010) found that more than
700,000 people view videos related to wine every month, there are over 7,000 of wine-related
tweets a day and there were created and distributed more than 300 iPhone applications for
wine. Breslin (2013) estimated that 90% of wine drinkers use Facebook more than six hours a
week and Google Analytics (2012) shows that wineries and cellars are the third subject in
terms of popularity on Pinterest. The number of wine blogs has increased significantly in the
last decade, with different points of view, and 20 top wine bloggers have a combined audience
larger than that of most popular wine magazine ―Wine Spectator‖ in the on-line (Quint, 2012).
Analyzing the specialized literature, Thach (2009) found that there was little evidence of
social media involvement and effects of channels in the wine industry two decades ago. Using
a qualitative methodology (content analysis), the aforementioned author analyzed over 200
wine blogs in the United States, eventually identifying nine main categories of wine blogs, the
most common being wine reviews and assessments by consumer bloggers. According to
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Yarrow (2008), in the year of the study, he counted about 560 blogs in English and more than
160 blogs in other languages. Four years later, the same author has recorded more than 1,200
blogs in English (Yarrow, 2012), demonstrating the rise of this means of online
communication as a tool for information and promotion (personal, for bloggers or wine
critics, or wine companies). Also Vrana et al. (2012) conducted an analysis of wine blogs and
identified two main categories of such media channels: on the one hand, he noticed a group of
several blogs fewer in number but more popular (by number of visits and recommendations), on
the other hand, was found a second group consisting of peripheral blogs whose readers did not
return or not recommended information posted.
Burgundy wine producers appeal to the online community to increase brand communication
and contact with the consumers. Pellets and Lecat (2011) conducted a qualitative study on
Burgundy wine producers that has shown that online communities can manifest negative
experiences regarding consumer behaviour, given the inability of members to see the product.
And online communities represent one of the six factors of trust, which, if satisfied, can
significantly increase online sales of wine for a wine company wine (Init, 2010).
Giraud-Héraud et al. (2001) emphasizes that the purchase and consumption of wine is based
on an intensive exchange of information, information that refers not only to the tangibility of
the product, but also the symbols, traditions, culture, tourism, gastronomy etc. In this respect,
using the Internet as a technique to promote a wine company could significantly increase the
perceived value of wine. Given this considerable advantage, in 2000, more than 13,000 web
pages were offering the opportunity to purchase the wine in the online environment, wine
being at the moment in the top ranking relating to food and drinks sold on the internet. In their
study, the authors pose the problem of developing new business relationships using
applications that are based on Internet.
Duquesnois and Gurău (2008) developed a model (see Figure 1), taking into account the
French example, which demonstrates the importance of online marketing strategy to gain
experience value perceived by consumers in the wine industry.
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Figure 1 The value creation process in the web marketing of wine
Source: own realization after Duquesnois and Gurău (2008)
As can be seen in the figure above, the marketing approach of most wine companies, small
and medium, that want to stand out and position themselves in a particular niche market, is
centered on brand reputation, high quality wine and offers of great value. This marketing
approach is perfectly suited to an interactive online strategy. On the other hand, the consumer
of wine, in search of unique consumer experiences, manifests a combination of individual
needs, motivation and implication. Value creation process in this case involves the interplay
between wine producer and consumer of wine, interaction that can be facilitated by the online
environment (characterized, in turn, by the global presence, interactivity and relationship or
networking). Internet allows thus meeting the two parties (producer and consumer) and the
exchange of information between them but also the integration of specific items to viticulture
industry such as direct marketing, relational marketing and wine tourism.
Analyzing the successful web marketing strategies in the online environment for more wine
companies worldwide, some of them stand out from the crowd. Thus Stormhoek
(http://www.stormhoek.com/) is one of the premium wine producers in South Africa with
origins in the famous wine regions of the Western Cape. This company uses a combination of
blogging, viral marketing, video posted on YouTube, cartoons and conventional marketing
tools, and coupons used in Threshers (the largest independent retailer of alcoholic beverages
in the UK).
Stormhoek contacted wine bloggers, over 21 years, and with at least three months of
experience in blogging and have been asked if they wish to receive a bottle of wine. The
company has not expressed any obligation for the bloggers to write a comment for wine.
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However, six months later more than 100 bloggers have published reviews about the wine
received and they mentioned the wine on blogs all over the world. Subsequently, Stormhoeck
hosted a series of dinners with wine tasting included in the UK, Spain and the United States to
encourage personal interaction with bloggers and potential customers. The effect consisted of
an increase in wine sales from 50,000 boxes to 300,000 boxes per year. In addition, Microsoft
has contracted Stormhoek to create a wine especially for its 79,000 employees from 102
countries (Resnick, 2008).
Another wine company called Fat Bastard (http://www.fatbastard.com) produces premium
wines and uses humour to promote its products. The company's website promotes exactly that
and claims to be one not so pretentious but wine consumers are able to express online their
own stories and join the community ―fat bastards". Also, the online marketing of this
company enables consumers to purchase wine using the online platform, listening to ads of
wines etc.
Constellation Brands (http://www.cbrands.com/) is an international manufacturer of wine,
beer and spirits with operational points in the USA, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand and Italy.
Being one of the largest wine companies in the world, Constellation Brands treated with great
seriousness the applicability of social media strategy for promoting, reason why they
established a digital marketing division. Thus, they were able in recent years to place
strategically their wine brands on different social media platforms. For example, only
Facebook has currently 27 brands for which they received 3.3 million ―likes‖, the latter being
correlated with an increase in retail wine sales exceeding $ 41 million. In addition, they
implemented several online promotions and mobile coupons. For example, the online
promotion of wine brand Woodbridge led to an increase in retail sales of 127%. Another
example is the partnership they have with the developers of the application ―Shopkick‖, app
that consumers access when they are in a shop. This partnership has led to access by 214,000
wine consumers of the application, which has led to increased purchases by 12.5% and
amplification of revenue by $ 222,000 (Breslin, 2013).
CONCLUSIONS
Wine is a complex commodity, almost enigmatic. Like a diamond, it has several facets: provider
of a subsistence living but also luxury item, well paired with a healthy but excessive
consumption can lead to perdition, symbol of status in society and a drink of rural origin
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produced with a huge load religious and cultural symbols but which may be associated
simultaneously with hedonistic and depraved behaviour, an element of fashion, experiences and
cargo alike. Precisely from the product‘s complexity derives the high degree of sophistication of
research in wine domain and also the novelty of the formalities made. In this context, marketing
wines (as a sub-domain of wine economics) can be very effective for a winery and can help it
compete effectively in a somewhat saturated wine market. The present paper has shown how
important it is for wine producers to understand the layout of a marketing strategy and the
implications and opportunities in its implementation in the activity they perform.
Regardless of the configuration of promotional mix or promotional tools portfolio of a company
the policy to promote the latter is designed to present the enterprise, its products and services on
the one hand, and on the other to cause a series of favourable changes in mentality and
consumption habits of customers. To note is the fact that the success of promotion of efficient
policy is conditioned by compliance with the following requirements: be strong enough, to be
attractive and credible. The force of promotion policy will ensure the manifestation of a
relationship of authority to the target audience, its attractiveness will allow the consumer to
distinguish the multitude of posts on the market and its credibility will determine the
acceptability from the public as a result of the calibration of content promotion policy to
consuming society's value system.
There is currently available to entrepreneurs in the wine domain, a wide range of techniques and
promotional tools, each of them having a reach and a certain ability to communicate various
aspects of the wine to consumer, but a special technique differs from all others by efficiency
and the cost-benefits report that brings to a wine company, namely social-media, a trend at a
global lever and European regarding the wine industry promotional techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was co-financed from the European Social Fund through the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013, project number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134197 „Performance and excellence in doctoral and postdoctoral research in
Romanian economics science domain‖.
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REFERENCES
1. Beery, C., Trela, B. (2014), ―Using Social Media to Market Your Winery‖, article
available at https://www.extension.org/pages/70457/.
2. Breslin, K. (2013), ―Presentation on Constellation Digital Marketing in 2012‖, San
Francisco, CA, November.
3. Brostrom, G., Brostrom, J. (2009), The business of wine : An encyclopedia. Greenwood
Press, Westport, SUA.
4. Bruhn, M. (1999), Marketing, Editura Economică, Iaşi.
5. Duquesnois, F., Gurău, C. (2008), ―The Internet marketing strategy of French wine
producers from Languedoc-Roussillon region‖, 4th International Conference of the
Academy of Wine Business Research, Siena, 17-19 July.
6. Giraud-Héraud, E., Soler, L.-G.,Tanguy, H. (2001), ―Internet et la distribution de biens
physique. Analyse de l‘émergence de nouvelles structures verticales dans le secteur du
vin‖, Revue économique, 52, pp. 213-232.
7. Hall, C.M., Mitchell, R. (2008), Wine Marketing: A practical guide. Butterworth-
Heinemann, Oxford, UK.
8. Hemingway, E. (1932), Death in the Afternoon, Scribner Book Company.
9. INIT (2010), ―Comment votre site Internet construit de la confiance‖, INIT Etudes
Marketing et Capital Client, article available at: http://www.init-marketing.fr.
10. Kotler, P. (1984), ―Rethink the marketing concept – there are 6 Ps not 4‖, Marketing News
18(19).
11. Kotler, P., Keller, K.L. (2009), Marketing management, 13rd edition, Prentice-Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ.
12. Magrath, A. (1986), ―When marketing services, 4 Ps are not enough‖, Business Horizons 29(3),
44-50.
13. McCarthy, J.E. (1960), Basic Marketing: A Managerial Approach. Richard D. Irwin,
Homewood.
14. Munteanu, V.A (2006), Marketing: ştiinţa şi arta afacerilor, Editura Tipo Moldova, Iaşi.
15. Newman, K. (2010), ―How Wine Lovers Use Social Media: Wine and social media have
created an incredible force within the industry‖, Wine Enthusiast, 3.
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16. Păduraru, C. (2013), ―Promovarea prin social media si spatiul virtual‖, în Studiu privind
promovarea produselor viti-vinicole prin intermediul unor instituţii moderne de
specialitate, unpublished thesis, Bucharest.
17. Pelet, J.E., Lecat, B. (2011), ―Can Digital Social Networks enhance the online selling of
Burgundy wine?‖, article presented at the 6th AWBR International Conference, Bordeaux.
18. Quint, B.R. (2010), ―Wine Education Network - Market Enablers - Information Overload‖,
article available at http://www.linkedin.com/groups/Market-Enablers-Information-
Overload.
19. Resnick, E. (2008), Wine Brands, Success Strategies for New Markets, New Consumers
and New Trends, Palgrave MacMillan.
20. Schindler, M.C., Liller, T. (2012), PR im Social Web, O'Reilly Verlag, Köln.
21. Sin, C.Y. (2006), ―10Ps of the marketing mix‖, The Star Online, n.p.
22. Stern, B.M., Zinkhan, G.M., Jaju, A. (2001), ―Marketing images‖, Marketing Theory 1(2), 201-
224.
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24. Thach, L. (2009), ―Wine 2.0 – The next phase of wine marketing? Exploring US winery
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28. Yarrow, A. (2012), ―The Complete List of Wine Blog‘s‖, article available at
http://www.vinography.com/wine_blog_list.html#top.
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THE ACCOUNTING AND FISCAL TREATMENT OF PROVISIONS AND THE
IMPACT ON FINANCIAL AND ACCOUNTING INFORMATION
Nicolae-Bogdan Velicescu, PhD, University of Economic Studies, Bucharest
Abstract: In the following pages of this article, I present a study whose main objective is
analysis of how the companies record their provisions or adjustments for impairment of
inventories, tangible and doubtful debts. According pt. 56 in Accounting Regulations in
accordance with Directive IV of the European Economic Community approved by the
Ministry of Public Finance 3055/2009 amended and supplemented, assessment of all assets is
made at the lower of net realizable value and market value. Based on the above provisions of
the Order will consider a number of entities, both (micro income tax payers and profit tax
payers). In doing so we took into account the information provided by financial statements for
2013 sampled companies and their trend in 2014.
Keywords: accounting treatments, tax treatments, provisions, accounting policies.
Potrivit O.M.F.P. 3055/2009 cu modificările și completările ulterioare provizioanele
sunt destinate să acopere datoriile a caror natura este clar definită și care la data bilanțului este
probabil să existe, sau este cert că vor exista, dar care sunt incerte din punct de vedere al
valorii sau al datei la care vor aparea.
Pentru ca un provizion sa fie recunoscut la data bilanțului trebuie sa fie indeplinite
cumulativ următoarele trei condiții:
- societatea are o obligație curenta generată de un eveniment anterior;
- este probabil să fie necesară o ieșire de resurse pentru a onora obligația respectivă
- poate fi realizată o estimare credibilă a valorii obligației.
Provizionele se constituie pentru următoarele elemente:
- litigii, amenzi, penalități, despăgubiri, daune și alte datorii incerte;
- cheltuielile legate de activitatea de service în perioada de garanție și alte cheltuieli
privind garanția acordată clienților;
- acțiuni de restructurare;
- pensii și obligații similare;
- dezafectarea imobilizărilor corporale și alte acțiuni similare legate de acestea;
- impozite;
- prime ce urmeaza a se acorda personalului din profitul realizat, potrivit prevederilor
legale sau contractuale;
- alte provizioane.
Contabilitatea provizioanelor se ține pe feluri, în funcție de natura, scopul, sau obiectul
pentru care au fost constituite.
Provizioanele trebuie sa fie strict corelate cu riscurile și cheltuielile estimate.
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Pentru a stabili existența unei obligații curente la data bilanțului trebuie să se ia in
considerare toate informațiile disponibile. Determinarea costurilor necesare stingerii obligației
existente la data bilanțului reprezintă estimarea realistă a sumei de bani pe care societatea ar
trebui să o plătească în vederea achitării obligatiei.
Provizionele reprezintă, de fapt, o actualizare a valorii elementelor din bilanț pentru a
fi prezentate în situațiile finanaciare la o valoare cât mai aproape de valorea reală, valoarea de
piață, respectiv, valoarea justă. Însă și provizioanele trebuie actualizate prin ajustări atunci
cand efectul valorii – timp a banilor este semnificativ. Actualizarea provizioanelor se face, de
regulă, de catre specialiști. Rata de actualizare reprezintă evaluarea curentă de piață a valorii –
timp a banilor și a riscurilor specifice datoriei.
Provizioanele se vor utiliza numai pentru scopul inițial pentru care au fost
recunoscute.
Constituirea unui provizion înseamnă recunoașterea în contabilitate unei cheltuieli.
Suplimentarea valorii provizionului reprezinta tot o cheltuială. Diminuarea sau anularea
completă presupune recunoașterea unui venit. Din punct de vedere fiscal, aceste cheltueili cu
provizioanele, respectiv veniturile legate de acestea pot fi deductibile sau nedeductibile, ceea
ce înseamna ca ele pot influența profitul fiscal, respectiv impozitul pe profit.
Provizioanele se evaluează la fiecare termen de plată al impozitului pe profit, iar
tratamentul fiscal al acestora este prevăzut în Codul fiscal și în normele de aplicare.
Din punct de vedere fiscal, entitățile își pot deduce cheltuielile cu provizioanele doar
in anumite condiții în conformitate cu art. 22 din Legea nr. 571/2003 coroborată cu Hotărărea
de Guvern nr. 44/2004 cu modificările și completările ulterioare și cu Normele Metodologice
de aplicare și anume:
- provizioanele pentru garanții de bună execuție acordate clienților, care trebuie sa se
constituie trimestrial numai pentru bunurile livrate, lucrările executate, și serviciile prestate în
cursul trimestrului respectiv pentru care se acordă garanție în perioadele următoare, la nivelul
procentelor prevăzute în contracte încheiate cu clienții respectivi. Aceste provizioane se
anulează pe măsura executării lucrărilor și expirării perioadei de garanție.
- provizioanele specifice, constituite de instituțiile financiare nebancare țnscrise in
Registrul general al BNR, de instituțiile de plată, persoane juridice romane, care acordă
credite legate de serviciile de plată, persoanele juridice, administratori de fonduri de pensii
facultative respectiv administratori care furnizează pensii private își pot deduce la calculul
impozitului pe profit provizioanele tehnice constituite în baza dispozițiilor Legii nr. 411/2004
republicată cu modificările și completările ulterioare, respectiv în baza prevederilor Legii nr.
204/2006 cu modificările și completările ulterioare;
- provizioanele de risc pentru operațiunile pe piețele financiare, constituite conform
reglementărilor Comisiei Naționale a Valorilor Mobiliare;
- provizioanele constituite în limita unui procent de 100% din valoarea creanțelor
asupra clienților, înregistrate de către contribuabili, care îndeplinesc cumulativ urmatoarele
condiții:
- sunt înregistrate după data de 01.01.2007;
- creanta este detinută la o persoana juridică asupra căreia este declarată procedura de
deschidere a falimentului, pe baza hotărârii judecătorești care confirmă aceasta situație;
- nu sunt garantate de către o altă persoană;
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- sunt datorate de o persoană care nu este persoană afiliată societătii;
Dupa cum se poate observa deductibilitatea acestor provizioane este limitată, iar acest
lucru face ca multe companii să nu înregistreze niciun fel de provizion, înrucat în cazul în care
sunt nedeductibile aceste provizione diminuează profitul, respectiv, capitalul societății,
conducănd în final la scăderea interesului utilizatorilor de informații asupra entității analizate.
Cu toate că în aparență provizioanele reprezintă cheltuieli ―fictive‖ , iar reluarea
acestora venituri ―fictive‖, ele au rolul de a actualiza valoarea elementelor din bilanț în
vederea prezentării unei imagini fidele a situației financiare a enitității, lucru care contribuie
la realizarea unei analize cât mai reale din partea utilizatorilor informatiilor situatiilor
financiare.
În practica întâlnită marea majoritate a firmelor nu constituie provizioane din diferite
motive:
- din cauza deductibilității limitate a acestora;
- lipsei procedurilor și politicilor contabile concrete care să stabilească, pe fiecare
element de bilanț, valoarea cea mai apropiată de valoarea reală de piață.
- faptul că aceastea afectează profitul exercițiului financiar încheiat,
Pentru realizarea obiectivelor s-au analizat situațiile financiare a 50 microîntreprinderi,
însă nu au fost identificate provizioane constituite în situațiile financiare ale niciunei entități
supuse analizei. Așa cum s-a menționat și în cele de mai sus, pentru a înregistra corect
provizioanele trebuie implementate în sistemul informațional al societăților politici și
proceduri adecvate. Într-adevar au fost identificate societăți care au inregistrat clienți incerți la
data bilanțului, dar care nu au constituit provizioane pentru acest tip de creanțe, probabil
datorită existenței unor promisiuni dacă nu scrise, măcar verbale din partea acestor clienți,
cum ca isi vor achita datoriile față de creditorii săi.
În situația microîntreprinderilor, acestea aplică un sistem de impozitare a veniturilor,
iar valoarea cheltuielilor ocazionate de constituirea provizioanelor nu afectează baza de
impozitare a veniturilor, indiferent daca sunt sau nu deductibile, iar veniturile din anularea
provizioanelor nu sunt incluse în baza de impozitare. În acest caz tratamentul fiscal este
acelasi cu cel contabil pentru provizioane.
În cazul firmelor care aplică sistemul de impozitare pe profit, tratamentul fiscal este
diferit de cel contabil, iar deductibilitatea provizioanelor, în calculul impozitului pe profit este
limitată, așa cum s-a aratat și în cele de mai sus. De exemplu cele mai întalnite provizioane
sunt cele legate de creanțele incerte, la care legiuitorul a prevăzut că sunt deductibile la
calculul impozitului pe profit doar acele provizioane care îndeplinesc cumulativ condițiile:
sunt înregistrate dupa data de 01.01.2007, creanța este deținută la o persoana juridică asupra
careia este declarata procedura de deschidere a falimentului, pe baza hotărârii judecătorești
care confirma aceasta situație, nu sunt garantate de către o altă persoană, sunt datorate de o
persoană care nu este persoană afiliata societății; ori în momentul în care o instanța a declarat
deschisă procedura de faliment a unei entități, deja este foarte tarziu pentru companie să își
recupereze creanța. Considerăm că dacă entitatea poate face dovada că a facut toate
demersurile necesare în vederea recuperării creanțelor, însă nu a primit niciun raspuns
favorabil din partea debitorilor și a procedat la constituirea provizionelor pentru aceste
creanțe, atunci cheltuielile aferente s-ar putea considera deductibile la calculul impozitului pe
profit.
