Understanding Operating System

Yasir Hussain

Yasir Hussain
BCA , MCA/ NIT SRINAGAR (Gold Medalist)
Operating System
• An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs. ... Other specialized
classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real-time systems, exist for many
applications.
• An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer
by a boot program, manages all of the other application programs in a computer. The
application programs make use of the operating system by making requests for services
through a defined application program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly
with the operating system through a user interface such as a command line or a graphical
user interface (GUI).
Computer system can be divided into four components

Hardware – provides basic computing resources

CPU, memory, I/O devices
Need of an Operating System
• An operating system or OS is a software program that enables the computer hardware to
communicate and operate with the computer software. Without a computer operating
system, a computer and software programs would be useless.
• An operating system is a software which acts as an interface between the end user and
computer hardware. Every computer must have at least one OS to run other programs. An
application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs some environment in which it will run
and perform its task.
• Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Loading of an operating system
(Booting)
Booting
• Booting of a computer refers to the process of powering on the computer
and starting the operating system. The operating system is the program that
makes all your software applications and hardware work together, so once
you hit the power button, it's all automatic from there. The boot process
loads the operating system into main memory or the random access memory
(RAM) installed on your computer
Boot Process

• When you push the power button, power is sent to a small bootloader program, which
loads the computer's operating system. The bootloader is located in the cache memory.
The cache memory is a portion of your RAM that is directly attached to the central
processing unit (CPU).
• Once the bootloader program gets power, it starts the process of activating the
operating system. If you were to see this happening, it would show a black screen with
the text of the boot up processes.
How operating system Load
• Bootstrapping is the process of loading a set of instructions when a computer is first turned on or
booted. During the startup process, diagnostic tests are performed, such as the power-on self-
test (POST), that set or check configurations for devices and implement routine testing for the
connection of peripherals, hardware and external memory devices. The bootloader or bootstrap
program is then loaded to initialize the OS.

• bootstrapping, bootloader, or boot program, a bootstrap loader is a program that resides in

the computer's ROM, or another non-volatile memory. It is automatically executed by the
processor when turning on the computer. The bootstrap loader reads the hard drives boot
sector to continue the process of loading the computer's operating system.

• When the computer is turned on or restarted, the bootstrap loader first performs the power-on
self-test, also known as POST. If the POST is successful and no issues are found, the bootstrap
loader will load the operating system for the computer into memory. The computer will then
be able to quickly access, load, and run the operating system.
History Of OS
•Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape storage
•The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early 1950s for their IBM 701
•In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
•In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
•The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing the 86-DOS software
from a Seattle company
•The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when a GUI was created and
paired with MS-DOS.
What is a Kernel?
The kernel is the central component of a computer operating systems. The only job
is to the manage the communication between the software and the hardware. A Kernel is at
computer. It makes the communication between the hardware and software possible. While
innermost part of an operating system, a shell is the outermost one.
Types of Operating System
•A Mobile / computer Operating System
•An Embedded operating system
•A Network operating system (NOS)
•A Real-time operating system (RTOS)
A Mobile / computer Operating System
• A mobile OS allows smartphones, tablet PCs and other mobile devices to run applications
and programs. Mobile operating systems include Apple iOS, Google Android, BlackBerry
OS and Windows 10 Mobile.
An Embedded operating system
• An embedded operating system is specialized for use in the computers built into
larger systems, such as cars, traffic lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane
controls, point of sale (POS) terminals, digital cameras, GPS navigation systems,
elevators, digital media receivers and smart meters.
A Network operating system (NOS)

• A network operating system (NOS) is a computer operating system that is designed

primarily to support workstation, personal computer, and, in some instances,
older terminals that are connected on a local area network (LAN).
Examples of Operating System with Market
Share
A real-time operating system (RTOS)

• A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system that guarantees a certain

capability within a specified time constraint. For example, an operating system might be
designed to ensure that a certain object was available for a robot on an assembly line.
Objectives of Operating System