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În ceea ce privește activele fixe in spetă imobilizările corporale, acestea trebuie
reevaluate la data bilanțului pentru a fi inregistrate la o valoare cat mai aproape de valoarea de
piată. Din punct de vedere fiscal pentru terenuri si cladiri daca nu se face o reevaluare o data
cel putin la 3 ani procentul de impozitare la bugetul local creste, asadar societatile sunt
interesate sa faca aceasta reevaluare pentru a nu plati mai mult. In conditiile actuale cand piata
imobiliara cel putin in ultimii ani nu a fluctuat foarte mult, intervalul de timp dintre reevaluari
nu afecteaza semnificativ valoarea reala a imobilizarilor.
Constituirea provizioanelor privind stocurile tebuie sa aiba o documentatie foarte bine
pusa la punct. Evidenta stocurilor este destul de delicata in cadrul firmelor intrucat acest lucru
presupune o situatie cantitativ valorica pe vechime a cestora. Din pacate din practica intalnita
foarte putine firme au aceasta evidenta si nu pot sa faca aceste provizioane pentru stocuri.
In fapt rolul provizioanelor este acela de a corecta, de actualiza valoarea elementelor
din bilant pentru a fi aduse la o valoarea cat mai aproape de valoarea de piata si au un rol
hotărator in prezentarea unei imagini fidele.
BIBLIOGRAFIE: OMFP 3055/2009 cu modificările si completările ulterioare;
Legea 571/2003 republicată cu modificările si completările ulterioare;
www.mfinante.ro
http://tribunaeconomica.ro/blog/?p=1041
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AUDIT EVIDENCE IN MIMINIZING THE FINANCIAL AUDIT RISK
Viorel-Horaţiu Rotaru, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Lumina” University of South East
Europe
Abstract: This paper describes one relevant and critical chapter of the financial audit, the
audit evidence, and its role from conducting a financial audit to the final part, the audit
report that contains the opinion expressed by the financial auditor and its responsibility.
I presented the financial audit evidence and expressed my opinion on the relevance of the
audit evidence determining a scale of the most relevant and helpful evidence to the level of the
audit evidence that contains less quality.
The key of success in my opinion is not only in gathering as many audit evidence as possible,
is reflected by the financial auditors judgment in using qualitative evidence at a sufficient
level of quantity, also taking into concern that time is limited in conducting a financial audit.
Keywords: audit risk, audit evidence, evidence quality, evidence quantity, financial audit
standards.
1. Introduction regarding financial audit evidence
The foundation of every financial audit is represented by probative information
gathered and assessed by the auditor. The auditor must have necessary knowledge and
aptitude in order to collect sufficient and solid audit evidence in order to conform to the
standards that define his / her profession as a hole. In this paper, I shall present the decisions
that auditors embrace regarding audit evidence, the evidence at financial auditor‘s disposal
and the way this evidence is used in certain financial audit.
The audit evidence is defined as any information used by the financial auditor in
order to determine if the data of the audit is presented according with particular preset
criteria. Probative information is very different according with the degree that convinces the
financial auditor regarding the financial situations meets the requirements of Generally
Accepted Audit Standards. The audit evidence represent the whole set of information used by
the financial auditor in order to achieve the conclusions his / her opinion is based, containing
both information gathered from accounting and also that represented the fundamentals of
elaborating the financial situations (transactions / economic operation, trial balance) and also
other relevant information regarding with the financial situations1.
The technique of gathering probative information is not a method that characterizes
financial audit, and although it was imported from other majors, it has become of relevant
importance and typical characteristics of the financial auditor‘s profession. In this context, in
planning and selecting an auditing technique of financial situations, the most troublesome
1
Borthick, A. F. and J. E. Kiger, Designing audit procedures when evidence is electronic, Issues In Accounting Education,
2009
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
aspect is represented by gathering and adequate quantity of audit evidence, with minimal
costs and without disturbing the normal flow of developing the economic activity of the
entity.
The International Audit Standards highlight that audit evidence are necessary in order
to prove the credibility of management‘s assertions contained in the financial situations.
Hence, with his / her professional knowledge and available methods, the financial auditor
collects audit evidence in developing his / her whole activity, evidence that must be adequate
in order to express an audit opinion regarding the audited company.
Audit evidence used in the financial audit represent the aggregate of information
used by the financial auditor in order to present a conclusion that the audit opinion reflects
and includes all the information contained in accounting registries that are reflect in the
financial statements. Financial audit evidence is considered any document or statement
obtained by the auditor in developing his / her activity and is relevant to the financial auditor
in obtaining a reasonable opinion.
One can mention that the financial auditor can use a large and variable set of probative
information of different pattern, such as oral statements of the client or of a third party,
written discussion with third parties and the financial auditor‘s own remarks. Accounting
Invoices Control test and
substantial tests of
Contracts operation
Journal Registry
Inventory Registry Analytical
Audit procedures
Adjustment Evidence
transactions General information
Trial Ballance
according with Assessment of
IAS internal control and
Financial audit
Statements
according with Audit folders
IAS
registries usually gather audit evidence such as: initial transaction registration and supporting
documents, invoices, contracts, journal registry, financial statements accommodation that are
not reflected in the financial transactions and other documents ( such as: spread sheets that
justify cost allocation, calculus, reconciliations and information presentation).
2. The quality and quantity of audit evidence within the financial audit
framework
In order to express an audit opinion, the financial auditor examines all the available
information because the conclusions can be obtained using sampling and other methods of
selecting the elements to be tested. It is necessary that the auditor to rely on audit evidence
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
that is more persuasive rather than conclusive2. In the stage of the audit that the financial
auditor assets the quantity and quality of audit evidence and therefor the degree of sufficiency
and pertinence the financial auditor uses the professional judgment and skepticism. The origin
of the audit evidence is presented in Figure no. 1 – Origin of financial audit evidence:
Figure no. 1 – Origin of financial audit evidence
Any financial auditor has to take a major decision regarding audit evidence, meaning
to assess the types and quantity that must be gathered in order to conclude that the financial
statements of a client are fairly presented. The importance of this judgment is determined by
the prohibitive cost of examination and the assessment of every possible probative
information.
According with their nature, audit evidence can be:
a) Obtained from accounting documents (invoices, contracts, accounting journals
and so on) by applying different audit procedures;
b) Obtained from other sources (prior audit engagements, imposed procedures of
quality control system, and so on);
The credibility of collected audit evidence is appreciated according with their
internal or external origin, their written or oral nature, and the circumstances they were
obtained:
External audit evidence (for example a third party confirmation) are more
credible than the evidence generated internally;
Internal audit evidence are more reliable when the internal control and
accounting system are functional;
Audit evidence gathered exclusively by the auditor are more reliable than the
ones the entity presents;
Written audit evidence such as written documents are more reliable than oral
statements.
The two factors that determine the credibility of the audit evidence are the
appropriateness and the sufficiency.
The appropriateness of the audit evidence represents the extent the probative
information can be considered plausible or trustful. If the audit evidence is considered very
trustworthy this fact contributes very much to the financial auditor‘s belief that the financial
statements present a fair image. For example if the financial auditor would take stock of
inventory himself / herself it is a more trustworthy probative information rather than the
warehouse operative of the entity is providing data regarding inventory.
The appropriateness of the audit evidence cannot be improved by selecting a larger
test sample or by choosing other elements of the whole set of analyzed data. The probative
information must be related only a certain audit objective in order to be reliable and
must meet a set of characteristics such as3:
a. The external audit evidence is more reliable than the one collected from
within of the entity; for example external probative information as bank reports,
2
Sanchez, M. H., K. F. Brown C. P. Agoglia, Consideration of control environment and fraud risk: A set of instructional
exercises. Journal of Accounting Education, 2012
3
Viorel Horaţiu Rotaru, Audit evidence, a strong argument in assessing conclusions regarding audit opinion, Analele
Universităţii din Craiova Seria Ştiinţe Economice, 2008
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
lawyers or clients / customer are considered more reliable than the answers given
by management interrogation of audited entity; in the same context, the financial
documents that originate from outside the audited organization are considered
more reliable that the ones generated from within the company and that never left
the audited entity.
b. Audit evidence collected directly by the financial auditor, physical
examination, calculus and inspection are more reliable than the probative
information obtained indirectly; for example if the financial auditor assets the
gross margin as a percent of incomes and compares the data with the prior
periods the audit evidence obtained is more reliable than that case where the
financial auditor takes into consideration only the assessment generated by the
accounting department of audited entity;
c. Audit evidence is more reliable if the person that provides information is
qualified to do so, even if that authority is independent; therefore, statements
received form lawyers and bank acknowledgement, usually, a more trustful
information than the acknowledgment of commercial receivables by persons that
are not familiar with the economic environment;
d. The opportunity of audit evidence can regard the moment when the
probative information is collected or the period the financial audit refers to;
Usually, the audit evidence regarding balance accounts are more reliable if
collected as close as possible to the period of financial statements presentation;
regarding profit or loss account, the audit evidence is more reliable if there is a
sample that covers the whole period of financial audit and if the sampling
contains elements belonging only to a segment of this period.
The sufficiency of audit evidence is linked with the quantity of audit evidence to
be achieved. The sufficiency of probative information is determined by the size of sampling
selected by the financial auditor. For an audit procedure, audit evidence collected of a sample
of 1.000 elements is more sufficient than evidence collected of a sample of 500 elements.
Many factors influence the adequate character of sampling dimensions used in the
financial audit. The two most important factors are the errors that the financial auditor
expects to find and the efficiency of the internal control of the entity.
The credibility of audit evidence can be assessed only after a combined analysis of
appropriateness and sufficiency, taking in accounts the impact of factors that influence
these two characteristics. A large sample of audit evidence supplied by a party or and
independent person is not concluding only if it is relevant the financial audit tested objective.
A large sample that is relevant, but does not represent the objective of the financial audit is to
be considered inconclusive. In the same context, a reduced sample of only two elements that
are very reliable is not to be concluding.
The financial auditor must assess the extent that both trustworthy and sufficiency
criteria and that all the factors that influence these two characteristics have been evaluated
according with the assessment of concluding audit evidence.
In conclusion, in the process of decision taking regarding audit evidence the financial
auditor must take in consideration both the credibility and the involved costs. The
purpose of the audit professional is to obtain a sufficient quantity of reliable audit evidence
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at the lowest possible cost. Yet, the cost is never a justification for excluding a necessary
procedure or insufficient sampling.
3. Types of audit evidence and their relevance to the financial audit
The types of audit evidence represent another relevant aspect. In the process of
decision regarding the audit procedure that must be used, the financial professional choses
between two types of audit evidence4. Figure no. 2 – Essential techniques regarding
financial audit procedures presents the methods that and financial auditor can chose
regarding financial audit procedures.
1 Documentation
2 Physical examination
3 Detection
4 Inquiry
5 Confirmation
6 Recalculation
7 Reperformance
8 Revision (verification)
9 Analytical procedures
Figure no. 2 – Essential techniques regarding financial audit procedures
3.1. Documentation (inspection of documents or economic transaction registration)
Documentation represents the inspection of accounting registries (financial and
managerial accounting) regarding performed transactions or operations and of the documents
that support them (paper or electronic format), in order to collect audit evidence with different
degree of credibility with the objective of justifying the information that is presented or
should be presented in the financial statements.
This financial audit technique is widely used in any audit because it is easy accessible
to the auditor at a law cost. In some situations, it represents the only reasonable type of
probative information at the financial auditor‘s disposal.
In order for this technique to be reliable, the auditor should take in consideration the
source of the documents, either internal or external. An internal document is one elaborated
and used in the entity and is archived without being seen by persons outside the entity (copies
of invoices, timekeeping sheet and inventory notes). An external document represents a
document that has been in the possession of a third party, outside the entity and in the present
is archived in the audited company. In some cases, external documents are generated outside
the audited entity and finally are archived by the audited company‘s employees (acquisition
invoices, bank reports, insurance policies)
4
Pae, S., S. Yoo, Strategic interaction in auditing: An analysis of auditors' legal liability, internal control system quality,
and audit effort. The Accounting Review, 2010
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External documents are considered more reliable audit evidence in comparison
with internal documents, due to their external possession, the third parties involved in the
commercial transaction and to the agreement, the entity and third parties have settled
regarding the information reflected in them is authentic.
3.2. Physical examination
Represents the verification of the assets, bringing credible audit evidence especially
regarding the asset‘s existence. This audit technique brings a reduced level of assurance
regarding entity‘s rights and obligations regarding certain assets but confirms the existence
audit objective and considered one of the most reliable and advantageous type of audit
evidence.
This type of audit evidence is associated with inventory or treasury liquidities but also
applies to stock certificates, commercial papers, and corporal assets.
Generally, the physical examination represents an objective method to determine
both quantity and the asset’s characteristics. In some cases, it represents a facile method to
assess the quality and state of an asset, yet this audit technique is not sufficient to determine if
the assets are the property of the audited company and in many cases, the financial auditor is
not sufficiently qualified to assess qualitative factors such as authenticity or degree of
obsolescence.
3.3. Detection
Represents using certain senses in order to assess certain activities. Along a financial
audit there, are many opportunities to appeal hearing, seeing, touching, or tasting in order to
appreciate certain elements. For example, the auditor might visit a facility to make an
impression regarding production assets of the audited company, to observe it the assets are
rusty, to determine if they are depreciated irreversibly or to observe the employees that
exercise accounting functions in order to determine if a person was settled a certain task;
another example is represented by stock taking by employees of the audited company.
This type of audit evidence is rarely sufficient by itself due to the risk that the
employees of the client, implied in the set activities to be aware of the financial auditor‘s
presence and needs supplementary confirmation obtained by the auditor (data or documents of
accounting transactions, other information). Therefore, the employees could have the
tendency to accomplish their tasks according with the company policy and to get back to the
normal activities as soon as the financial auditor has disappeared out of sight. That is why it is
necessary the first impressions to be collaborated with other audit evidence types.
Inspection and detection are two terms that many times can be considered as identical,
but from the point of view of financial audit, it is necessary to differentiate them, inspection
referring to documents or assets and detection referring to processes (transactions).
3.4. Inquiry
Inquiry represents gaining information (financial and non-financial) of persons with
competence and experience situated in the audited entity or external to the company, in a
written form (official) to oral, verbal questioning (unofficial).
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Despite a large volume of audit evidence can be gathered from the client by inquiry,
usually, this technique cannot be considered concluding because the obtained information
do not represent an independent source and can be manipulated in favor of the audited
entity. Therefore, when the auditor wishes to gather audit evidence by inquiring it is also
necessary to collect a set of supplementary probative information using other methods.
Generally, the inquiry does not offer sufficient audit evidence and is not sufficient for
internal control testing.
3.5. Confirmation
Confirmation is a specific type of inquiry and describes the receipt of a written or
oral answer from a third party, independent, confirming the accuracy of information
requested by the auditor. The request to answer is made in the name and for the client, and
the client requests an independent third party to answer to the financial auditor. Because the
confirmation comes from independent sources, they represent a much-appreciated type of
probative information and many times used. Though, obtaining confirmation is relatively
expensive and can have certain inconvenient for those that are asked to offer information,
Therefore, this type of audit evidence are not used in any situation where they could be
applied. Due to high reliability of confirmations, the financial auditors seek to obtain written
answers rather than verbal answers; written acknowledgments are easier to verify by superiors
and offer a better justification in the situation of proving that an acknowledgment was
received.
This type of technique is frequently used regarding balance accounts and their content,
but must not be limited only to these elements; confirmations are also used for obtaining audit
evidence regarding the existence or inexistence of certain conditions (transactions,
documents) such as the absence of a contract that can influence the recognition of some
incomes.
3.6. Reperformance
Reperformance represents the application of procedures and controls the entity has
applied initially in its internal control, independently by the auditor, manually or using
computer assisted audit techniques (CAAT).
Because the financial auditor verifies directly with these type of audit evidence the
reliability of the internal control system, reperforming is perceived with a high degree of
credibility.
3.7. Recalculation
Recalculation represents the verification of mathematical accuracy of information
contained in documents or accounting registered transactions, being applied by using IT
(obtaining some files or database, the use of CAAT) and assumes the revision of a sample
piece of calculus and information transfer accomplished by the audited entity during the
financial audit period.
Recalculation aligns in procedures such as merchandise calculus of income invoices
and inventory evidence, calculus of totals written in journals and analytical registries and
verification of the mean of assessing irreversible depreciation costs and future expenses. The
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
recompose of information transfer represents to re-establish the pathway of certain amounts in
order to achieve the conclusion that, where the same information is mentioned in other
registries, the same amount is registered every time.
3.8. Revision (verification)
Revision represents the process that analyses and verifies accounting data in order to
identify situation important or unusual. This procedure implies the identification of
irregularities (values, content) of the existent of balance account or of other amounts
presented in the financial statements; it includes identification of unusual transactions (of
great value) of the registered accounting transactions and the verification / analyzing of data
(operations) regarding certain categories of expenses (usual or unusual).
Revision (verification) is used according with the analytical procedures but as a sole
procedure, being applied either manually or by using computer assisted audit techniques
(CAAT).
3.9. Analytical procedures
Analytical procedures also represent important and efficient probative information,
collected in the financial audit mission and presenting assessments of financial statements
information, based on indicators analyses (evolution, comparison) and of correlation between
these information and / or between these and other data / nonfinancial information.
Analytical procedures also presume analyses (investigation) of some fluctuations and /
or some relations / identified correlations that are not consequent (correlated) with other
relevant information or that differ in a major way from the reasonable values (provisional).
These type of audit evidence use comparison and indicators with the purpose of
determining if the balance accounts or other data seem reasonable. For example, the
comparison of gross margin of current tax period with the one of prior tax period. For certain
audit objectives or insignificant balance accounts, the analytical procedures could
represent the only necessary audit evidence. In some cases, analytical procedures are used
with the intention of highlighting certain balance accounts or transactions that should be
investigated in detail, in order for the auditor to decide if supplementary investigation is
necessary. An example is represented by comparing the total expenses with reconditioning of
current period tax with the prior tax period and analyzing the difference and, in case it is
considerable, to determine the cause of rise or decrease of the reconditioning balance account.
In conclusion, to this subchapter, I would like to highlight the importance of audit
evidence towards audit risk, more precise the role probative information plays in decreasing
audit risk that is highly related to the quality and quantity of probative information. Figure
no. 3 – Safety degree hierarchy of different types of audit procedures presents the
assurance level according to different audit evidence used in the financial audit mission.
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Level of assurance Procedure (audit evidence) type
Physical examination
High Reperformance
Calculation
Documentation
Moderate Revision (verification)
Confirmation
Analytical procedures
Low Observation
Detection
Figure no. 3 – Safety degree hierarchy of different types of audit procedures
4. The correlation between audit evidence and audit risk
In the financial audit, the terms audit risk and audit evidence are closely linked and
inseparable.
The relation between audit risk and the planned quantity of audit evidence are highly
linked and reverse proportional. Therefore, in order for the financial auditor to maintain a
constant audit risk but reduces the materiality threshold it is necessary to rise the quantity of
audit evidence. In the same way, if the auditor maintains the materiality threshold constant
and reduces the quantity of audit evidence, the impact of audit risk is of importance, the audit
risk rising5.
The professional judgment of the auditor regarding the selection of adequate and
sufficient audit evidence represents an important objective towards minimizing audit risk; the
financial auditor takes in concern the following factors:
Materiality threshold;
Audit risk level, respectively inherent and control risk;
Gathered experience and professionalism of the auditor;
Source and credibility of obtained information;
What must be highlighted regarding audit risk is that the probative information is
directly influenced by the appropriateness and sufficiency and depends of a series of factors
that are presented below.
Internal control efficiency of audited entity has a great impact on the
appropriateness of most audit evidence used. For example, the internal documents of an
entity where internal control mechanisms are efficient are more reliable due to the document‘s
probability of presenting a fair transaction; vice-versa, analytical procedures are not
appropriate audit evidence if internal control mechanism that generates that data do not supply
correct information.
5
O'Donnell, E., J. Prather-Kinsey, Nationality and differences in auditor risk assessment: A research note with
experimental evidence. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 2011
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Both calculation and physical inspection are probably the most reliable if internal
control mechanisms are efficient, but their usage in the financial audit mission differs
considerably. These two types of audit evidence prove that with an identical reliability level
they can be different.
A certain type of probative information is rarely sufficient to supply appropriate audit
evidence necessary for achieving any audit objective; observation, confirmation and analytical
procedures are examples that represent such situations.
Two of the most expensive types of audit evidence are physical inspection and
confirmation. Corporal asset inspection is costly because the financial auditor must be present
in the moment the client takes stock of assets, many times before the financial statements are
presented. For example, inventory catalogue can require many auditors to shift in the same
time to different distant areas. Confirmation is costly because the auditor must apply very
rigorous procedures when determining the confirmation letter, sending it, receiving the reply,
and analyzing the irregularity or requests without an answer.
Documentation and analytical procedures is costly moderate. If the entity‘s personnel
identifies the documents the auditor needs and arranges them in such a manner that facilitates
their use, then documentation is in many cases at a low cost. Analogue, if the auditor must
search himself / herself the documents this audit procedures becomes very expensive.
Regarding analytical procedures, the auditor must decide which of these procedures are to be
used, if all calculus must be determined and asset the results; all these activities are time
consuming.
The most inexpensive types of audit evidence are observation, inquiry,
reperformance, and calculation. Normally, observation is done in the same time with other
procedures being applied. An auditor can observe easily if entity‘s personnel respect the
inventory policies and in the same time physically exanimating a sample of inventory. Inquiry
is present in any audit with a low cost; some inquiry can be expensive, such as obtaining
written statements. Reperformance and calculation is usually inexpensive because it assumes
simple comparison and mathematical calculus that can be applied as the auditor wishes.
In conclusion, in the above figure (Figure no. 4 – Audit evidence and financial
statements relation) is presented the impact audit evidence has on financial statements,
influencing the analytical procedures to be used (and the most relevant the analytical
procedure‘s quality) and the audit report that among others represents an image of audit risk.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Financial situations Audit report
Management‘s assertions regarding
financial statments components
Audit evidence regarding the
Financial audit procedures fair image and objectivity of
financial statements
Figure no. 4 – Audit evidence and financial statements relation
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Borthick, A. F. and J. E. Kiger, Designing audit procedures when evidence is
electronic, Issues In Accounting Education, 2009;
2. Lee, C., R. B. Welker, The effect of audit inquiries on the ability to detect financial
misrepresentations. Behavioral Research In Accounting, 2011;
3. O'Donnell, E., J. Prather-Kinsey, Nationality, and differences in auditor risk
assessment: A research note with experimental evidence. Accounting, Organizations
and Society, 2011;
4. Pae, S., S. Yoo, Strategic interaction in auditing: An analysis of auditors' legal
liability, internal control system quality, and audit effort. The Accounting Review,
2010;
5. Viorel Horaţiu Rotaru, Audit evidence, a strong argument in assessing conclusions
regarding audit opinion, Analele Universităţii din Craiova Seria Ştiinţe Economice,
2008;
6. Sanchez, M. H., K. F. Brown C. P. Agoglia, Consideration of control environment
and fraud risk: A set of instructional exercises. Journal of Accounting Education,
2012.
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
TRUE AND FAIR VIEW – A PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OF ACCOUNTING
Maria – Mădălina Voinea, PhD Student, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The transition to a market economy has had an radical impact on accounting, that
was never "satisfied" only to archive all notes over a company, but has become the most
important asset in the "game" of those involved in business world.
"True and fair view", the name under which it is known in the economic literature, contains
two qualitative notions very difficult to define, the law is used to describe the standard that
must reach financial reporting. Lack of precise definitions allow professional judgment call
and establish a connection by using this concept.
Keywords: true and fair view, Positive Accounting Theory, creative accounting, performance.
The term of „true and fair view‖ is one of the most controversial accounting concepts,
differences occurring as a result of visions slightly different between the Anglo-Saxon
accounts and the French version. The basic difference is the fact that, for the French accounts,
and in the same way as for most European countries, the picture is a true and fair view. On
the other side, in accordance with the Anglo-Saxon accounting this is an accounting principle,
which is considered very important in working toward this goal.
European IV Directive considers that audited annual report should look like the
accurate image as regards company's assets and liabilities, financial position and profit or
loss. Concept of „true and fair view‖ is of British origin, in accordance with Chastney. It
emphasizes the fact that in order to achieve accurate image, financial reports shall be required
to submit information so impartial and in such a manner as to enable the reader to understand
them clearly.
Regarding the definition of this term, there are many opinions, Elkholm and Troberg,
considering that even legislators accountants are not really able to explain what it means true
image in accounting. As a matter of fact they, along with Wikner maintain idea when it comes
to how the application of the concept of „true and fair view‖ varies both within EU countries
and among accountants in the same country, which further underlines, the fact that there may
be many different aspects of „true and fair view‖ shown.
Several theories, such as those of Walton, Smith and Flower describe the „true and fair
view‖ as generally accepted accounting principles (Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
- GAAP). This view is supported by Arden, stating that justice could not perform „true and
fair view‖ without making the necessary checks and opinions accounting practices. Hence the
fact that the concept of „true and fair view‖ is dynamic, given by the multitude of changes
from the economic environment and accounting practices.
Moreover, Smith believes that the true image must be identified with reality, as
confirmed by Kratz, Hanner and Wallden who believes that should give the real values of the
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company. Wallden adds and emphasizes the importance of the ability of "reader" to make the
right decision based on the report.
Ekholm and Troberg believe that reporting „the true and fair view‖ must ensure
compliance with impartial information regarding the essential values of the company. They
consider the fact that „true and fair view‖ is more a dynamic than a static process, which mesh
silently Alexander's opinion that it is a flexible concept and difficult to define.
Trying to define the concept, Lee believes that the „true and fair view‖ has become
more than a term used in the art. Requires the submission of accounts in compliance with
generally accepted accounting principles, using precise patterns, fulfilling "lessons" with
reasonable results, but their adjustment so as not to violate the limits of accounting practices
and to provide the most objective picture without significant errors, susceptible or omissions.
In other words, the content and legal stipulations must be taken into consideration.
Lee, Rutherford and Walton tend to explain „true and fair view‖ more as a generally
accepted accounting principle than considering it as a quality of its own.
Michel Capron believes that already it has been recognized that can be more accurate
images of the same reality, as can be different presentations of the same object, depending on
the angle from which it is viewed, light, distance, etc. So we have chosen the best presentation
that respects the law and is consistent with the circumstances. In addition, having regard to
that, accounting can give only one presentation of reality, problems arise when there is not
representing the reality and we must consider the difference between the two and not fall into
the dangerous illusion trap, as the information users which they do not have an acceptable
level of accounting training.
According to Flint „true and fair view‖ has a high theoretical quality because it
distinguished cultural dependency of accounting and financial reporting, but also that it is
evolving to meet the needs and expectations of the social environment in economic growth.
Flint also believes that „true and fair view‖ is actually an ethical and moral concept.
Basically, both those who draw up financial statements as well as the auditors but also
users share a common mode of understanding of the utility of documents for the end of the
year. Nobes and Parker take into account that the choice between alternative accounting
practices is made by managers, confirmed by auditors and accepted by shareholders, based on
compromise what is right.
Different views on the „true and fair view‖ can be observed due to differences in
accounting vs. taxation. In Anglo-Saxon countries accounting has become detached
successfully by taxation, the only reason for the synthesis of documents is to provide accurate
image through financial statements and inventory in line with facts. In European countries,
however, accounting is still linked to the taxation authority, the companies on the continent
having a tendency to "enjoy" as many possible tax benefits to achieve annual financial
statements, most often to the detriment of economic reality.
Regarding the accounting system in Romania, strongly influenced by France and just a
bit of the Anglo-Saxon, is far from the requirement to aim „true and fair view‖.
To achieve „true and fair view‖ is required:
- accounting data has to be recorded immediately in order to be processed and used in
a timely manner;
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- accounting information has to provide an accurate, fair, complete, precise description
of the of the operations and processes of the units heritage features;
- facts has to be recorded and presented in accordance with their legal and economic
basis;
- synthesis information has to be useful to the users when they take economic
decisions;
- the construction of the information has to be in accordance with the rules and
procedures defined based on basic principles;
- good faith application of these rules and procedures based on the knowledge that
accountants must have on the reality and importance of operations, events and situations;
- if in an exceptional case the application of accounting requirements proves improper,
altering the „true and fair view‖ of the assets, the financial situation or the result, you can
make exceptions from that limitation, but it has to be stating and justifying it explicitly (with
impact on accounting information).
Should not be overlooked that the French version considers the true image as a ratio
between sincerity and regularity. Honesty, according to professor Horomnea involves the
application with professionalism and good faith of the procedures and accounting regulations,
depending directly on the knowledge of reality and the importance of events and transactions,
by responsible. Regularity, on the other hand, in accordance with the same opinion, requires
annual financial statements obtained in compliance with the rules and practices in force,
taking as a starting point, the basic principles.
The representation of the company thru accounting is, however, a relative
representation. The balance sheet does not play the image of the company, as a mirror does
with our image, but creates an image of it.
Accurate image is ensured and guaranteed by accounting experts or external auditors,
who are called upon to certify accounting quality of the work. Accounting information must
be verifiable in terms of sincerity and authenticity of documents on the basis of which takes
place all accounting technology.
All that means creative accounting may be considered as having used positive
accounting theory, proposed and debated for years among by R. L. Watts and J. L.
Zimmerman with two papers, by which they were meant to explain in detail this vision.
We can not, however, overlook the fact that positive accounting began to "blossom"
since the 1960s, with the work by Ball and Brown, Beaver, and many others (around 1968),
which introduced empirical financial methods in the financial accounting. Further, the
literature was based on the idea that accounting numbers provide information about the safety
of the decision to invest in the stock market, but that forecast information (information
perspective) can help establish relationships between stock prices and accounting numbers.
Although forecasting accounting information learned the accountant to "read" correct
the accounting numbers in relation with the stock market and choose the most appropriate
inventory method, it is not able to predict and explain the accounting choices.
Thus, positive accounting theory, known under the acronym of PAT (Positive
Accounting Theory), involves explaining and predicting managers choices on accounting
methods. At the same time, the theory wants to explore the factors that determine the choice
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of management regarding accounting standards and those who have the greatest influence on
the image of the company.
In other words PAT explains and predicts accounting practices without taking into
account the particular action, being centered on the relationship between different users of
accounting information and the leading accounting firm.
PAT focuses on the relationships between different individuals within an organization
or outside it, and explains how financial accounting can be used to minimize the associated
costs with each contract in its own interest. Economic perspective refers to the fact that
individual behavior is motivated by self-interest "satisfaction" and PAT believes that
contractual arrangements will be in such a way made to align their own interests of the
various parties.
PAT research has become dominated in the 1970s and 1980s, and the development of
this research has far exceeded the previous ones, including the Efficient Markets Hypothesis
on (EMH) and Agency Theory. EMH show that capital markets react to new information, but
gave few or no explanation about what makes managers decide to use a particular accounting
methods over the others. This is the gap that came to fill the PAT.
Applying Agency Theory, PAT has mainly focused on the relationship between
managers and agents. PAT considers that the agents have the duty to introduce as many
contracts as they can, firms being"defined" as a conglomerate of contracts between their
concerns of many individuals. It is believed that there are three types of hypotheses: bonus
hypothesis, assumption of debt hypothesis and the political costs hypothesis.
According to the concept of C. Deegan contractual arrangements initially have been
carried out for efficiency reasons, to reduce overall agency costs which could greatly
increase. Then those agents have adopted accounting methods that reflected the most effective
and efficient performance of its own companies. It is considered that the rules shall introduce
unnecessary costs as well as different inconvenience in the contractual arrangements, and in
particular they want to reduce accounting methods, which in other circumstances would be
adopted.
In contrast, R. L. Watts and J. L. Zimmerman, explained Positive accounting theory in
terms of factors affecting the cash flow of a business that changes according to accounting
standards. Regulations, taxes, accounting costs, political costs, management plans are factors
combined in a model, showing that large firms recorded lower revenue due to changes made
to the methods and accounting standards applied. Another reason for which the companies
may have recourse to the change is related to how it affects additional costs.
The two researchers wanted to know what reason would cause businesses to
supplement the resources to influence the setting of accounting standards. Government
interventions, either direct or indirect, arising from contracts between the state and companies
may affect future cash flow. Thus, large firms, which are subject to higher risk since they
have a lot to lose from government interference, are "determined" to obtain income to
discourage government measures. In addition, not only expects firms to "weigh" reported
income, but also to modify decisions of investment in production, if the potential costs
resulting from government interventions will increase.
There have been over the years numerous critics of this theory, and the most important
are the following: actions of individuals are driven by self-interest, they acting in an
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opportunistic manner to increase their wealth, not taking into account the loyalty and morality
notions, companies are considered an organization of individuals driven by self-interest, are
willing to cooperate, do not consider improving accounting practices.
Same C. Deegan explains the fact that PAT assumes that the organization will follow
to use mechanisms to align managers' interests with those of shareholders, most of them based
on accounting results.
This current prospects are related to efficiency and opportunity. PAT efficiency is the
fact that mechanisms are being implemented in correlation with the objective of minimizing
future costs of the agency, shall be related to a previous analysis methods adopted, are those
that put the best light on the entity's financial performance, the regulations require costs that
can not be guaranteed in the concerned firms. PAT aims also opportunistic actions that can be
taken once different contractual arrangements are determined, managers selecting the most
appropriate method of accounting to increase their personal wealth.
We can understand how come creative accounting, which can be considered as
belonging to the opportunistic perspective of PAT, and is related to the selection of
accounting methods to achieve the results desired by those who draw up, without violating
accounting standards in force.
References
1. Argenti, J., Corporate Collaps: The Causes and Symptoms, Ed. McGraw Hill Book
Co Ltd, Londra, 1976.
2. Deegan, C., Australian Financial Accounting 4e, Ed. McGraw-Hill Education –
Europe, 2004.
3. Deegan, C., Unerman, J., Financial Accounting Theory, McGraw-Hill Education,
Sydney, 2006.
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_accounting, accesat la ora 10:23, în data de
12.10.2012.
5. http://www.creativeaccounting.net/forms-of-creative-accounting, accesat la ora 19:44,
în data de 15.10.2012.
6. Watts, R. L., Zimmerman, J. L, Positive Accounting Theory: A Ten Year Perspective,
The Accounting Review, Vol LXV, No. 1, 1990.
7. Watts, R. L., Zimmerman, J. L., Towards a Positive Theory of the Determination of
Accounting Standards, The Accounting Review, Vol. LIII, No. 1, 1978.
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ACL-BASED MODEL FOR USER ACCESS CONTROL IN MANAGEMENT
APPLICATION PORTALS
Florin Răzvan Lupşa-Tătaru, PhD Student, Vladimir Mărăscu-Klein, Prof., PhD,
”Transilvania” University of Brașov
Abstract: In management application portals, each application has specific features that
reflect in continuous updates of information with which it works. The information may have a
higher importance level or less and can be classified, and hence, users may be classified,
resulting in the need of a control system for information access. The paper aims to present a
model of controlling user access to information based on access control list (ACL).
Keywords: ACL, model, access, management, portal
1. Introduction
The need of user access control became an important aspect in every commercial or
non-commercial entity management application portals because of the sensitivity of
knowledge stored. In many such entities, internal users have access to all or most of the
critical information regarding partner‘s data, accounting information but also strategic
management information.
An access control list (ACL) is a list of permissions attached to an object. An ACL
specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what
operations are allowed on given objects.1
A computer security model is a scheme for specifying and enforcing security
policies. A security model may be founded upon a formal model of access rights, a model of
computation, a model of distributed computing, or no particular theoretical grounding at all.2
Security policy is a definition of what it means to be secure for a system, organization
or other entity. For an organization, it addresses the constraints on behavior of its members as
well as constraints imposed on adversaries by mechanisms such as doors, locks, keys and
walls. For systems, the security policy addresses constraints on functions and flow among
them, constraints on access by external systems and adversaries including programs and
access to data by people.3
A management application portal is a gateway that unifies access to all management
information and management related applications, usually on an intranet.
2. ACL-based model
All applications part of a portal can be considered as layers on information stored as
shown in figure 1. Therefore the control of users access to information must take into
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control_list
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security_model
3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_policy
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consideration the information importance level and implemented both through portals control
systems and each applications control system.
Figure 1. Applications as layers to information.
Creating an ACL-based model for user access must take into consideration some
aspects which an portal administrator must control:
- What information is stored, what is the importance level of each information and how
can it be classified
- Which users can access what information or information category and what operations
can they perform on the information
- How can users be grouped based on information categories and operations beeing
performed
The classification manner of the information in terms of access may differ from the
perspective of applications compared to ACL models perspective. For example, the
information belonging to human resource management can be classified in terms of
applications taking into consideration organizational structure of the entity, but in terms of
ACL model this may not be respected, a person on higher management level could have fewer
access rights to some information compared to a person on a lower hierarchical level.
Creating an ACL model can be done following the next steps.
A. A good starting point in creating an ACL model for user access control is to create
an access role for each information category. A role is a conceptual term, a routine that can be
seen as a task or set of responsibilities within an organization. From an application portal
view, it can be assigned to a user and can be transferred to or shared between multiple users.
The basic principles in creating the roles are that a role must be transferable between users,
assigned to more than one user and also revoked.
B. Assigning permissions to each role. Permissions refer to the operations that can be
performed on information. Presuming that each role is a reflection of an information category,
specific permissions are determined by the information itself.
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C. Creating a group of users for each role. This will allow an easier identification of
relation between information categories and access control groups. Is a good practice to create
groups with several levels of parent-child kind, according to similarities between roles, this
ensuring a stable propagation of roles and therefore of permissions. From a portal access
perspective, a level of groups is basically a customised grouping of groups. In portal
applications the level of groups is the criteria that a user must satisfy in order to access
specific functionalities.
D. Assigning users to groups. This will determine which users may and which may not
operate on the initial determined information categories.
3. ACL-based model implementation example
As an exemplification of ACL model implementation, we consider referring to some
of the information regarding companies, information highly used in management. The
information stored are related to name, vat number, legal form, address, phone numbers and
fax numbers, email addresses, websites, activity code, activity description.
Following the steps presented above for ACL model implementation, the first step is
to categorize the information and creating the roles. The identified categories and the
corresponding roles created are:
- Identification, referring to name, vat number and legal form;
- Contact, referring to address, phone and fax numbers, emails and websites addresses;
- Activity, referring to activity code and description.
Assigning permissions to roles can be determined as follows:
- Identification: a company can be viewed, inserted, its name and vat number updated
and also deleted, so the permissions are: view, insert, update and delete
- Contact: contact information can be viewed, inserted, updated and deleted with the
same permissions
- Activity: as similar to identification and data, this information can be also viewed,
inserted, updated and deleted.
One must note that the above permissions are only coincidentally the same for all
roles.
The next step is creating user groups for each role and, if applicable, level groups.
Created user groups are presented in figure 2. As seen on Figure 2, a group of groups named
―Data‖ has been created in order to represent the possibilities of grouping information based
on similarities. The levelling of groups allows a better separation of roles.
Therefore, for example, a user with access on level 3 will not be able be interfere with
above level groups (Identification and Data). Furthermore, a user part of Activity group on
level 3 cannot interfere neither with above level groups nor Contact group at the same level.
But a user part of Company group at level 1 will have access to all information stored in
below level groups.
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Figure 2. Group levels, user groups and permissions.
Assigning the users to groups is done taking into consideration the information they
must access or not in order to fulfil their tasks.
4. Conclusions
The ACL model presented above is a relatively simple to implement solution to gain
access control to information once the mentioned steps are steps are completed and correctly
filled in.
Bibliography
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security_model
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_policy
[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control_list
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intranet_portal
[5] http://magazine.joomla.org/issues/issue-aug-2012/item/825-A-Case-for-Role-
Based-ACL
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational
Programme Human Resources Development (SOP HRD), ID137516 financed from the
European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government.
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STRATEGIC STRESS MANAGEMENT
Irina Simionescu (Barbu), PhD Student, ”Valahia” University of Târgoviște
Abstract: Increased work stress is a consequence of the changes in the nature of work and /
or the working environment. Such changes include a decrease in funding (resources) and an
increase in workload (demands), leading to difficulties in attracting and keeping quality staff.
Briefly, we can say that changes in working conditions have triggered an increase in stress
and a decline in productivity and welfare.
A strategic management, adapted to the current changes and requirements, imposes
safeguarding the state of health of the human resource in drawing up and implementing the
objectives of an organization in evaluating the internal and external environment.
Keywords: work-related stress, psychosocial risks, emerging risks, strategies, management
standards.
Introduction
The interconnection of individuals and of world economies, the extension of frontiers
of countries and of knowledge made it possible for life environment to expand on a global
scale and to become wider and more accessible. In this vast microsystem, change represents
integration into a new civilization, adaptation to social and environmental changes for whole
communities, through a way of life compatible with all this.
Transformations, conflicts and contradictions that surround us and are a result of the
collision between the pros and cons of change, have repercussions on us and on the world
around us. Consequently, we all live and work in this new environment in which everything
happens and changes at an unprecedentedly rapid pace from family life to the places we work
in and to the time pressures and the growing complexity of everyday life. These changes
create opportunities and new ways of life but they are accompanied by a warning: risks not
only multiply, but they grow exponentially.
The research of stress as a specific and alarming phenomenon of today‘s society
reveals social problems that can be solved with difficulty. A current concern is to identify
factors and forces that contribute to stress. Cataloguing these forces is a difficult task because
they vary from social forces on a large scale (a macro perspective), society in general,
professional organizations on the one hand and personal social environments in which people
function day by day (a micro perspective) on the other hand.