• The objectives of the operating system are −

• To make the computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner.
• To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users.
• To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system.
• To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users, making it easier for the users to access and use
other resources.
• To manage the resources of a computer system.
• To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, and mediating conflicting requests
from different programs and users.
• To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs.
Functions of an Operating System
•Memory Management
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is made up of
•a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain address.
•Main memory is a fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed,
•it should be first loaded in the main memory. An Operating System performs the following activities for
•memory management:
It keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e.,
which bytes of memory are used by which user program.
The memory addresses that have already been allocated and the memory addresses
of the memory that has not yet been used. In multi programming, the OS decides the
order in which process are granted access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates
the memory to a process when the process requests it and deallocates the memory
when the process has terminated or is performing an I/O operation.
Memory Management

Virtual Memory:
This is a technique used by the operating systems which allow the user can load the programs which are larger than the
main memory of the computer. In this technique the program is executed even if the complete program can not be
loaded inside the main memory leading to efficient memory utilization.

Virtual Memory is a storage allocation scheme in which secondary memory can be addressed as though it were part of
main memory.
Swapping
Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of main memory (or
move) to secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other processes. At some
later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary storage to main memory.
Though performance is usually affected by swapping process but it helps in running multiple and big
processes in parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for memory
compaction.
Paging is a method of writing data to, and reading it from, secondary storage for use in
primary storage, also known as main memory. ... In a memory management system that takes
advantage of paging, the OS reads data from secondary storage in blocks called pages, all of
which have identical size.
In a memory management system that takes advantage of paging, the OS reads data from
secondary storage in blocks called pages, all of which have identical size. The physical region of
memory containing a single page is called a frame.
Processor Management
In a multi programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have access to the
processor,
•and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS is called process scheduling. An
Operating
•System performs the following activities for processor management.
Keeps tracks of the status of processes. The program which perform this task is known as traffic
controller.
Allocates the CPU that is processor to a process. De-allocates processor when a process is no more
required.
this deals with management of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The operating system takes care of the
allotment of CPU time to different processes. When a process finishes its CPU processing after executing
for the allotted time period, this is called scheduling. There are various type of scheduling techniques that
are used by the operating systems:

1.Shortest Job First(SJF): Process which need the shortest CPU time are
scheduled first.
2.Round Robin Scheduling: Each process is assigned a fixed CPU
execution time in cyclic way.
3.Priority Based scheduling (Non Preemptive): In this scheduling,
processes are scheduled according to their priorities, i.e., highest priority
process is schedule first. If priorities of two processes match, then schedule
according to arrival time

• Multitasking: Operating System manages memory and allow multiple programs to run in
their own space and even communicate with each other through shared memory.
Multitasking gives users a good experience as they can perform several tasks on a
computer at a time
Device Management
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management. Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system. designates a
program responsible for every device known as the Input/output controller. Decides which
process gets access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and
efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

Buffering:
In this technique, input and output data is temporarily stored in Input Buffer and Output Buffer. Once the
signal for input or output is sent to or from the CPU respectively, the operating system through the device
controller moves the data from the input device to the input buffer and for the output device to the output
buffer. In case of input, if the buffer is full, the operating system sends a signal to the program which
processes the data stored in the buffer. When the buffer becomes empty, the program informs the operating
system which reloads the buffer and the input operation continues.
• File Management
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These directories
may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the following file
management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and status
of every file and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file system.
File management is one of the basic and important features of operating system. Operating
system is used to manage files of computer system. All the files with different extensions are
managed by operating system.

The following are some of the tasks performed by file management of operating
system of any computer system:
1.It helps to create new files in computer system and placing them at the specific
locations.
2.It helps in easily and quickly locating these files in computer system.
3.It makes the process of sharing of the files among different users very easy and user
friendly.
4.It helps to stores the files in separate folders known as directories. These directories
help users to search file quickly or to manage the files according to their types or uses.
5.It helps the user to modify the data of files or to modify the name of the file in the
directories.
System Security Plan
A system security plan is a formal plan that defines the plan of action to secure a
computer or information system.
It provides a systematic approach and techniques for protecting a computer from
being used by unauthorized users, guards against worms and viruses as well as any
other incident/event/process that can jeopardize the underlying system’s security.