At a political and organizational level people talk about strategies that assume long-
term objectives and action plans and these should generate a competitive advantage with
lower costs. The goals of strategic management are to formulate and interpret some
strategies, but nowadays a strategy cannot be coordinated over a long term and the ability of a
firm to turn its plans into reality consists in managing its own internal resistance to change. A
company can introduce in its concept of accordance between competence (strengths and
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weaknesses) and environment (opportunities and threats) the determination of stress felt by
the employees in the context of its objectives. Strategies define or clarify the way of
organizing the working environment, but many times the human factor is ignored.
Stress, an interdisciplinary strategic concept
The concept of stress was developed by Hans Selye, a Canadian physician at the
McGill University in Montreal, by analogy with the technical term « stress », by means of an
operational definition: « stress is the state manifested through a specific syndrome, which
consists of changes in the biological system » (Selye, 1956). Selye actually introduced the
term of stress from physics and engineering into medical science, equating it to « the
concerted actions of the forces that act in each section of the body, either the physical or the
psychological one ». The term « stress » designates body processes created by various
circumstances that turn into physical or psychological strains upon an individual (Idem).
Moreover, Selye pointed out an important aspect in connection with the physical and
psychological stimuli, which is missing from the physics model: stress can last long after the
stimulus has ceased to exist.
Early 20th century research also outlined the interaction between the individual‘s
physical condition and psychological mood and the progress of human society: « weariness
affects not only the individual‘s adjustment, but the welfare of society in general » (Viteles,
1932). The inadaptable worker, even one with minor mental disorders, is a loss to industrial
efficiency, which could be regained only by a worker in a state of maximum mental health.
Industrial efficiency can be achieved « without sacrificing individual welfare » (Idem).
Kahn and his colleagues (1964) described the way in which organizational work
influenced the shaping of individual and social life. The new organizational structures
required a level of conformity and performance reflected in the new wave of ideas on
management, motivation, satisfaction and leadership. Kahn also emphasized the quantity and
quality differences of overload. Tasks have become more difficult, requiring special
individual competences and abilities on the employee‘s part. He mentions primary prevention,
aimed at eliminating or reducing the impact of risk factors, secondary prevention, aimed at
reducing response intensity and tertiary prevention, more specifically discomfort attenuation
and restoring effective operation.
The first attempts at systematic intervention upon job stress occurred in the late 1970s.
In 1979, Beehr and Newman determined the impact of this type of stress upon physical,
psychological and behaviour health. The researchers established, for instance, ―overload role‖
as a potential stress factor, a new type of conflict the workforce has to face (Beehr, 1995). The
conflict appears as a result of the pressure created by the difficulty required to fulfill job
duties within established time limits. This pressure can exceed the limits of personal capacity.
It is not only the workload, but also meeting quality standards that causes problems. Quick
and Quick (1984) and other researchers were of the opinion that intervention strategies had to
be balanced, otherwise being useless. Quick, Horn and Quick (1987) expanded the area of
research in a context of preventive medicine, to identify effective prevention and intervention
methods that might have positive consequences on health at both individual and
organizational levels‖. (1987, p.34). Quick and Quick together with their colleagues Nelson
and Hurrell contributed to the systematic and comprehensive development of stress
management practices (1997), but ―organizational environments are becoming ever more
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complex‖ and it is essential that stress management programs be developed. Ashforth and
Humphrey suggested that ―work experience is saturated by emotions and research, in general,
has ignored the day-by-day impact of emotions on organizational life (1995, p.97). Most
times, emotions are mistaken for attitudes. Lazarus (1999) clarified the role of emotions,
according to which one can establish what a person goes through and how the impact of job
stress can be ―explored more systematically‖. The 1990s saw an increase in scientists‘ interest
in workplace emotion theory and management, particularly in developing positive emotions
that can imrpove our lives. Beehr (1998), Narayanan, Menon and Spector (1999) concluded
that work in excess led to a record of stress incidence, being a much more frequent cause than
conflict and role ambiguity.
In a textbook on stress, Levi (2002) reached the conclusion that the research of this
phenomenon has a linear approach, pleading for the study of multifactorial interaction
aspects at several organizational levels of society.
Scientists soon became interested in effective adaptation, the influence of personality
fators in this process, adapting to job requirements, which vary depending on sex and age.
Thus, several strategy classification schemes appear, which however fail to reach the accuracy
required ―to adequately catch the range of possible adaptation responses‖ (Cooper and Bright,
2001).
Barling and Griffiths (2003) are concerned with the de-humanising aspect of work,
which has resulted in the emergence of a new discipline, work medicine, whose purpose is ―to
promote and protect workers‘ physical and psychological health‖ (id). Barling and Griffiths
maintain that the fundamental change at the beginning of the 20th century was research
orientation towards management goals due to a wish ―to promote and protect workers‘
physical and psychological health‖ (id).
This historical summary of research in the field of stress in general and that of work
stress in particular has a retrospective goal, since the present would have a disproportionate
importance without such knowledge. Current discoveries would have been impossible without
the debate, controversy and confusion of the past; history provides both a means of satisfying
one‘s curiosity and one of avoiding past mistakes. Practice has proven that understanding the
process calls for a methodological pluralism, not one method being replaced by another.
Structural changes and the emergence of psychosocial risks
Job-related stress is currently acknowledged as a psychosocial risk factor, ranking
among contemporary challenges to work health and safety with implications on organizational
results and performances and with wider social implications.
Psychosocial risks in an organizational and social context are those deriving from the
interaction between work design and management, leading to a decline in a worker‘s physical
or psychological welfare (Cox and Griffiths, 2005).
According to the European Union Occupational Safety and Health Agency (EU-
OSHA): ―Psychosocial risks ... are related to the way in which work is designed, organized
and managed, as well as to the economic and social context of the job, resulting in an
increased stress level and being responsible for a serious deterioration of mental and physical
health.‖ (EU-OSHA, 2007). Work-related stress is experienced ―when the work environment
requirements exceed the workers‘ capacity to cope or to control them‖ (EU-OSHA, 2009).
The concepts of job stressors define working conditions in which workers have to face
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demanding requirements and have a reduced influence on their working environment
(Stansfeld and Candy, 2006).
Globalization used to be perceived more or less as an economic process; today it is
seen as a much more comprehensive phenomenon, which models a multitude of factors and
events that are rapidly changing our society. It has provided opportunities for economic
development, but it has intensified competition and economic pressure, resulting in company
restructuring, externalizing activities, staff and business downsizing, alongside job insecurity
and additional workload for the employees. Restructuring is now becoming permanent and
tends to appear in all member states, already becoming a permanent component of economy.
The European Restructuring Monitor (ERM) recorded over 14,000 cases of organizational
restructuring from 2002 to mid-2012 (Eurofound, 2012).
Over the past decade, unprecedented immigration increase has led to a substantial
increase in the percentage of inhabitants living outside their native country. Most migrants are
relatively young, contributing to the size of the current workforce and it is estimated that
almost a third of the workforce in the EU will be foreign by 2060. Over the next few years,
more than ever before, labour market will be defined by increased diversity. As a result of job
offer diversification, the need will also arise and increase for a more demographically
diversified workforce (women, younger and older workers and differently abled workers), but
at the same time this workforce will be more prone to developing psychosocial problems.
The organization and nature of work have developed throughout the past decades,
emotional needs have increased, resulting in the emergence of psychosocial risks impacting
on the health of those involved in the work process (EU-OSHA 2007). Psychosocial risks,
such as job stress, violence, mobbing, bullying and interpersonal conflicts are acknowledged
as major challenges, contributing to a decline in job-related welfare and health, as well as in
organizational proficiency (EU-OSHA 2007).
Psychosocial and organizational risk factors such as increased workload, tight
deadlines, long or non-standard working hours (shifts, night work), precarious or isolated
working conditions – or even a combination of these factors – are likely to contribute to
developing certain chronic conditions and diseases.
A gender-oriented approach is also necessary, ageing itself leads to an increased risk
of developing conditions and diseases, while mental health issues are those causing the
greatest number of workforce departures before legal age is reached. Despite the fact that
health issue prevalence increases with age owing to the inevitable ageing process, this does
not necessarily prevent work proficiency and is not a reason to exclude a person from among
employees.
Women‘s occupational rate increased all over Europe from 57.9% in 2001 to 62.3% in
2011, and the EU-Europe 2020 strategy stipulates a total occupational rate of 75% by the year
2020, women being regarded as one of the major factors in reaching this target. However,
employing female workforce also involves the need to effectively approach safety and health
issues affecting women. Taking into account the different safety and health hazards women
and men are exposed to in their jobs, the different effects of such risks call for a reassessment
of working conditions, adjusting the length of the working day to domestic tasks (OIM,
2009).
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Furthermore, in the 5th European Working Conditions Survey (Eurofound, 2012),
approximately 45% of the workers stated having experienced, over the previous three years, a
certain type of organizational change affecting their working environment and 62% reported
tight working deadlines. The managers themselves are also aware of this issue. It results from
the European survey of enterprises on new and emerging risks: managing safety and health at
work (ESENER, EU OSHA, 2010) that 79% of the European managers are concerned about
stress in their companies. At the same time, less than 30% of the European organizations own
the procedures needed to cope with job-related stress, harrassment and violence. ESENER has
pointed out the fact that more than 40% of the European managers consider psychosocial risks
to be harder to manage than ―traditional‖ health and safety related risks. (EU-OSHA, 2010a).
The strategic vision of reducing work stress-related psychosocial risks
At the European Union level, occupational health and safety is one of the main fields
in European social politics. The Treaty concerning 21 European Union operation, article 153
(1 and 2) stipulates that the Council is authorized to adopt, by means of EU directives,
minimum requirements aimed at ―improving particularly the working environment to protect
employees‘ health and safety‖. Directive 89/391/EEC requires employers‘ explicit
responsibility to adjust ―...work to each employee, especially as regards designing job
environment, selecting work equipment, work type and production methods‖ (European
Commission, 1989). At the same time it was stipulated that ―employers have the legal
responsibility to reduce employee-related health and safety risks ―, which entails reducing
psychosocial risks as well. Despite this, psychosocial risks are ignored in many organizations,
as it is feared that this might incur additional costs, although evidence suggests that failure to
approach such risks can be even more costly for employers, workers and companies in
general. (Cooper et al. 1996; EU-OSHA, 2004; Bond and collaborators, 2006).
The goals of strategic management are to formulate and implement strategies, but
nowadays a strategy can no longer be controlled over a long term, and a company‘s ability to
turn its plans into reality consists in managing its own internal resistance to change.
Establishing the stress degree felt by its employees can also be included in a company‘s
concept of competence (its strengths and weaknesses), of adjustment to its environment
(opportunities and threats), in the context of its goals.
A strategic management adjusted to current conditions and changes requires that,
when drawing up and implementing the goals of an organization, in assessing the
orgnaization‘s internal and external environment special attention should be paid to
safeguarding the health condition of its human resources.
Goals refer to:
o Examining staff experience concerning job-related stress levels;
o Establishing whether the personnel in various categories faces different or
similar occupational stress levels;
o Individual identification of the organizational factors contributing to job-
related stress;
o Examining the impact of occupational stress upon individual and
organizational results;
o Individual identification (strategies employed by the staff to cope with stress),
at work (for instance, social support in the workplace) and in the organization
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(organization support, for example), factors that moderate stress in the
workplace (personal experience).
Health and Safety Management Standards (HSE) represent a strategic attempt to
ensure that organizations observe the orientations concerning psychosocial work factors,
including practices connected with work volume management and managerial practices that
―reflect a high level of health, welfare and organizational proficiency‖ (HSE, 2009). The
fields covered by these orientations are:
Working conditions Emphasis should be placed on workload,
working methods and environment, with
particular emphasis on those employees who
feel they are capable of coping with the
requirements imposed on them. In this
respect, the Health and Safety Management
standards call for the existence within the
organization of a system that addresses
workload related concerns. It is
recommendable that the employees follow
―adequate and achievable requirements in
accordance with the working hours agreed
upon‖ and that their aptitudes and abilities
should be adapted to their job duties.
Control The employees should ―have a say
concerning the way in which they perform
their duties‖ and "where possible, they should
have control over their working rhythm‖.
Employees should be consulted on their
working style, break time and support in
developing new competences.
Support The organization should provide, encourage,
inform and sponsor consecrated policies for
its workers, access to necessary resources,
support from managers and colleagues –
including constructive feedback, fundamental
for employee development and success.
Relationships Positive behaviour in the workplace should
be consolidated through reporting policies
and procedures, which also deal with
unacceptable behaviour such as aggression,
mobbing and bullying.
Role Employees must be informed clearly as to
their duties and failure to fulfill a task should
not entail a conflict with those in charge of
these responsibilities.
Change This should be performed by the employers
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with employees being informed, as this
provides opportunities for the latter to
influence proposals regarding change.
Moreover, employees should be aware of any
possible results of the change process and
should benefit from training and support that
could help them adapt.
Source: www.hse.gov.uk/stress/standards/
With a view to facilitating Health and Safety Management standards being met,
organizations are encouraged to perform studies and assessments in order to help identify
potential risks concerning job-related stress so that a partnership conceived to improve work
experience can be approached between employers and employees.
The European Union‘s strategies and policies prove the importance of European
initiatives in promoting good mental health and preventing mental health disorders.
The main economic problems related to occupational stress are those concerning a
decline in labour productivity and an increase in labour costs. These include costs incurred by
the decrease of work efficiency through a decrease in employees‘ positive mood, premature
retirement, complaints and work litigation that finally resulted in turnover decline (OMS,
2005).
In August 2014, the European Agency for Occupational Health and Safety – EU-
OSHA published the report ―Calculating the costs of work-related stress and psychosocial
risks‖ through collecting several sets of data regarding the cost-effectiveness ratio of stress
reduction and psychosocial risk interventions. This report results from the analysis of
specialized literature, outlining the costs of job stress, violence, mobbing, bullying and other
psychosocial risks (lack of work support, excessive workload or lack of control). This
analysis demonstrates the enormous costs affecting national economies and society in general.
Work-related stress ranks high in the surveys assessing costs at society level, recording
unprecedented cost increases.
Table no.1. Adjusted figures of work related stress at society level
Author Country Psychosocial Financial cost
hazard adjusted to 1st
March 2013
European EU 15 Work stress 25.4 billion euro
Commission
(2002)
Matrix (2013) EU 27 Work-related 617 billion euro
depression
Source : Data processed from European Agency for Safety and Health at Work -
Calculating the costs of work-related stress and psychosocial risks – Appendix II – p.34
Research carried out over several decades provides evidence of the association
between psychosocial risks, work related stress and negative effects upon health, such as
mental health conditions (depression), cardiovascular diseases, musculo-skeletal conditions
and, more recently, diabetes.
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It is not usually easy to determine to what extent one‘s job contributes to developing
such negative results, but when the financial burden related to stress and psychosocial risks is
explored, costs associated to health problems generated or exacerbated by such are taken into
account. It is important to point out that the revised numbers are just rough estimates and have
not been obtained using well-grounded methods.
In ―Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion and mental disorder
prevention programmes and of their potential contribution to EU health, social and economic
policy objectives‖ – (Executive Agency for Health and Consumers - Final Report May 2013,
p.31), costs for depression/year are estimated from four perspectives: health system, social
assistance system, employers and economy level:
Total costs of depression in the EU-27 are estimated at 617 billion euros.
The major impact is on employers, estimated at 272 billion euros. This cost
refers to the impact of depression on absenteism and presenteism.
Secondly, the cost for the economy as concerns missed labour was estimated at
242 billion euros in EU-27.
The total cost of healthcare treatments for those who are suffering or will
suffer from depression in future in EU27 is estimated at 63 billion euros.
The cost for social assistance systems in EU27 is 39 billion euros. This cost
refers to invalidity pensions for those being unable to work as a result of
depreciation of their mental health.
Table no. 2 Depression related costs in Europe - Matrix (2013),
Costs Value (Billion
euros estimated
for a one-year
period)
Work absenteism 272
Productivity loss 242
Healthcare 63
Social asístance – invalidity pensions 39
Total depression-related costs 617
Source: Matrix – May 2013 - Economic analysis of workplace mental health
promotion and mental disorder prevention programmes
Graph no. 1 Depression costs in UE-27 per sectors (in € 2011) for one year
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Work absenteism
10,21% 6,32%
44,08% Productivity loss
Healthcare
39,38%
Social asìstance
Source : Adaptation after Economic analysis of workplace mental health promotion
and mental disorder prevention programmes – May 2013 (p.32)
Organizations are affected mainly by costs related to absenteism, low productivity and
turnover decrease. These costs eventually affect national economies. The main costs for
individuals are related to poor health, mortality and poor quality of life. Many workers leave
the labour market permanently as a result of health or invalidity issues. The amounts spent on
invalidity pensions have become a significant burden on public finance, preventing economic
growth through a decrease in active labour.
Conclusions
Considerable reductions in government funding have been recorded in recent years.
Many organisations are now smaller, with fewer employees working longer hours and not
feeling safe. This points out the issues that a world undergoing profound changes has to face:
managers have to take more responsibilities, both managerial and administrative ones, they
have to play several parts in society, with ever scarcer (material and human) resources.
Expectations are huge at a time when rewards for such efforts and the safety of employment
are dwindling. Institutional management is yet another source of dissatisfaction for the
employees, considering the doubtful quality of leadership provided by managers at various
levels, who are often appointed politically.
Society needs correct structures and roles, it cannot be led by mediocre people and this
can only be accomplished through a solid knowledge of the issues, followed by an
implementation of professional life quality improvement policies. It is important for all
sectors of activity to be able to provide policies and interventions based on evidence in order
to improve employees‘ welfare in the workplace. To this effect, employees‘ experiences
concerning stress-generating situations, as well as antecedents and factors helping the staff to
cope with stress will have to be studied first. Work stress management activities tend to focus
on the individual by shifting attention towards a fault level in the employee, who is perceived
as having some sort of a problem, or being unable to cope. This suggests that the individual
has to change somehow in order for the ―problem‖ to be ruled out. Assessment surveys and
empiric stress management programs clearly show the flaws and the simplistic line of
thought, since it is a fact that ―the sick individual can be a symptom of a sick organization.‖
(Carroll, 1996). Consequently, a different approach is necessary, both for humane and for
economic reasons. This calls for an increase in life quality for the individual in the workplace,
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for dynamics and interpersonal relationships of the workgroup or team, as well as in
connection with the organizational structure and the climate that shapes the working
environment.
Studies in Europe prove that the financial burden concerning society and the
organizations as to work-related stress and psychosocial risks is considerable. Furthermore,
there is evidence suggesting that planned interventions in the workplace implemented
adequately with an emphasis on stress prevention, psychosocial work environment
improvement and mental health promotion are cost efficient. Recent evolutions in the field of
psychosocial research maintains that one‘s work has characteristics that could result in a
positive impact, not just a negative one on employees‘ health and welfare. Positive work-
related factors have a strong impact on employees‘ health and performance (Vazquez and
collaborators, 2009). Keeping people healthy and active longer has a positive impact on
productivity and competitiveness. As a result, keeping employees healthy could increase the
length of time spent in full work capacity and would thereby support the ageing workforce.
The ―health‖ aspect is as relevant as the ―safety‖ aspect in providing work welfare, but this is
not reflected in organizations‘ policies.
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Books,1999
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12. Levi, L. Stress – an overview: International and public health perspective. In R.
Ekman, and B Arnetz, (eds), Stress: Molecules, Individuals, Organisation, Society,
Stockholm, 2002
13. Narayanan, L., Menon, S., and Spector, P.E.Stress in the workplace: A comparison of
gender and occupations, Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1999
14. Quick, J.C., and Quick, J.D., Organizational Stress and Preventive Management,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, New York,1984
15. Quick, J.C., Quick, J.D., Nelson, D.L., and Hurrell, J.J. (eds), Preventive Stress
Management in Organizations, Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association,1997
16. Quick, J.D., Horn, R.S., and Quick, J.C. Health consequences of stress. In J.M.
Ivancevich and D.C. Ganster (eds), Job Stress: From Theory to Suggestion. New
York: The Haworth Press, 19–34,1987
17. Selye, Hans, Stress in Health and Disease, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1976
18. Selye, Hans, The Stress of Life, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956
19. Stansfeld, S., Candy, B., Psychosocial work environment and mental health — a meta-
analytic review, Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, Vol. 32, No
6, 2006
20. Vázquez, C., Hervás, G., Rahona, J.J. and Gómez, D., Psychological well-being and
health
Contributions of positive psychology‘, Annuary of Clinical and Health Psychology,
2009
21. Viteles, M.S., Industrial Psychology. New York: W.W. Norton, 1932
22. Weinberg A.,Sutherland V., Cooper C.,Organizational Stress Management, A
Strategic Aproach, Palgrave Macmillan, 2010
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promotion_en. pdf, accessed at 12.09.2014
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This paper has been financially supported within the project entitled „SOCERT.
Knowledge society, dynamism through research”, contract number
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132406. This project is co-financed by European Social Fund through
Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development 2007-2013. Investing
in people!‖
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MONETARY AND FISCAL POST-CRISIS POLICIES IN ROMANIA
Mihaela Ifrim, Post PhD Fellow, SOP HRD/159/1.5/133675 Project, Romanian
Academy, Iași Branch
Abstract: Monetary and fiscal tools available to policy makers often generate consequences
opposite to expectations of their initiators. Mostly, tracking purposes in the short term attract
adverse consequences in the medium and long term. We have in mind here mainly the cyclical
evolution of the economy, the accelerated growth in the boom years, based on monetary
expansion due to lax monetary policy, ending inevitably in an economic crisis followed by
depression. Once produced, the economic contractions could be tempered by fiscal policy, but
the reality refuses to follow economic logic. Monetary policy seeks the exit of depression
using the same expansionary recipe that has generated it, while increasing social protection
spending, growing public deficits and intensifying underground markets activities lead to
increasing fiscal pressure, which only delay the resumption of growth. Monetary and fiscal
policies post-crisis in Romania lack coordination. On the one hand, monetary policy aims to
stimulate the consumption on credit, while fiscal policy by increasing taxes only inhibit it. The
purpose of this paper is to analyze the duality of the fiscal and monetary measures in
Romania, highlighting their effects on the real economy .
Keywords: monetary policy, fiscal policy, recession, credit, consumption.
1. INTRODUCTION
The economic crisis was the natural consequence of expansionary monetary policies adopted
by most countries in the world. The predictability of turning a boom into a burst has nothing
to do with the claims of some economists to be able to predict the economic evolution, using
sophisticated mathematical models, which lack in fact just the information to be introduced in
their model. Dissipated knowledge in the minds of millions of participants in the market game
is impossible to aggregate and shaped to generate economic forecasts, no matter how
tempting they may be. It remains to emphasize the importance of correct understanding of
economic phenomena and of the interdependencies between them in order to make value
judgments on the effects of economic policies. In other words, economic qualitative
judgments must regain their position along with quantitative estimates, assuming a higher
degree of realism to the expansionary monetary policies adopted by most countries. This
paper aims to make a critical analysis of monetary and fiscal policies in Romania, in the
framework of current economic downturn. Designed to stimulate economic activity, these
policies lead to opposite results both because of incorrect anticipation of their effects and
because of the lack of coordination between their own mechanisms.
2. EXPANSIONARY MONETARY POLICY AND RESTRICTIVE FISCAL POLICY
The dominant feature of monetary policy in Romania is expansion. This can be seen both in
terms of monetary growth as well as in gradual reduction of interest rates. The broad money
supply increased from 109.614.957,4 thousand RON in February 2007, to 242.793.889,0
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
thousands RON in August 2014. This means an increase of 121% over a period of only seven
years. Regarding the money in circulation, they rose from 14.163.344,6 thousand RON to
38.014.476,8 thousand RON, that is an increase by 2.7 times during the same period.
Fig. 1. Broad money supply, 2007-2014, thousand RON
Source: National Bank of Romania
The money supply growth is closely related to the opposite evolution of the monetary policy
interest rate. After its sharp decline from 21.25% in the fall of 2003 to 7.5% in the fall of
2005, the outbreak of the economic crisis in Romania is launching a clearly downward trend
for interest rate, assisting periodically the reaching of new and new thresholds. From October
1, 2014, the interest rate on monetary policy in Romania reached 3%. In this context, it is
necessary to notice that the interest rate do not reflects (anymore) the time preference of
individuals, the relationship between current consumption and future consumption, between
the supply and demand for monetary resources. While interest rate remain a highly important
price, based on which the economic actors act, it does not transmit anything outside the
artificial reality drawn by monetary authorities. As a result, it may continue to generate
"exuberant" behaviors.
Fig. 2. Interest rate on monetary policy, 2003-2014
Source: National Bank of Romania
The logic of expansive monetary policy intends growth by stimulating consumption through
credit. This approach do not differs from that of the boom years, easy access to credit being
largely responsible for the paradox of increased consumption and more investment in the
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CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
conditions of restricting savings. The economic crisis has revealed, in fact, a massive gap
between the real and monetary resources. The false signals sent by low interest rates have
stimulated the initiation of some investments that would have been unprofitable otherwise.
Stimulative monetary policy created the false impression of consumption preferences
unsupported by the real level of resources. Once it became clear that economic expansion was
a forced, unsustainable one, the real forces impose processes of correction, of readjustment to
the real level of resources and consumer preferences. The recession has the meaning to
eliminate erroneous business initiated during the years of boom. This is impeded when
monetary policy continues to stimulate the lending process. The consumption sustained
through monetary policies can mask entrepreneurial errors, delaying the processes of
correction.
An important element that should be mentioned when referring to monetary policy is the tight
link between the measures of stimulating consumption on credit and inflation. Even if the
consumer price index has a trend that do not stirs concerns, on the long-term the expansionary
policies not only did not really stimulate consumption, but reduces it through the loss of
purchasing power of the currency, subject to inflationary processes of multiplication.
Therefore, monetary expansion in the absence of real savings can only generate a short-term,
artificial growth.
Leaving aside the discussion on the appropriateness of perpetuating the expansive measures,
we cannot help noting that the gradual reduction of the interest rate denotes the weak success
of this monetary instrument in stimulating the economy. The economic agents remain
reserved about contracting new loans in an uncertain economic, social and political context.
The large number of business failures in the years 2007-2009 and the burden of paying back
the loans taken in the boom years maintained a certain distance from the promise of prosperity
through indebtedness. Distrust in the crediting promise is backed by the threat of increased
fiscal pressure.
The efforts of monetary stimulation of the Romanian economy are canceled however by the
fiscal constraints. Although monetary policy promises economic growth and price stability,
fiscal policy places Romania among the least competitive countries, denying its chance of
prosperity.
According to the Doing Business Report conducted by the World Bank, Romania1 ranks 134
in terms of paying taxes, having 39 payments per year and spending 200 hours per year for
this. This position must be understood both in terms of reduced tax morale2 of Romanians and
through the high level of taxes on the income of population. The total tax rate represents
42.9% of commercial profits of companies in Romania. These have to pay 31.5% of their
commercial profits in the account of social security contributions, which places Romania on
the bottom 171 place of 189 countries. The Global Competitiveness Report ranks Romania on
the 140 position of 144 countries analyzed concerning the effect of taxation on incentives to
work. The effect of taxation on incentives to invest ranks Romania, according to the same
1
World Bank, Doing Business 2014, p. 219, available at http://www.doingbusiness.org/~/media/GIAWB/Doing
%20Business /Documents/Annual-reports/English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf
2
Torgler, B. (2003), „Tax Morale in Transition Countries”, Post-Communist Economies, Vol. 15, No. 3; Torgler,
B. (2007), “Tax Morale in Central and Eastern European Countries”, in Nicolas Hayoz and Simon Hug (eds.), Tax
Evasion, Trust and State Capacities. How Good Is Tax Morale in Central and Eastern Europe?, Bern: Peter Lang,
pp. 155-186; Torgler, B. (2011), “Tax Morale, Eastern Europe and European Enlargement”, The World Bank
Policy Research Working Paper 5911, available at http://www-
wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer
/WDSP/IB/2011/12/13/000158349_20111213084401/Rendered/PDF/WPS5911.pdf
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source, in the position 1283. VAT rate in Romania is one of the largest in Europe, surpassed
only by Hungary, with 27%, and Sweden and Denmark with 25%. The tax burden on labor is
also high, being in close relationship with the black-market4 economic activities that involve
undocumented workers.
James Rogers and Cécile Philippe appreciated in 2011 that, for a Romanian worker, the Tax
Freedom Day will be celebrated on July 1, considering that beginning work on January 1st
would earn enough to pay his annual tax burden until then5. The same authors calculated how
much an employers must spend to pay each net euro to an employee. The result for Romania
is 1,83 EUR, the seventh most expensive country in Europe from this perspective. In the same
time, when compares the ―real tax rate‖ paid by typical workers in each EU member state to
that same country‘s ratio of tax revenue to Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the relatively low
percentage of total tax revenue as a percentage of GDP for Romania (28.0%) is in strong
contrast with the Real Tax Rate of 49,7%, one of the highest in Europe!
Fig. 3. Taxation of Workers and Tax Revenue as a Portion of GDP
Real Tax Total Tax
Country
Rate as % of GDP
Romania 49.7% 28.0%
Ireland 31.0% 28.2%
Slovakia 46.7% 28.8%
Latvia 48.6% 28.9%
Lithuania 46.2% 30.3%
Greece 46.0% 31.2%
Portugal 42.2% 31.3%
Spain 44.5% 33.6%
Poland 44.4% 31.7%
Estonia 45.1% 32.8%
Bulgaria 37.6% 33.3%
Czech Republic 46.4% 35.3%
United Kingdom 36.4% 35.5%
Hungary 53.7% 35.7%
Slovenia 43.2% 36.8%
Germany 53.0% 37.1%
Luxembourg 39.7% 37.1%
Netherlands 48.6% 38.7%
Cyprus 20.0% 39.2%
Austria 55.8% 42.1%
Italy 52.1% 42.9%
3
World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015, p. 319, available at
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf
4
See A.T. Kearney, The Shadow Economy in Europe, 2013, available at http://www.atkearney.com/financial-
institutions/featured-article/ /asset_publisher/j8IucAqMqEhB/content/the-shadow-economy-in-europe2013
/10192
5
James Rogers, Cécile Philippe, The Tax Burden of Typical Workers in the EU 27, 2011, Institut Économique
Molinari, available at http://www.institutmolinari.org/IMG/pdf/tax-burden-eu.pdf
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Finland 46.4% 43.4%
Belgium 60.3% 44.0%
France 56.6% 44.2%
Sweden 47.3% 44.5%
Denmark 42.9% 48.1%
Malta 32.4% 48.2%
Source: James Rogers, Cécile Philippe, The Tax Burden of Typical Workers in the EU 27, 2013, Institut
Économique Molinari, p. 14
In other words, half of workers' incomes are intended, in of direct and indirect forms to the
state budget. In this way, each worker is employed, six months each year, in central and local
administration, without remuneration. Tax burden becomes heavier year by year. According
to the National Institute of Statistics, in the second quarter of 2014, the share of taxes and
social contributions accounted for 16.8% of total household expenditure6, the highest level in
the last twenty years.
The upward trend of the expenditure with taxes and social contributions in total families
spending rotates is shown in the graph below. Interestingly, the tax expenses and
contributions increased by 9% in the past two years, while total expenses increased by only
6%. In other words, consumption growth is confiscated by taxation growth. Under these
conditions, the economic growth as measured by Gross Domestic Product evolution has
increasingly strong assumptions to be based on the rise of the taxes included in final prices7,
however unfounded by the economic way of thinking might seem.
Fig. 4. The share of taxes and social contributions in total families spending
Source: Ionuţ Balan, apud Bogdan Glăvan, Un lucru este sigur: cheltuielile gospodăriilor cu impozitele,
http://logec.ro/category/despre-impozite/, October 2014
Thus we have the picture of duality of two macroeconomic policies that aim, paradoxically,
the same goal - providing resources to stimulate economic growth. If monetary policy aimed
at boosting private activities, fiscal policy seeks to provide resources for economic growth
6
Institutul Naţional de Statistică, Veniturile şi cheltuielile gospodăriilor populaţiei în trimestrul II 2014,
http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/abf/ABF_II_r14_n.pdf
7
See Bogdan Glăvan, Câte taxe sunt în PIB sau cât PIB este în taxe?, September 2014,
http://logec.ro/cate-taxe-sunt-in-pib-sau-cat-pib-este-in-taxe/
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thanks to public actions. It remains the problem of scarce resources and the reality of the
impossibility of their concomitant use. Fiscal pressures may not both encourage individual
consumption and government consumption, private investments and public investments. The
household consumption do not needs monetary stimulus, but rather fiscal relaxation.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Lack of coordination of monetary and fiscal policy in Romania is visible through the
expansionary stance of monetary instruments, aimed at boosting growth by encouraging
consumption, while fiscal instruments acts as a brake on this, by taking a growing part of the
economic actors incomes. The interest rate that goes down threshold after threshold is
seconded by tax levy increases. The loss of purchasing power of the currency is backed by
lower revenues remaining at the disposal to economic actors. In these circumstances it is
difficult to imagine that the Romanian economy can base their momentum, being rather
doomed to poverty. Adjustments in the real economy are delayed through monetary
instruments, while initiatives are discouraged through fiscal instruments. On the one hand,
monetary policy continues to lure the mirage of easy to obtain resources, while fiscal policy
awakens to the reality of depleted by tax resources. Having been confiscated a significant
portion of their wealth, the ordinary Romanians can resign or can base their economic action
on borrowed resources. The result can be a creepy one - we can imagine a monetary policy
that provides through credit the needed resources to cover the tax burden.
4. REFERENCES
1. A.T. Kearney, The Shadow Economy in Europe, 2013, available at
http://www.atkearney.com/financial-
institutions/featuredarticle/asset_publisher/j8IucAq MqEhB/content/the-shadow-
economy-in-europe2013 /10192;
2. Dumitru, I., Povara fiscală pe muncă în România: O abordare comparativă ,
http://cursdeguvernare.ro/ionut-dumitru-povara-fiscala-pe-munca-in-romania-o-
abordare-comparativa.html
3. Glăvan, B., Câte taxe sunt în PIB sau cât PIB este în taxe?, September 2014,
http://logec.ro/cate-taxe-sunt-in-pib-sau-cat-pib-este-in-taxe/;
4. Glăvan, B., Un lucru este sigur: cheltuielile gospodăriilor cu impozitele, October
2014; http://logec.ro/category/despre-impozite/;
5. Institutul Naţional de Statistică, Veniturile şi cheltuielile gospodăriilor populaţiei în
trimestrul II 2014,
http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/statistici/comunicate/abf/ABF_II_r14_n. pdf;
6. National Bank of Romania, Broad Money M3 and Its Counterpart, available at
http://bnr.ro/Broad-Money-M3-and-Its-Counterpart-6373.aspx;
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7. National Bank of Romania, Monetary Policy Indicators, available at
http://bnr.ro/Monetary-Policy-Indicators-3318.aspx;
8. Rogers, J., Philippe, C., The Tax Burden of Typical Workers in the EU 27, 2011,
Institut Économique Molinari, available at
http://www.institutmolinari.org/IMG/pdf/tax-burden-eu.pdf;
9. Rogers, J., Philippe, C., The Tax Burden of Typical Workers in the EU 27, 2013,
Institut Économique Molinari;
10. Torgler, B., „Tax Morale in Transition Countries‖, Post-Communist Economies, Vol.
15, No. 3; 2003;
11. Torgler, B., ―Tax Morale in Central and Eastern European Countries‖, in Nicolas
Hayoz and Simon Hug (eds.), Tax Evasion, Trust and State Capacities. How Good Is
Tax Morale in Central and Eastern Europe?, Bern: Peter Lang, 2007;
12. World Bank, Doing Business 2014, available at http://www.doingbusiness. org/~/
media/GIAWB/Doing %20Business /Documents/Annual-reports/English/DB14-Full-
Report.pdf;
13. World Economic Forum, The Global Competitiveness Report 2014–2015, available at
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2014-15.pdf
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ECONOMIC CONVERGENCE AND TERRITORIAL DISPARITIES IN
EASTERN EUROPE – THE FUNCTIONAL NEIGHBORHOOD AND THE
ESTIMATION OF THE SIGMA REGIONAL CONVERGENCE TRENDS
Alexandru Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD, Andreea Mihaela Buraga, PhD Student, ”Al.
Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The inclusion of the territorial dimension in the analysis of the sigma regional
convergence provides a better understanding of the trends describing the reduction of the
regional disparities. Using a mobile Gaussian kernel of variable size that weights the
GDP/inhab. for each NUTS3 of the studied area, we calculate a local sigma convergence
coefficient that can be mapped. Once the cartographic and the spatial analysis are combined,
they depict better the gradients that shape the Eastern European countries and the trends at
work in the reduction or the increase of the regional disparities. Estimating the proper size of
the functional neighborhood allows us to explain how the economic convergence is
accelerated or stopped by geographical factors - state frontiers, years of EU adhesion or
spatial autocorrelation in the GDP distribution.
Keywords: sigma convergence, territorial disparities, functional neighborhood, territorial
endowment, Eastern Europe
1) Introduction
Despite the new challenges and the new topics of major interest fueled by the
worldwide financial crisis, the regional economic convergence in the EU still remains an
important theme of research in various disciplines, such as economy, territorial planning or
political studies. Our paper proposes a methodological framework that enables a better
visualization of the territorial disparities, even in a strong context of regional resilience. The
Eastern European countries recently admitted in the EU are the perfect laboratory for testing
the different theories of economic convergence at regional scale. They generally present high
rhythms of GDP growth, during the 2001-2008 period and they seem to catch-up the
differences of performance and welfare that separate them from the Western core of the
Union. In the same time, this rhythm of GDP growth is unequally distributed in the Eastern
European space, deteriorating the unstable equilibrium of revenues and productivity at local
scale (NUTS3). The economic growth that characterizes these Eastern European economies
has also a problematic influence on the state of the territorial cohesion and the increase of the
territorial disparities becomes a strong theme of debate for policy makers and decision takers.
Our intention is to elaborate a methodology that captures the dynamics of the territorial
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disparities for the studied area, using spatial analysis and tools that upgrade classical
econometric indicators like the sigma convergence (Montfort, 2008; Dao et al., 2013). In a
first part, we will present a literature review of the concepts that shaped our research - the
economic convergence and the functional neighborhood. The main corpus of this paper is
dedicated to the elaboration of the methodology and the analysis of the results we obtained in
exploring the GDP convergence trends, for 2001-2011. Finally, we present the theoretical
limits of our approach and possible solutions to improve the methodology we propose.
2) Literature review and concepts
In the view of the main studies treating the economic convergence issue, we notice
that this concept, generating contradictions and still insufficiently explored, is more the
privilege of economic (Chatterji, 1992; Barro and Sala-i-Martin, 1992; Canova and Marcet,
1995; de la Fuente, 1995; Galor, 1996; Krugman, 1991, 1995, 2008; Brasili and Gutierrez,
2004; Jóźwik and Ponikowski, 2014; Dall‘erba and Le Gallo, 2006; Cuestas et al., 2013),
political and administrative sciences. However, the economic convergence seems to be among
the concerns of geographers, economists and policy makers, by integrating the spatial
dimension of the data needed to estimate the level of convergence of regional economies,
proposing a multiscale approach to measure regional disparities (Gaile, 1984; Armstrong,
1995; Martin, 2000; Grasland, 2012; Bourdin, 2013). Philippe Montfort (2008) considered
that ―the omission of the space variable from the regional beta-convergence process leads to
biased results‖.
The basis of the works centered on the concept of convergence is the neoclassical
theory of the economic growth, developed by Robert Solow (1956), according to which ―the
convergence process between unequal developed countries it is possible‖. Solow insists on
the principle that the initial regional disparities decay with time, each region converging to a
growth rate of the revenue per inhabitant, long-term, called ―the steady state‖. The theoretical
approaches which study the concept of regional convergence focused on the so-called
„catching-up‖ process, less economic performant regions making significant efforts to catch-
up the rich regions. Gerschenkron (1952) was the first who exposed the idea of ‖the
advantages of relative backwardness‖, according to which the poor states imitate and the
developed ones inovate. Because the imitation process is easier and involves lower costs, the
less developed countries shows favorable conditions of a faster growth rate compared with the
rich ones.
Quoting the Convergence report of the European Comission the convergence process
represents a ‖sine-qua-non condition of the stability and the prosperity of the community
space, a condition of the integration of the remoted regions and of the cohesion.‖ The large
number of definitions of the economic convergence corresponds to different concepts and can
be divided on two levels: the beta-convergence (β) and the sigma-convergence (σ) (Sala-i-
Martin, 1996).
The so-called hypotesis of β-convergence refers to ‖the process by which the less
economic performant states register faster growth rates than the rich ones, making possible
the recovering of the existing economic disparities‖. Therefore, the economic growth should
lead to a ―steady state of the economies, with a growth rate dependent only on levels of
technological progress and employment growth‖ (Montfort, 2008). Also, the growth rate of
poor economies should be higher, while the level of income and/or GDP per inhabitant has to
equal that of the developed ones. The β-convergence can be absolute, when the process is
independent of the initial conditions of the economies, or conditioned, when we suppose that
economies are identical in terms of technologies, economic politics, more precisely when
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economies are dependent on the endogeneous factors (Barro and Sala-i-Martin, 1996;
Montfort, 2008; Bourdin, 2013).
The concept of sigma-convergence makes reference to ―the reduction in time of the
interregional disparities‖, by comparing an indicator of dispersion, calculated for the end of
the analyzed period, with the value of the same indicator for the beginning of the studied
period (Montfort, 2008).
The topics of beta and sigma convergence are complementary, because these measure
the convergence process in different ways, offering distinct solutions. Sala-i-Martin (1994,
1996) stressed that beta-convergence is a more interesting concept, because it can be used for
showing the existence of convergence models within different economies, how fast this
process manifests, if the convergence process is absolute or conditioned, total or partial.
3) Methodology and data quality check
The data we use in this article are collected from official sources, the major provider
being the EUROSTAT. In order to analyze the dynamics of the territorial disparities, we have
build a database that contains time-series of GDP at NUTS3 scale. These time-series cover the
period of 2001-2011, partially capturing the effects of the economic convergence on the
Eastern European states. The indicator we retained in our analysis is the GDP per inhabitant,
excluding other variables such as the GDP in purchasing power index for reasons of spatial
comparability of data. The geometry for the mapping process and spatial analysis is provided
by GISCO, the GIS division of the EUROSTAT. Once the indicators being collected, they
were explored for possible outliers using LISA (local indicators for spatial association) and,
with the exception of the false positive flags, no significant outliers were detected.
The spatial database we created was populated with values for all the 234 NUTS3 in
an area composed by the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania), former centralized
economies from Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Romania and
Slovakia) and Austria. The selection of the last country has two reasons. In a first place, from
a historical point of view Austria presents many affinities with the countries from Central
Europe. Secondly, taking into account the relative high values of the GDP/inhab. of the
Austrian NUTS3, we have considered that these values can serve as a reference for better
capturing the dynamics of the GDP, for the other countries retained in the studied area. An
alternative option to also include the Eastern Germany's NUTS3 was rejected due to the fact
that economic convergence process was a matter of national policy, after the reunification and
is less linked to geo-political processes like the EU adhesion.
The database enabled us to explore the process of the sigma convergence at national
scale, showing a large variety in the increase or decrease of the territorial disparities. If
Austria is the most stable country showing an insignificant reduction of the internal
disparities, countries like Romania and Bulgaria present a constant increase in the lack of
territorial cohesion. Contrary, Hungary has a trend of constant reduction of the territorial
disparities, even more spectacular in a country marked by huge inequalities of NUTS3
demographic and economic size. Despite the fact that there is a shortage of comparable sigma
convergence analysis at NUTS0 (country level) in the literature, which makes this regional
depiction an insight in the problems of economic catching-up of the Eastern European states,
we signal some limits of NUTS0 approach on the topic of sigma convergence :
- the administrative geometry of the Eastern European countries makes impossible a
proper comparison of the sigma convergence. Some selected countries have only 5 NUTS3
regions (e.g. Estonia) and calculating the standard deviation of the yearly GDP/inhab. is
statistically limited. In the same time, countries like Poland (66 NUTS3) or Romania (42
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NUTS3) are more suitable for the analysis of the national sigma convergence. Basically, we
do not deal with comparable geographical objects, in order to explore the dynamics of the
territorial disparities.
Figure 1 - Sigma convergence process at national scale (2001-2011)
- reporting the sigma convergence to the national scale in a globalizing world is a
matter of creation of an artificial bounding area. The classical and statistical method is not
able to intercept the effects of the economically dynamic borders in the reduction/increase of
the territorial disparities. Such is the case for the Austro-Hungarian border or the state frontier
between Romania and Hungary.
These limitations invite researchers to propose new ways of approach on the sigma
convergence and the measure of the territorial disparities. As already signaled in the literature
review, encouraging results were obtained by Grasland (2012) and Dao et al. (2014), in the
frame of the ESPON Programme, while the necessity to spatially weight the trends of the
local sigma convergence were already indicated by Monfort (2008).
Figure 2 - The conceptual framework of the functional neighborhood
The methodology we propose enables mapping the sigma convergence trends and it is
based on the concept of functional neighborhood. Using a Gaussian kernel of variable size,
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the indicator used to measure the sigma convergence (GDP/inhab.) was weighted with the
distance separating the NUTS3 retained for the analysis. The distance function we used is set
to decrease the contributions of the NUTS3 place in the functional neighborhood as follows:
- a first Gaussian span was set at 100 km (approximately 2 hours of car drive
distance). A NUTS3 situated at this 100 km distance will contribute with 50 % of its
GDP/inhab. in the calculation of the local sigma convergence.
- the second Gaussian span was set at 200 km (approximately 4 hours of car drive
distance). A NUTS3 situated at this 200 km distance will contribute with 50 % of its
GDP/inhab. in the calculation of the local sigma convergence.
This mathematical model of local sigma convergence describes a functional
neighborhood that is replicated for each NUTS3 from the studied area (Grasland, 2012). The
weighted values are summed and then different calculations are implemented - local average
and local standard deviation of the weighted values. The ratio between the local standard
deviation and the local average provides the coefficient of variation (sigma convergence) for
each NUTS3. These values are available for all the yearly indicators in the database
(GDP/inhab. 2001- 2011) and they can be mapped.
The mathematical model contains a set of parameters that indicates the starting
assumptions in the exploration of the local convergence. It is derived from the model of
spatial potential of interaction and we remind that a numerous number of weighted distance
functions can be implemented in the calculation of the sigma convergence (inverse distance
weight, squared inverse distance weight, exponential decay of the distance, logarithmic decay
of the distance etc.).
The formalization of the model is build using this algorithm:
where :
a = ln(0.5)/GS2
Dij = distance between the NUTS3
GS = the Gaussian span set to control the distance decay function.
b = the distance decay parameter, generally set to the value of 2.
The local sigma convergence is calculated using this formula:
LSC = SD/( )/n)
where:
SD = the local standard deviation of the weighted GDP/inhab. values.
Any intervention on the parameters operating in the model will have an impact on the
calculation of the sigma convergence. Assuming different values for the parameters, one can
obtain an unlimited number of different functional neighborhood contexts.
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Figure 3 - Different approaches of the functional neighborhood.
In the example of the figure 3, three different hypotheses were used. For the f1
example, the value of the Gaussian span was set to 100 km and the weighted function to 0.33.
Using this distance function, only 33% of the GDP/inhab. would have participated in the
elaboration of the local sigma convergence, at 100 km from each NUTS3 in the studied area.
In the case of the f2 example, the Gaussian span was set to 200 km and the probability of
collection to 0.5 (50%). In the last case, the Gaussian span is set to 300 km, but the value of
the weighted function is blocked at 0.66 (66%), with an intervention on the distance decay
parameter b (1.5).
Figure 4 - Synthetic results of the functional neighborhood methodological
approach of the sigma convergence
The implementation of the methodological frame of the local sigma convergence
evaluation is a step by step calculation process. The elaboration of the distance matrix
between all the 234 NUTS3 in the studied area provided a table of 54522 lines. The
GDP/inhab. dataset for 2001-2011 was joined to this table and two types of functional
neighborhood (2 and 4 hours time distance neighborhood) were calculated as weighting
functions. The GDP/inhab. dataset at NUTS3 level was multiplied with the distance weighting
functions and the results were summarized, in order to allow the estimation of the local
standard deviation of the GDP/inhab. and the local average. The two statistical indicators
were finally used for the calculus of the local sigma convergence for 2001, 2008 (the starting
year of the financial crisis) and 2011.
The data we obtained served for two purposes: a basic cartographic exploration of the
territorial distribution of the local sigma convergence, doubled by more advanced spatial
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analysis of the territorial disparities. The basic mapping of the local sigma convergence shows
interesting patterns in the distribution of the territorial disparities. The general trend observed
on the maps indicates a reduction of the territorial disparities between 2001 and 2011, at
NUTS3 level. However, at regional and national scale, the conservation of some areas of
strong disparities on the axis Vienna-Krakow-Warsaw and around Bucharest suggests that the
mechanism of economic growth is strongly related to the metropolitan endowment of the
Eastern European urban system. Budapest and Sofia are also generators of territorial
disparities, at regional scale (2 hours or 4 hours of functional neighborhood), but in a more
limited manner. The more advanced exploration of the local sigma convergence with tools of
spatial analysis is presented in the section dedicated to the results and discussions.
4) Results and discussions
The main intention of our study is to propose a methodological framework to estimate
the local sigma convergence. Applying techniques of spatial analysis to these indicators is one
way to derive policy recommendations for decision makers dealing with the issue of territorial
disparities. This final step in the analysis can signal the progress made in the promotion of
more cohesive territories, but it can also flag the regional stakes and the areas where the
objective of territorial cohesion is unlikely to be soon implemented.
Figure 5 - Annual average change rate of the local sigma convergence (2001-2011)
- 2 hours time distance of functional neighborhood
The dataset containing the local sigma convergence indicators for 2001-2011 was used
to calculate an average annual change rate, for two contexts of functional neighborhood - 2
hours and 4 hours time distance. The map presented in the figure 5 emphasizes the uneven
distribution in this change rate. While NUTS3 regions from Austria, Western Hungary,
Western Slovakia or the Romanian-Hungarian border show a steady rhythm of decrease for
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the territorial disparities, the NUTS3 surrounding the capital-regions of Bucharest and Sofia
behave differently. The gradients at work in the dynamics of the territorial disparities are no
longer West-East oriented; they are complicated by numerous other factors that can be
explained by territorial advantages: economically active borders, metropolitan endowment or
demographic stability.
Figure 6 - Annual average change rate of the local sigma convergence (2001-2011)
- 4 hours time distance of functional neighborhood
Changing the scale of analysis to a 4 hours time distance functional neighborhood will
smooth the trends observed on the previous map. In this case, regions like the North-East
NUTS2 change completely the dynamic of territorial disparities evolution. The spatial
smoothing provides the image of a macro-region where the trends regarding the territorial
cohesion are divided. Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia claim a reduction of the
disparities, Romania and Bulgaria are in an opposite situation, Poland remains stable, while
the Baltic States are a synthetic image of three trends overlapped. Each scale of functional
neighborhood and the conclusions of the spatial analysis proposed address different types of
policy makers and decision takers. For example, the functional neighborhood of 2 hours is
rather suitable for decisions concerning the intermediate area, like the NUTS2 regions. The
analysis of the sigma convergence in a functional neighborhood of 4 hours is more likely to
be useful for territorial planning at national and regional scale. The combination of these two
scales by a qualitative typology places each NUTS3 in one specific class.
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Figure 7 - NUTS3 typology based on the annual average change rate of the local
sigma convergence
The four classes obtained by the NUTS3 typology are interesting by their spatial
distribution and by the policy recommendations that can be addressed, in the frame of applied
spatial analysis. For example, for counties (NUTS3) placed in the first class (reduction of the
territorial disparities in both functional neighborhood contexts) policies aiming the increase of
their economic competitiveness should be considered. The regional classification we propose
can also be considered as a territorial impact assessment tool, measuring the results of the
rolled-back strategies in the reduction territorial disparities.
5) Conclusions
The main objective of our research was to elaborate a methodological framework that
enables the estimation of the local sigma convergence, passing from the territorial scale of
reference (national, macro-region) to the spatial one. This translation is possible using the
concept of functional neighborhood that is based on a mobile Gaussian kernel of variable size.
Choosing two different spatial contexts (2 hours and 4 hours of functional neighborhood), we
implemented our methodology and obtained indicators describing the levels of territorial
disparities for the 2001-2011 period. These indicators were explored using spatial analysis
tools and they served to elaborate a NUTS3 typology concerning the annual average change
rate of the local sigma convergence.
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The limits of our approach are derived mostly from the formalization of the functional
neighborhood model. Taking into account that the model is based on three different
parameters - the potential of GDP collection, the Gaussian span and the distance decay
function, the lack of empirical studies providing calibration for these parameters is clearly a
limit for our approach. In order to calibrate one parameter in the model, like the potential of
GDP collection, one would need a yearly matrix of commercial flows between the NUTS3,
matrix that is not available at this geographical level. A second limit that we observed in our
research is provided by the impossibility to properly define a spatially weighted standard
deviation for the coefficient of dispersion needed in the calculation of the local sigma
convergence.
Despite these limitations, there is a promising potential of applied spatial analysis on
the topic of the local sigma convergence. The results might be an alternative and distinctive
method to propose policy recommendations that take into account both the geographical and
economical factor of the NUTS3 performance.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-
financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human
Resources Development 2007 – 2013
6) Bibliography
Armstrong, H., (1995) –„An appraisal of the evidence from cross-sectional analysis
of the regional growth process within the European Union, in Convergence and Divergence
among European Regions‖, Eds. Armstrong H. and Vickerman, R. (Pion Limited), pag. 41-
65.
Barro, R., Sala-i-Martin, X., (1992) – „Convergence‖, Journal of Political Economy,
nr. 100 (2), pag. 223–251.
Barro, R., Sala-i-Martin, X., (1997) – „Technological diffusion, convergence, and
growth‖, Journal of Economic Growth, nr. 2, pag. 1–27.
Bourdin, S., (2013) – „Vers une réduction des inégalités régionales dans l‘Union
européenne ? Une approche multiscalaire des trajectoires de convergence‖, ASRDLF 2013,
Appel à communication.
Brasili, C., Gutierrez, L., (2004) – „Regional convergence across European Union‖,
Development and Comp Systems0402002, EconWPA.
Canova, F., Marcet, A., (1995): „The Poor stay Poor : non Convergence Accross
Country and Regions‖, CEPR Workshop on Empirical Macroeconomics, Brussels.
Chatterji, M., (1992) – „Convergence clubs and Endogenous Growth‖ , Oxford
Review of Economic Policy, nr. 8 , p. 57-69.
Cuestas, J.C., Monfort M, Ordóñez, J., (2010) – „Real Convergence in Europe: A
Cluster Analysis‖, Sheffield Economic Research Paper Series, nr. 2012023.
Dall'Erba, S., Le Gallo, J., (2008) – „Regional convergence and the impact of
European structural funds over 1989-1999: a spatial econometric analysis‖, Regional
Science, vol. 87, pag. 219-244.
Dao, H., Plagnat, P., Rousseaux, V., (2013) – „Sigma-convergence as a measure of
territorial cohesion‖, published in Science in support of European Territorial Development
and Cohesion, Luxembourg, p. 32-37.
de la Fuente, A., (1995) – „Catch-up, Growth and Convergence in the OECD", CEPR
Discussion Paper, nr. 1274.
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Gaile, G.L., (1984) – „Measures of spatial inequality‖. In: Gaile GL, WilImott CJ
(eds) Spatial statistics and
Models, D. Reidel, p. 223-233.
Galor, O., (1996) – „Convergence? Inferences from Theoretical models‖, The
Economic Journal, nr. 106, p. 1056-1069.
Gerschenkron, A., (1952) - „Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective‖, The
Progress of Underdeveloped Areas, Chicago University Press.
Grasland, C., (2012) – „Transformation of regional indicators with functional
neighborhood‖ (presentation), ESPON Open Seminar, Aalborg, June 2012.
Jóźwik, B., Ponikowski, H., (2014) – „Real convergence, economic crises and EU
cohesion policy‖, Cambridge Conference Business & Economics.
Krugman, P., (1991) – „Increasing returns and economic geography‖, Journal of
Political Economy, nr. 99 (3), pag. 483 – 499.
Le Gallo, J., Dall’Erba, S., (2006) - „Evaluating the temporal and spatial
heterogeneity of the European convergence process: 1980-1999‖, Journal of Regional
Science, nr. 46, p. 269-288.
Martin, R., (2000) – „EMU versus the regions? Regional convergence and divergence
in Euroland‖, ESRC Centre for Business Research, University of Cambridge, Working Paper,
nr. 179.
Montfort, P., (2008) – „Convergence of EU régions. Measures and Evolution‖,
DG Politique Régionale, Bruxelles, document de travail, n°1, 20 p.
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Journal of Economics LXX(1), pag. 65-94.
***(2013) – „Success for Convergence Regions‘ Economies‖, ESPON Final Report.
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http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/
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AIR ACCESSIBILITY, RESILIENT REGIONS AND ECONOMIC
CONVERGENCE IN THE EASTERN EUROPE - TERRITORIAL EVIDENCES
SUPPORTING THE POLICY DESIGN AND THE DECISION MAKERS
Andreea Mihaela Buraga, PhD Student, Alexandru Rusu, Assist. Prof., PhD
Abstract: The analysis of the relation between the regional air accessibility and the economic
convergence, in selected countries from the Eastern Europe, emphasizes the role played by
the territorial endowment in the economic growth. While other studies explore the factors that
contribute to the economic convergence from a statistical point of view, our approach is
based on the spatial analysis. Using tools such as the geographical weighted regression and
measures of the spatial autocorrelation of the GDP dynamics at NUTS3 scale, our research
reclassified the Eastern European regions based of the relation between the territorial
advantages (air accessibility and connectivity) and the rhythm of economic convergence. The
time series we used include information both for the ante-crisis and the economic crisis
period, allowing us to also investigate the resilient regions in the analyzed area. Detecting the
regional resilience is our secondary objective, making our research more suitable for matters
of policy design.
Keywords: air accessibility, resilient regions, economic convergence, geographical weighted
regression, Eastern Europe
1) Introduction
The process of economic convergence is essential in the fulfillment of the main
objectives that guide the territorial policies in the EU. Although intuitive, the concept of
economic convergence is difficult to define, the limitations being induced by the shift from
the theoretical dimension of the convergence to the empirical and applied one. If, in theory,
the large number of the convergence approaches reflects discrepancies between economic
schools and diverse epistemological stands, effectively measuring this process is reduced to
the calculation of parameters in equations that capture the absolute or relative dynamic of
economic performance indicators - GDP, gross added value, purchasing power index and
household income. (Montfort, 2008). Most often, without taking into account the spatial
dimension of the convergence process, the parameters previously described are estimated
using econometric models that ignore the regional and the territorial complexity, complexity
that is at the base of the economic catching-up rhythm. In practical words, refining this
unclear image of the territorial complexity involves the formalization of the spatial effects that
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can accelerate or decelerate the convergence - neighborhood effect or spatial autocorrelation,
territorial belonging or territorial autocorrelation, regional or national hierarchies of the
analyzed spatial units (Grasland, 2012).
Thus, as with other economic or planning concepts, passing from the statistical
dimension to the geo-statistical one represents the main methodological challenge, but also
the main way to clarify the relation between the processes of regional economic convergence
and the territorial advantages (air accessibility and connectivity, air traffic of passengers and
freight, territorial endowment with air infrastructures etc.). Seeking to compare the results
provided by different methods of beta-convergence estimation, in this paper we analyze how
important is the role played by the air accessibility in the dynamic of the GDP, in selected
countries from Eastern Europe.
2) Literature review and concepts
The existent literature provides a large number of definitions of the concept of
accessibility. The TRACC Project (Transport Accessibility at regional/local scale and patterns
in Europe) defines accessibility as ―a construction of two functions, one representing the
activities or opportunities to be reached and one representing the effort, time, distance or cost
needed to reach them‖ (Spiekermann and Wegener, 2011), being a major factor of economic
attractiveness of cities and regions (DSA et al., 2013). The Reports dealing with the Economic
and Social Cohesion (2007, 2010) describe accessibility as an indispensable condition of the
economic growth within the European Union, having a direct impact on the attractiveness of
regions, while the Green Paper on Territorial Cohesion (2008) emphasizes the importance of
the local and regional accessibility, as key factors in ensuring equitable access to services,
networks and European hubs. Bruinsma and Rietveld (1998) defines accessibility as ―the
potential of opportunities for interaction‖, and Redondi et al. (2013) as ―a way to measure
how people and activities from a location are able to reach other locations using transport
networks‖.
All these definitions include the economic theory of the location and the importance of
the distance. In most cases, improving accessibility leads to economic growth, because the
reduction of transport costs provides a location the opportunity to benefit from the
advantages of production costs (Krugman, 1991). Reviewing the main studies centered on the
accessibility concept, we notice that it insists on the analysis of different types and
accessibility indicators (Harvey, 1987; Geurs and Wee 2004; Reynolds-Feighan and McLay,
2006; Spiekermann and Wegener, 2006; Kouwenhoven, 2008; Burghouwt and Redondi,
2013). Thus, according to Wegener and al. (2002), ―the accessibility indicators describe the
location of an area with respect to opportunities, activities or assets existing in other areas and
in the area itself, where ‗area‘ may be a region, a city or a corridor‖.
The existence of an extensive literature relating to the concept of air accessibility
explains the importance of this topic for researchers, governments, airlines and airports, due
to the large number of users of air services and the strong interdependence of economic
development, tourism and migration phenomena (Skinner, 1976; Cattan, 2004; Dobruszkes,
2006; Malina, 2006; Malighetti et al., 2007; Dobruszkes et al., 2011; Maertens, 2012;
Fröhlich and Niemeier, 2011; Redondi et al., 2013; Suau-Sanchez et al., 2014). Koster et al.
(2011), Harvey (1986), Skinner (1976) showed that the accessibility of airports in terms of
travel time is determinant for the choice of an airport by air travelers, increasing the
accessibility of an airport having beneficial consequences to improve its market position. The
concept of connectivity falls in relation to a number of variables used to assess the
performance of airports.
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The concept of resilience has recently been introduced in studies dealing with the
impact of the economic, social and ecological dislocations on regional economies (Hudson,
2010; Simmie and Martin, 2010), based on ideas from fields such as ecology, social
psychology, medicine and physics (Mohaupt, 2008).
Recent scientific papers suggest the need to consider multiple dimensions of the
concept of regional resilience, the first of these being the ability of a regional economy to
resist the changes or to maintain its basic functions despite external economic shocks (Foster,
2007; Hill et al., 2010, Hudson, 2010, Simmie and Martin, 2010). The second dimension of
this topic is conceived as a region's ability to maintain or return to a pattern of long-term
development in the context of an external shock (Ficenec, 2010, Hill et al., 2010). The third
dimension relates to the long-term adaptability of regional economies (Pendall et al., 2010,
Pike et al., 2010; Simmie and Martin, 2010).
Among the relevant and innovative studies that analyze the economic crisis and the
regional resilience issues, from a territorial perspective, we mention the ―Economic Crisis:
Resilience of Regions‖ (ECR2) ESPON Project. A general definition of the concept of
resilience, given in the ECR2 Project, refers to ―the ability of a regional economy to
withstand, absorb or overcome an external economic shock‖. The economic resilience is seen
thus as a key tool in the elucidation of what Hassink (2010 ) described as ―one of the most
intriguing questions in economic geography (...) why some regional economies manage to
renew themselves, whereas others remain locked in decline‖. A number of regional and urban
studies have explored the applicability of this concept to regional and local scale ( Foster,
2007; Hill et al, 2008). The recent literature focuses on the analysis of the territorial impact,
caused by the specific economic shocks (Martin, 2012) and on the factors that are able to
sustain the economic resilience (Healy, 2014).
3) Methodology and data quality check
The datasets used in this research are provided by EUROSTAT and ESPON M4D
Project. The EUROSTAT source allowed us to build time-series for 234 NUTS3 from the
Eastern Europe, collecting indicators like the GDP, the gross added value, regional
unemployment etc. From all these datasets only the GDP./inhab. was used in the beta-
convergence analysis. The indicators describing the air accessibility at NUTS3 scale are
available on the ESPON Database portal for 3 distinct years - 2001, 2006, 2011. The
geometries for the NUTS3 level of geographical representation were downloaded from
GISCO, the EUROSTAT GIS division. All the maps and the spatial analysis are based on the
three sources mentioned in this part of the paper.
Our methodological approach aims to relate and to explore the GDP/inhab. yearly
change rate with indicators of territorial endowment (air accessibility) in the frame of the
beta-convergence model. In order to estimate the parameters describing the role of the air
accessibility, as a factor of GDP/inhab. dynamics, we use two different types of regression
analysis, a classical ordinary least square method and the geographical weighted regression.
The last one is able to locally determine the coefficients of the predictors (for each NUTS3)
using a mobile kernel of fixed or variable size (Charlton M., 2002). The results will be
compared for three periods of analysis: before the economic crisis, during the economic crisis
and for 2001-2011. These two complementary methods (OLS and GWR) will provide
information regarding the regional resilience for 2008-2011.
4) Results and discussions
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In this part we estimate the relation between the economic growth at NUTS3 scale
and factors of territorial endowment, in the frame of the beta-convergence process. Our
intention is to relate the dynamics of the GDP/inhab. from 2001 to 2011, using an ordinary
least square regression where the predictors are variables describing the territorial
accessibility. This method will provide the coefficients of the regression, coefficients that
depict the progress of the beta-convergence and the role played by the air accessibility of the
NUTS3 in the studied area. Mathematically, the formalization of the model is rather simple to
approach.
Et+n = a + b*log(Yt)+c*Z, where
Et+n = the dynamic of the beta-convergence indicator (GDP, GVA, consumption,
income etc.)
Y = the level of the convergence indicator at moment t
Z = predictors such as air accessibility, volume of flows or other explanatory variables
a, b, c = parameters of the ordinary least square regression.
The dynamic of the beta-convergence indicator was calculated as an annual average
rhythm of growth :
Et+n = ((GDP/inhab.t+n/GDP/inhab.t)^(t+n-t)) - 1,
where:
t = the chronological base of reference - 2001
t+n = the last year in the dataset - 2008 or 2011, if the model is applied for the ante-
crisis period
Applying the statistical model for the NUTS3 form the Eastern Europe emphasizes
some important aspects:
- the process of beta-economic convergence is active for two periods - 2001-2008 and
2001-2011. For the last case, the statistical quality is more reduced, indicating a deceleration
in the process of the economic catching-up, due to the financial crisis.
- for the crisis period (2008-2011) the statistical model is not valid as we assist at a
stop in the economic growth and trends of reversing of the economic accumulation of GDP.
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Figure 1 - Standardized residuals of the beta-convergence (OLS regression) for
2001-2008 Local quality of the beta-convergence model (GWR) for 2001-2008
However, implementing the model at Eastern European scale points out the role
played by the air accessibility, during the economic convergence process. Grasland (2012)
and Monfort (2008) highlight the impact played by the spatial and territorial variables in the
dynamic of the convergence process. The introduction of the spatial lag in the beta-
convergence model is rather a methodological innovation. One way to solve the problem of
the spatial lag in the ordinary least square model is using the geographical weighted
regression (Fotheringham, S., Brunsdon, C., Charlton M., 2002, Mitchell A., 2005) or the
local smoothing.
In this logic, we have systematically compared the results obtained by the statistical
classical model with the alternative geo-statistical method of geographical weighted
regression. Three models were retained in our analysis, allowing us to observe the role played
by the air accessibility in the beta-convergence process, together with the economic
performance of the NUTS3.
The first model presents an acceptable level for the coefficient of determination
(R2=0.52). Less interesting as values, the coefficients of the model are relevant by their sign.
In this case, the negative value of the GDP/inhab. in 2001 suggests that the starting level in
the convergence process explains the annual change rate of the economic catching-up. High
levels of GDP are associated with a slower rhythm of growth, while inferior starting positions
ensure a more accelerated change rate of the economic indicator (GDP/inhab.). The sign
associated with the air accessibility emphasizes the role played by the territorial endowment, a
good position in the air network of flows explaining a part of the GDP dynamic.
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Coef. of Explained
det. Accessibility Beta variable
GDP/inhab
Air .
Year accessibility at NUTS3 GDP/inhab.
Period s R2 t (coef.) -c (coef.) -b dyanmics
Model
1 T 2001 Annual
t+n 2008 0.52 0.02 -0.04 change rate
Model
2 T 2008 Annual
t+n 2011 0.02 0.003 0.01 change rate
Model
3 T 2001
t 2 Annual
+n 011 0.47 0.01 -0.02 change rate
Table 1 - Synthetic presentation of the beta-convergence model. (2001-2008,
2008-2011, 2001-2011)
Figure 2 - Moran's I variation as a function of distance for the standardized
residuals of the beta-convergence model no.1
The three models we propose are sound from a statistical point of view (not significant
p values associated with the predictors), however, they are problematic from a geo-statistical
point of view. As the residuals are spatially auto-correlated (Moran's I index), they indicate
the presence of non-stationary predictors and suggest the existence of spatial gradients, both
for the economic performance and the air accessibility. The canonical-statistical models of
beta-convergence are not able to intersect these gradients. Introducing the spatial lag in the
methodology proposed by the geographical weighted regression enables the detection of these
gradients, by the mapping process of the local coefficients (b and c). In that case, one will
observe that the air accessibility shows patterns of spatial distribution that favors some
regions or acts as penalties for other NUTS3. Moreover, the spatial distribution of the local
coefficient associated with the air accessibility is not dictated by hazard. The cartographic
analysis indicates that higher values are concentrated in the inert economic NUTS3 of
Bulgaria, on the Western Romanian border and in the highly urbanized regions of Central
Czech Republic.
The beta-convergence analysis for the crisis period of 2008-2011 derives a different
spatial configuration. The second model is the less performing from the three versions we
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built, with an insignificant coefficient of statistical determination - R2 =0.02. The
geographical weighted regression doubles this conclusion, the coefficients associated with the
air accessibility being reduced and statistically not sound.
Figure 3 - Spatial distribution of the air accessibility coefficients, estimated using
geographical weighted regression. GWR beta-convergence model for 2001-2008, 2008-
2011 and 2001-2011
Replicating the beta-convergence model for the period 2001-2011, both with a
canonical-statistic approach and a geo-statistical one, partially overlap the conclusion of the
first model. When we include data from the crisis period, the parameters of the regression are
more reduced.
The preliminary analysis of the beta-convergence points out some important
geographical aspects that can be used for policy recommendations. Building and exploiting
the three models (doubled by a geographical weighted regression) clearly shows that the air
accessibility behaves as a factor of economic growth, at NUTS3 scale. This first conclusion is
valid for periods of intense economic growth (2001-2008). For the crisis period, the
inefficiency of the beta convergence models demands for a better understanding of the
economic turbulences affecting the NUTS3. As the annual change rate of the GDP/inhab.
presents contrasts in the territorial distribution, we can relate these dynamics to the evolutions
of the air accessibility by proposing a qualitative typology in four classes.
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Figure 4 - NUTS3 typology of selected countries from Eastern Europe - GDP
change rate and air accessibility evolution (2008-2011) -
The first class (double decrease for GDP/inhab. and accessibility) includes NUTS3
from Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia. Dynamic NUTS3 before the
crisis, like Pest, Budapest, Timis or Constanta, were put together with peripheral and
economically inert counties, such as Szalbog-Szatmar-Bereg (Hungary) or Elcki (Poland),
emphasizing the unexplained territorial patterns in the manifestation of the economic crisis.
At the opposite (double decrease for GDP/inhab. and accessibility), counties like
Sofia, Yambol or Giurgiu escape the crisis effects on the economic performance and
consolidate their position in the air accessibility hierarchy.
Maybe the most interesting NUTS3 class is composed by Bratislava, Wien, Krakow
and similar metropolitan counties that, despite a decrease in the air accessibility, present
positive change rates of the GDP even during the economic crisis. We can suspect that these
NUTS3 benefit from local economic systems that are resilient in periods of turbulence, a
resilience that the beta-convergence models is able to detect by more advanced geo-statistical
formalization.
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5) Conclusions
In this article we have studied the role played by factors of territorial endowment in
the dynamic of economic performance. The methodological frame was assured by the beta-
convergence calculation, while the explained variable was the GDP/inhab. change rate and the
predictor indicator the air accessibility at NUTS3 scale. The formalization was proposed for
three periods of time: 2001-2008, 2008-2011 and 2001-2011, following recent economic
cycles. Our approach involved several steps, like the collection of data, the statistical and
spatial analysis exploration and the elaboration of a regional typology serving as a discussion
basis for policy recommendations.
The main conclusion of our study highlights the fact that the classical model of beta-
convergence should be doubled by analysis that mobilizes the geographical factors of GDP
rate of change. These factors can be intersected using the geographical weighted regression,
especially for a close-up on the local variability of the coefficients explaining the average
annual change rate of the economic performance. Moreover, the estimation of the local
quality of the beta-convergence model indicates that this process is shaped by a West-East
gradient and that the role of the air-accessibility is not equally important all over the Eastern
European space.
The economic crisis reset the trends of economic convergence, bringing into
discussion the role of the resilience for the performance of the local economic systems. Our
hypothesis sustains that, by using spatial lag in canonical models (beta or sigma
convergence), research can detect and quantify more easily this regional attribute. The final
typology we proposed is an example on how spatial analysis can be mobilized to provide
policy recommendations for decision-takers, linking the applied research with the elaboration
of the policy design.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, co-
financed by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program Human
Resources Development 2007 – 2013
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INDUSTRIAL AGGLOMERATIONS AND SPATIAL EQUILIBRIUM. A
NORMATIVE APPROACH
Raluca Irina Clipa, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to place spatial equilibrium analysis to a normative
level by seeking solutions to reduce development gaps between Romanian regions. Making
use of logical analysis, empirical study and comparative analysis, I will show that competitive
regional development of Romania may be obtained through an industrial policy of supporting
clusters. Romania also needs to define its policy regarding balanced spatial development,
taking into account the experience of the European economies, and the realities of our
country. The solution to reducing disparities among regions of Romania is the emergence of
new growth poles in poorer areas. This allows a polycentric and balanced spatial
development that will alleviate disparities.
Keywords: agglomeration economies; clusters; spatial equilibrium; disparities; regional
policy
1. Introduction
The spatial equilibrium means polycentric sustainable development of a territory
(national or regional), that is supported by urban growth poles, together with the existence of
cluster, performing spatial configurations that allow multiple links with self-sustained growth
opportunities. Promoting a "balanced polycentric urban system" is one of the main objectives
of the ESDP (European Spatial Development Perspective, 1999). Interest in polycentric
development is fed by the evidence that the polycentric urban systems stimulate economic
growth, they are sustainable in terms of environmental protection and support territorial
cohesion better than monocentric urban systems. Urban network is the backbone of the
territory and fit with the capacity of the network to serve all parties effectively and
harmoniously.
Placing the spatial equilibrium analysis to a normative level, the solution for reducing
disparities among Romanian regions is the emergence of new growth poles in poorer areas.
This allows a polycentric and balanced spatial development that will alleviate disparities.
Through this, it will achieve the objectives of cohesion and competitiveness as reflected in
official EU documents and recommended for regional development of the country.
In the following, we try to grasp the role of Romanian industrial agglomerations in
setting up a balanced territorial development.
2. Literature review
Regionalization, meaning the division of a national territory in development regions, is
regard to the variables criterion that are not able to allow uniform development of areas. The
Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics (NUTS) used as a territorial analysis unit does
not consider real local needs. For example, an assessment of the situation in Romania reveals
that 'the NUTS II classification allows only a limited understanding of the development
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process' and should be complemented by other factors such as size of urban areas, market
access or proximity (Government of Romania, 2007). An attempt to answer the question what
is the most appropriate geographical scale to describe the level of regional development, the
researchers (Cojanu, 2009, 2010) concluded that development can be viewed in a more
realistic way using multiple-link spatial configurations, in which opportunities for growth are
self-sustained.
Based on existing needs, the analysis should cover a growth model that emphasizes the
role of competitive interdependencies that occur in a particular territory. Competitive
development zones arise from a particular development context, which in turn is explained by
the action of two twin concepts: identity and functionality (Cojanu, 2010). While the former
refers to an identifiable common denominator for the development, the second is a functional
model of territorial developments that affects the premises of temporal and spatial growth.
As suggested in studies conducted at EU level (ESPON, 2006), there are no clear
borders between competitive areas, as economic spaces appear in various forms of spatial and
temporal boundaries. Spatial, because a development context is defined by an arbitrary
combination of factors of geographical origin, such as distance, industry economics, decision
centres, value chains, etc. And temporal, since the context is the historical depository of
common issues, more or less tangible, such as traditions, beliefs and the feeling of belonging
to a community, drawing a pattern of development characteristic for a certain period.
That is why regionalization must be more than a process of dividing the territory into
regions; it must be aimed at stimulating and diversifying economic activities, stimulate
private sector investment, helping to reduce unemployment and increase quality of life, ie
regional development of the national territory.
Moreover, polycentric regional development policy should not only have the urban
centers as powerful core, but also competitive industrial clusters. Based on Porter's theories
(1998, 2003) researchers (Delgado et al., 2010 b) has developed a systematic empirical
approach to identify the role of regional clusters over regional economic performance. Their
conclusions were the following: the participating industries from a strong cluster have higher
growth rates of occupation, salaries, establishments and patents; new regional industries
emerge where a strong cluster already exists; the presence of strong clusters in a given region
determines the growth of opportunities in other industries or clusters. The same group of
researchers (Delgado et al., 2010 a) has studied the role of regional clusters over regional
entrepreneurship and has concluded that the presence of complementary economic activities
creates externalities which increase incentives and decrease the barriers faced by start-ups. As
a result, the industries localized in regions with strong clusters (e.g. characterized by a high
presence of other connected industries) confront themselves with a surge in the number of
new businesses and enterprises. Influential clusters are also associated with new business
establishments, thus influencing decisions regarding business localization. In the end, strong
clusters contribute to the survival of start-ups.
The Group of Applied Economics (GEA, 2007) did a survey on the 42 Romanian
counties regarding the correlation between development and entrepreneurial spirit,
highlighting that the success of regional competitiveness has four determinants, directly
related to industrial agglomerations. First, it comes to the high productivity of industrial
clusters as a result of access to specialized inputs and employees, access to information,
complementarities, access to institutions and public goods, incentives to achieve performance.
Second, it is noted the innovation supported by industrial agglomerations as a result of the
needs of new customers, new technological possibilities, production or distribution, and the
ability to act quickly. Third, industrial clusters stimulates the formation of new companies,
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having as causes low barriers to the market entry - through better information on
opportunities, easy detection of niches / segments uncovered in terms of products, services or
service suppliers, a large local market - but also to the market exit. Finally, regional
competitiveness is related to competition and cooperation within industrial clusters based on
vertical links with suppliers and customers - by disseminating information that may contribute
to the development of new products and processes, or financial gain by increasing
coordination of work - and the horizontal relationships with direct competitors - the effect of
compensation between access to a larger volume of resources, on the one hand and the
potential loss of intellectual property, or the emergence of most redoubtable competitors, on
the other hand.
3. Industrial agglomerations - poles of competitiveness in regional development.
The Romanian experience
Based on observations of Alfred Marshall (1890) regarding the benefits companies
that are concentrated in a particular region, through neo-classical economists approaches and
other scientists in related fields (especially geographers), clusters have become today a
"fashionable" concept around the the world. Essential contributions to the development of the
concept is due to Michael E. Porter (1998), by replacing the classical theory of production
factors in a diamond of competitiveness, thus becoming the founder of economic policy based
industrial clusters. He defines clusters as a concentration of companies and associated
enterprises (universities, research institutes, trial laboratories, continuous professional
learning providers, professional associations, local authorities etc.) from a specific field,
found in the same geographical area and interconnected through common and complementary
activities. The definition focuses on interconnections between actors, the synergies arising
from their collaboration and positive externalities results, such as skilled labor, locally
available, low-cost transportation, external economies of scale, transfer of know-how and
technology.
Economic practice has validated the model known in the literature as ―the triple helix‖.
It joins together, within a cluster, representatives of: companies – representing the economic
part of the cluster; universities and research institutes – representing the suppliers of
innovative solutions, applicable to the real needs of the companies that are part of the cluster;
local and regional public authorities etc.
Clusters are a real alternative also for the economic development of Romania. In this
country, experience has proved that the three natural partners of the ―Triple helix‖ model not
only do not cooperate, but they also do not know each other and do not get to discuss with one
another. There is a need for adapting the model and for turning it into a ―Four clover‖ model,
the fourth actor being the catalyst organizations – consulting firms, specialized in the
technological transfer and innovation field, technological transfer centers, etc.
Romanian clusters have been formed in a natural "bottom up" manner, based on
industrial agglomerations in certain geographical regions. These were based on either the
tradition – the case of automotive component suppliers Dacia-Renault or Textil NE - or the
location of multinational companies - Western Automotive cluster. Transition to the next level
has been done, in almost all cases, due to the intervention of catalyst entities (RDAs, industry
associations, consulting firms) which led to the formation of clusters as "potential poles of
competitiveness". The most important role in forming clusters / poles of competitiveness was
the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Business Environment, Department of Industrial Policy,
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which by actions since 2008, accelerated the process of creating these competitive industrial
agglomerations.
This has materialized in four main actions: 1. development of the chapter
regarding clusters from the industrial policy document, with support from the German
Agency for Technical Assistance (GTZ); 2. ―Inov Cluster‖ Project (2008-2010), from the
Sectoral Plan for Research and Development, which consisted in disseminating the concept of
innovation clusters in Romania and the examples of good international practice, as well as
stimulating economic operators in creating and developing innovation clusters through
creating specific instruments (guides, gateways, consulting services); 3. ―cluster mapping‖
exercise, developed by MECBE, with support from the German Agency for Technical
Assistance (GTZ); 4. generating potential competitiveness poles by General Direction for
Industrial Policy and Competition through requesting the sealing of a partnership agreement,
that would prove the cooperation within the cluster. The model used was that of ―Pro Wood‖,
21 clusters succeeding, so far, in submitting a partnership document, which represents a valid
start in evaluating competitiveness poles at a national level. It identifies one of the most
important vectors, cooperation, as well as the existence of common goals, integrated in the
cluster (http://clustero.eu/romanian-cluster-association/).
In a previous study (Clipa et. al, 2012b) on the comparative analysis of region
rankings according to the number of clusters, GDP/capita and level of competitiveness, we
concluded that the development of industrial agglomerations has not offered any support for
the regional competitiveness in Romania. Moreover, this country has not benefited from a
policy based on the development of industrial agglomerations, which, in turn, could have led
to the improvement of regional competitiveness. That is why we believe that Romania has
unused resources which would permit the consolidation of regional comepetitiveness. We
focus below on the proper understanding of agglomeration factors as sources of balanced
spatial development. We are also trying to answer the question: what are the policies able to
support a balanced spatial development based on agglomerations?
4. The normative dimension of spatial analysis
A balanced territorial development can be achieved by directing public policy in two
directions. The first aims at stimulating economic growth in regions with a lower level of
economic development. Despite the fact that this was the main objective assumed by our
country in preparing the strategy for attracting European structural funds, regional policy
option is compromised due to lack of efficiency in the allocation of funds. So that Romania
may not become EU peripheral zone is necessary to improve the management of EU funds
absorption in areas such as higher qualification of the workforce, developing competitive
production technologies and environment.
A second direction for public policy in Romania, the dispersion of growth from
developed regions to the other through a process of redistributing at national level face the
reality that resources tend to focus on those areas that allow maximizing their use. We have to
intervene within the area of policy focusing on transformation of local or regional skills
(through an auto-generating cumulative positive causality between industries), to ensure
competitive conditions of the market and use local skills to create new business.
Urban centers are seen as competitive by focusing both resources and initiative to
create added value. Aslo, economic development process is based on related industries and
clusters located at varying geographic scales, other than administrative units used in
theoretical studies or expert reports (cities, counties and development regions). The
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investment attractiveness of development areas, in opposition to administratively bounded
territories, result from the general trend of the industry to agglomerate in the center to the
detriment of the periphery, creating further uneven growth opportunities. Thereby public
policy interventions are needed to reduce losses and to multiply the positive effects. That is
why supporting and strengthening competitive industrial clusters may be a more appropriate
goal for regional development policy.
Cluster support policies can be divided into three main categories, depending on the
objectives and reasons which led to their implementation: 1. Facilitation policies, directed
towards the creation of a micro-economic environment permitting development and
innovation, indirectly facilitating emergence and development of clusters; 2. Traditional
framework policies, which include policies for SMEs and industry, for research and
innovation, regional policies; they refer to clusters as instruments for improving their
efficiency; 3. Development policies, focused on the creation and mobilisation of a specific
category of clusters, with the purpose of reinforcing a certain economic sector. This is the
only category which directly concerns the cluster theory.
The experience of other European economies shows two types of cluster-support
schemes: the first one supports ''top-level'' clusters, with influence on the level of
competitiveness of the respective country and susceptible of reaching an international
excellence degree; the second type deals with regional clusters, whose importance may not
surpass the region's borders, but which have a considerable impact on the overall economic
development. In Romania's case, we believe that a third type of cluster-support policies is
necessary, the one focused on the processes prior to cluster formation, in order to facilitate
cooperation between partners, much needed for further cluster development.
Romanian industrial policy, according to the main principles and objectives of EU,
started to emerge in 2002 by forming a strategic vision, and to develop once the Lisbon
Strategy (2005), when in the definition of industrial policy the focus moves to strengthen and
encourage horizontal factors that determine competitiveness, human capital, research,
innovation, entrepreneurship, environment.
Since 2009, there is a new policy document of the General Direction for Industrial
Policy and Competitiveness (DGPIC 2010a) entitled Romania's Industrial Policy 2009-2012,
which addresses the overall objective of achieving national strategic objectives adopted in
accordance with the directions outlined by Europe 2020. Among other things, it is noted here
the priority interest of "stimulate the development of competitive agglomerations (clusters /
poles of competitiveness, growth poles, the poles of urban development, industrial parks,
etc.)" (DGPIC 2010b).
According to commitments undertaken by Romania in the Treaty of Accession to the
European Union and to ensure similarity with other Member States of the European Union,
the National Reform Program for 2011-2013 - Section Industrial Policy (approved by the
Government in April 2011) and Industrial Policy Document stipulate the importance of
cluster policy and competitive poles for economic recovery and growth of regional and
national competitiveness.
It follows that the promotion of competitiveness poles / clusters as part of the
industrial policy of our country aims to identify existing and potential "top-level"
agglomerations. General objective is to encourage industrial development around networks of
functional clusters in order to produce goods with high added value possible competitive both
on the national and international level. Romania's challenge is to anticipate and prevent the
decline in certain industrial sectors that currently benefit from comparative advantages (eg
labor costs). The role of local decision makers and the economic entrepreneurs overall
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economic development is increasingly important when developing competitive industrial
agglomerations.
The analysis of the macroeconomic model based on the interdependencies between
regional disparities, agglomeration and economic growth (Clipa et al., 2012a) shows that in
the case of core-periphery dual regional structured economies, the cohesion policy effects can
be avoided, in that the central agglomeration will generate a higher growth rate at national
level, but with the price of amplifying the existent regional disparities. One way of dampening
this negative effect over Romania is investing in those areas which could trigger regional
development. We are talking about policies designed to promote innovation and knowledge,
by providing incentives for research and development or by investing in educational
infrastructure. That is why studies identifying areas of interest for the development of regional
clusters and measures necessary for their support are and must remain one of the objectives of
most regional development strategies.
5. Conclusions
In Romania, there is a significant potential for the development of competitive
clusters, as the 2010 Cluster Mapping showed a balanced regional distribution of clusters on
its territory. Furthermore, all of its 8 development regions meet the requirements of cluster
formation, meaning the presence of all the four clover petals: business and industry; higher-
education institutions and a research-development-innovation environment; local and regional
authorities; catalysts (innovation and technological transfer entities, chambers of commerce,
consultancy firms).
The Romanian Government's strategic plans deal with the promotion of clusters and
supplier chains, with the investment in new technologies, while encouraging international
cooperation, as well as stimulating cooperation between universities, research institutes and
innovative SMEs. One of the major objectives of our regional development strategies has to
be concerned with the identification of those interest areas that favor the development of
regional clusters and with the necessary accompanying measures.
The questions that we need to address are: just how competitive are clusters? What is
the impact of industrial agglomerations over regional competitiveness in Romania? These
inquiries can inspire future empirical research in this field.
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manual_2007.pdf [22.01.2012].
Marshall, A. (1890). Principles of Economics, Macmillan, London.
Porter, M.E. (1998). Cluster and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business
Review. Vol. 76, No. 6 (Nov/Dec, 1998), pp. 77-90.
Porter, M.E. (2003). The Economic Performance of Regions, Presentation the Indiana
Leadership Summit Indianapolis, Indiana, May 13th, 2003,
http://www.isc.hbs.edu/pdf/Indiana_Leadership_Summit_2003.05 .13.pdf [25.02.2012].
Romanian Cluster Asociation, http://clustero.eu/romanian-cluster-association/
[02.10.2014].
904
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
THE MANAGEMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT ACTIVITY AT
UNIVERSITY LEVEL
Pia Simona Făgăraş, Assist. Prof., PhD, ”Petru Maior” University of Tîrgu Mureș,
Liliana Elisabeta Radu, ”Al. Ioan Cuza” University of Iași
Abstract : Universities have to offer in addition to quality academic training, a wide range of
facilities and opportunities for students and future students, which is one of the key points to
attract a large number of young people. Research shows that regular exercise makes people
more flexible, stronger, smarter and healthier. Encourage a healthy lifestyle through
participation at different sports activities curricular or extracurricular both students and
teachers, university staff, should be one of the objectives of universities from Romania.
This study is an investigation of sporting activities offered in academic environment and how
to optimize physical education and sports activities in the university. The study helps us to
improve the services and programs in physical education and sport focused on the student or
student groups.
Keywords: management, sport, student, leisure, loisir
Introduction
Orice tânăr care accede în mediul universitar, pe lângă instruirea academică de calitate
caută şi oportunităţi pentru recreere, pentru menţinerea unui stil de viaţă sănătos prin
practicarea activităţilor fizice. În opinia lui Plavina activitatea fizică este definită ca orice
mişcare a corpului produsă cu ajutorul muşchiilor scheletici şi care are ca rezultat cheltuieli de
energie (Plavina, 2012).
Organizaţia Mondială a Sănătăţii (2010) face recomandări cu privire la starea de
sănătăte a populaţiei şi implicit la nivelul de activitate fizică pe care trebuie să-l presteze
fiecare persoană adultă în vederea menţinerii unei stări de sănătate optime. Astfel, fiecare
adult trebuie să facă minim 150 de minute de activitate fizică, un efort fizic de intensitate
moderată în care să fie implicaţi un număr ridicat de muşchi. (WHO, 2010)
Abu-Omar Karim și Rütten Alfred (2008) au concluzionat, în cercetările lor că există
o relație semnificativă între activitățile fizice în timpul liber și indicatorilor de sănătate.
Modernizarea din zilele noastre precum şi viaţa de zi cu zi foarte ocupată au
determinat apariţia unui alt tip de fiinţă umană (Zhao et al., 2007). Participarea la activităţile
de timp liber au efect asupra calităţii vieţii şi asupra satisfacţiei personale. (Jennen and
Uhlenbuck ,2004)
Cu toate beneficiile cunoscute ale activității fizice, ale activităţilor fizice recreaţionale
(AFR) asupra stării de sănătate, este larg cunoscut însă, că atunci când recreerea necesită un
anumit grad de auto-efort de către o persoană tiparele de participare vor fi diferite. Ele ar
trebui să creeze un echilibru între beneficiile și plăcerea dobândită prin activitate fizică
împotriva cantităţii de timp și bani cheltuiți (Nicolau, Juan, 2012).
905
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Într-un studiu privind activitatea fizică a studenţilor (Radu L. şi colab., 2013), se
observă că 30% din participanţii la studiu nu practicau nici un fel de activitate fizică.
Nivelul activităţii fizice la studenţi este determinant în stabilirea normelor sociale şi
culturale în viitor (Cengiz, Ince, Cicek, 2009). Studenţii care sunt inactivi astăzi au
probabilitatea de a deveni inactivi şi după părasirea mediului academic. Studenţii sunt
cercetătorii, profesioniştii în domeniul sănătăţii, liderii în afaceri şi factorii de decizie de
mâine (E. Leslie, P. B. Sparling and N. Owen, 2001)
Schlag (2009) a studiat un număr de 98 de studenți de la Universitatea Brigham
Young. Rezultatele au aratat ca rata activităților recreaţionale ale studenţilor nu a afectat
performanțele lor academice.
Karim and Alfred (2008) concluded in their research that there is a significant relationship
between physical activities in leisure time and health indicators [6].
Organizarea activităţile fizice în unele universităţi din România
În articolul 3 din Legea Educaţiei nr. 1 din 5 ianurie 2011 sunt precizate principiile
care guvernează învăţământul preuniversitar şi superior, precum şi învăţarea pe tot parcursul
vieţii din România, iar unul dintre aceste principii face referire la promovării educaţiei pentru
sănătate, inclusiv prin educaţia fizică şi prin practicarea activităţilor sportive..
În învăţământul superior, activităţile sportive se pot practica curricular sub forma de
lecţii de educaţie fizică dar şi extracurricular sub forma cercurilor sportive pe ramuri de sport.
In cadrul Universității Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iași își desfășoară activitatea 15
facultăți. Printre acestea funcționează și Facultatea de Educație Fizică și Sport cu două
specializări: Educație Fizică și Sportivă și Kinetoterapie și Motricitate Specială cu un număr
de circa 400 de studenţi. Pentru aceştia, activităţile fizice se desfăşoară conform planului de
învăţământ, educaţia fizică fiind disciplină obligatorie. Din numărul total de facultăţi ale
universităţii doar patru dintre acestea au optat pentru introducerea educaţiei fizice şi
sportului în planu de învăţământ şi acesta, ca disciplină opţională. Astfel, studenţii acestor
facultăţi pot opta pentru participarea la lectii de educaţie fizică. Din oferta de activități
sportive amintim: fotbal, auto-apărare, fitness pentru băieți și fitness-aerobic pentru fete.
Oferta este limitată datorită lipsei de spațiu dedicat activităților sportive de echipă, respectiv o
sala de sport multifuncțională.
Ceilalţi studenţi ai universităţii pot opta pentru practicarea exerciţiilor fizice în sălile
de fitness ale facultăţii de Educaţie Fizică şi Sport pe bază de abonament.
La Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie „Grigore T. Popa‖ Iaşi, disciplina educaţie
fizică apare în planul de învăţământ la ca disciplină obligatorie în anii 1 şi 2 de studiu, având
durată variabilă pentru diferite specialităţi. Astfel, educaţia fizică se desfăşoară pe durata unui
semestru pentru Facultatea de medicină (specializarea: medicină, asistenţă medicală generală,
nutriţie şi dietetică), Facultatea de bioinginerie medicală (specializarea: bioinginerie
medicală), şi 2 semestre Facultatea de Medicină Dentară (specializarea: medicină dentară,
tehnică dentară). Tipul de activitate fizică practicat este cel sub forma lecţiilor de educaţie
906
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
fizică precum şi grupe pe ramuri de sport (baschet, volei). Studenţii de la specializarea
tehnică dentară îşi desfăşoară activităţiile fizice prin lecţia de educaţie fizică şi grupe pe
ramuri de sport (fotbal, înot, aerobic), acestea fiind cu plată, universitatea nu dispune de baza
sportivă în vederea desfăşurării acestor sporturi
Extracurricular studenţii pot participa la activităţi fizice de loisir - jogging, drumeţii,
orientare turistică, badminton, role, volei (în parc) etc.
Organizarea activităţile fizice în Universităţile din Târgu Mureş
Oraşul Târgu Mureş, reuneşte 4 universităţi: Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie,
Universitatea ―Petru Maior‖, Universitatea ―Sapienţa‖, Universitatea ―Dimitrie Cantemir‖. Cu
excepţia celei din urmă, în fiecare dintre aceste universităţi disciplina Educaţie Fizică este
cuprinsă în planul de învăţământ, conform Legii Educaţiei, ea trebuind să se desfăşoare pe
parcursul a IV semestre, anul I şi anul II.
La Universitatea „Sapienţa‖, Universitate finanţată de guvernul maghiar, disciplina
educaţie fizică este obligatorie patru semestre, fiind integrată în planul de învăţământ al
primilor doi ani de studii. Cei aproximativ 600 de studenţi ai anilor I si II îşi desfăşoară
activităţile de la disciplina educaţie fizică în sala de tenis de masă apartinând universităţii,
precum şi prin închirierea sălii de sport de la Grup Şcolar „Gheorghe Şincai‖ unde au loc
activităţiile specifice jocurilor sportive (baschet, volei). Printr-o contribuţie simbolică
studenţii pot opta pentru desfăşurarea activităţilor fizice, extracuriccular, la bazinul de înot din
cadrul Complexului weekend şi la sala de fitness.
Astfel, la Universitatea de Medicină şi Farmacie (UMF) ca şi la Universitatea „Petru
Maior‖ (UPM), disciplina educaţie fizică este cuprinsă în planul de învăţământ, făcând parte
din categoria disciplinelor obligatorii. Spre deosebire de Universitatea „Petru Maior‖, la
UMF datorită numeroaselor facilităţi create de conducerea universităţii, (2 terenuri fotbal
sintetice, o sală polivalentă, o sală de jocuri sportive, terenuri de tenis, 2 săli de fitnesss, sală
de aerobic), activităţile sportive sunt organizate sub formă curriculară ca lecţii de educaţie
fizică, precum şi extracurricular sub formă de lecţii specifice unor ramuri de sport. Totodată
studenţii pot practica exerciţiile fizice şi în timpul liber în cadrul sălilor de fitness, pe
terenurile de tenis si fotbal ale Universităţii pe baza unui abonament.
Extracurricular, studenţii pot participa la Campionatul de fotbal organizat de liga
studenţilor, Campionatul judeţean de baschetşi la diversele activităţi sportive care sunt
organizate cu ocazia Zilelor studenţeşti.
În cadrul UPM, activităţile din cadrul disciplinei educaţie fizică se desfăşoară într-o
sală multifuncţională (baschet, volei), dar datorită numărului foarte mare de studenţi într-o
grupă de lucru (25-40 de studenţi) comparativ cu 15-16 studenţi la UMF, calitatea actului
educaţional este nesatisfăcătoare.
Într-un studiu efectuat în 2013 pe un lot de 472 de studente de la Universitatea „Petru
Maior‖ din Târgu Mureş şi Universitatea „Alexandru Ioan Cuza‖ din Iaşi privind indicele de
activitate fizică s-a observat că 159 dintre studentele participante la cercetare nu participau la
nici o activitate fizică.
907
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
În tabelul următor sunt prezentatae preferinţele studentelor pe categorii de vârstă:
Tabel 1. Tipurile de activităţi fizice preferate de studente
Nr.crt. 18 – 19 ani (N=202) 20-21 ani (N=234) Peste 21 ani (N=36)
1 Mers Alergare Mers
2 Alergare Aerobic Alergare
3 Aerobic Mers Aerobic
4 Fitness Volei-Baschet Dans
5 Dans Dans Volei-Baschet
Cercetările efectuate de Ruiz Tendero, G.(2011), sugerează că studenţii nu beneficiază de
activitate fizică adecvată. Principalele motive de a nu participa la activităţile fizice au fost
lipsa de timp (63%), programul de activităţi (40%), preţul (24%), distanţa (22%). Activităţile
preferate au fost jocurile colective (64,4%), ciclism (63,4%), activităţile în aer liber (54,1%).
Multe dintre obiceiurile unui stil de viață sănătos sunt dezvoltate la finalul adolescenţei şi
începutul maturităţii. Declinul activitatii fizice a indivizilor în această perioadă are
repercursiuni asupra calităţii vieți la maturitate (Pļaviņa, L., 2012)
Concluzii şi recomandări
În vederea promovării unui stil de viaţă sănătos şi a scăderii sedentarismului în rândul
tinerilor, universităţile trebuie să ofere:
Spații dotate corespunzător care vor îmbunătăți considerabil rezultatele orelor de
educație fizică;
Creşterea nivelului de satisfacție, atât al studenților, cât şi al cadrelor didactice prin
asigurarea unei baze multifuncționale cu scop recreativ;
Posibilitatea realizării de competiții sportive interne şi între universități;
Sesiuni de informare privind beneficiile activităţii fizice asupra sănătăţii.
Mulţumiri
Această lucrare a fost publicata cu sprijinul financiar al proiectului „Sistem integrat de
îmbunătățire a calității cercetării doctorale și postdoctorale din România și de promovare a
rolului științei în societate‖, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133652, finanțat prin Fondul Social
European, Programul Operațional Sectorial Dezvoltarea Resurselor Umane 2007-2013.
908
CCI3 ECONOMY AND MANAGEMENT
Referinţe
Abu-Omar Karim, Rütten Alfred, Preventive Medicine, 2008, 47: 319–323
Cengiz C, Ince ML, Cicek S, (2009). Exercise stages of change in Turkish university students by sex, residence,
and department. Percept Mot Skills; 108(2): 411-21.Conference on Educational Sciences
C. Jennen and G. Uhlenbuch, Exercise and life satisfaction: Fitness complimentary strategies in the prevention
and rehabilitation of Illness, Evidence-Based Complimentary and Alternative Medicine, 1(2) (2004), 157-165.
E. Leslie, P. B. Sparling and N. Owen, ―University campus settings and the promotion of physical activity in
young
adults: lessons from research in Australia and the USA,‖ Health Education, vol 101, 2001, pp. 116-125
Nicolau, Juan L. (2012). Monetary and Non-Monetary Efforts for Leisure Activities.Annals of Tourism
Research, vol. 38, NO. 3, pp. 801-819.
Plavina, L. (2012). Comparative analysis of students' physical activity levels. Anthropology XXI, 212-220
Radu , L. Făgăraş , P.S., Vanvu, G. (2014) Physical Activity Index on Female University Students 5th World
Conference on Educational Sciences, Malta 2014
Ruiz Tandero, G. (2011). Is university a good environment for physical activity. Book of Abstract of 16th
Annual Congress of the European College of Sports Science, 6-9 July, Liverpool, UK, p. 149.
Schlag P, 2009. Recreational habits of boy students
World Health Organisation (2010). Global recommendations on Physical activity for health. Accesed August 22,
2013.
Zhao, Y., Sigmund, E., Sigmundova, D., Lu,Y. (2007). Comparison of physical activity between Olomuc and
Beijing University students using an international physical activity questionnaire. Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomuc.,
Gymn. 37(4):107-114.
909
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