A system security plan is primarily implemented in organizational IT environments. It

can be a proposed plan to protect and control an information system, or a plan that is
already in implementation
Typically a system security plan includes:
•List of authorized personnel/users that can access the system
•Level of access/tiered access, or what each user is allowed and not
allowed to do on the system
•Access control methods, or how users will access the system (user
ID/password, digital card, biometrics)
•Strengths and weaknesses of the system and how weaknesses are
handled
•May also include system backup/restoration procedures
Operating System Security

• OS security refers to specified steps or measures used to protect the OS from threats, viruses,
worms, malware or remote hacker intrusions. OS security encompasses all preventive-control
techniques, which safeguard any computer assets capable of being stolen, edited or deleted if
OS security is compromised.
OS security encompasses many different techniques and methods which ensure safety from
threats and attacks. OS security allows different applications and programs to perform
required tasks and stop unauthorized interference.

OS security may be approached in many ways, including adherence to the following:

•Performing regular OS patch updates

•Installing updated antivirus engines and software
•Scrutinizing all incoming and outgoing network traffic through a firewall
•Creating secure accounts with required privileges only (i.e., user management)
Authentication
Authentication refers to identifying each user of the system and associating the executing programs with
those users. It is the responsibility of the Operating System to create a protection system which ensures
that a user who is running a particular program is authentic. Operating Systems generally
identifies/authenticates users using following three ways −
•Username / Password − User need to enter a registered username and password with Operating system
to login into the system.
•User card/key − User need to punch card in card slot, or enter key generated by key generator in option
provided by operating system to login into the system.
•User attribute - fingerprint/ eye retina pattern/ signature − User need to pass his/her attribute via
designated input device used by operating system to login into the system.
User Accounts
•Limit the number of user accounts on the server computers.Unnecessary and legacy
user accounts increase system complexity and may present system vulnerabilities.
•Fewer user accounts reduces the amount of time administrators spend on account
administration.
•Ensure that only a few trusted users have administrative access to the server
computers.Fewer administrators make it easier to maintain accountability. The
administrators must be competent.
•Assign the minimum required access permissions for the account that runs the
application.If attackers obtain access to the application, they have the permissions of the
user who runs the application.
System Patches
•Run the latest, vendor-recommended patches for the operating system.The
patches may be core OS patches, or patches required by additional
applications.
•Schedule
Logging andregular maintenance of security patches.
Monitoring
•Log security-related events, including successful and failed logons, logoffs, and changes to user
permissions.
•Monitor system log files.
•Use a time server to correlate time for forensics.
•Secure the system log files by restricting access permissions to them.Logs are important for daily
maintenance and as a disaster recovery tool. Therefore, they must be protected from system failures
and user tampering.
•Use IPF logging to build a more sophisticated logging system.To increase the security of the log file
system, you can
• place all log files in one location, on one serverThis simplifies the administration of log files.
• set up multiple logging servers for redundancy
• use a remote server for loggingThis protects the logs if the system is compromised and, for
example, the hard drive is destroyed.
• Because an IPF server is accessed through the network, it can be located anywhere in the
world.
•Secure the logging configuration file.The configuration file contains settings that, if changed, can
compromise the reliability of the log system. For example, setting the log level incorrectly may cause
some failures not to be logged.
Hardening
Hardening of the OS is the act of configuring an OS securely, updating it, creating rules and policies to
help govern the system in a secure manner, and removing unnecessary applications and services. This
is done to minimize a computer OS's exposure to threats and to mitigate possible risk.

Six OS Hardening Tips

1 Programs clean-up – Remove unnecessary programs. Every program is another

potential entrance point for a hacker. Cleaning these out helps you limit the number of
ways in. If the program is not something the company has vetted and "locked down," it
shouldn’t be allowed. Attackers look for backdoors and security holes when attempting
to compromise networks. Minimize their chances of getting through.

2 Use of service packs – Keep up-to-date and install the latest versions. It’s
that simple. No one thing ensures protection, especially from zero-day attacks, but
this is an easy rule to follow.
3 Patches and patch management – Planning, testing, implementing and auditing patch management
software should be part of a regular security regimen. Make sure the OS is patched regularly, as well as
the individual programs on the client's computer.

4. Group policies – Define what groups can or can’t access and maintain these rules. Sometimes,
it’s simply user error that leads to a successful cyber attack. Establish or update user policies and
ensure all users are aware and comply with these procedures. For example, everyone should
be implementing strong passwords, securing their credentials and changing them regularly.

5. Security templates – Groups of policies that can be loaded in one procedure; they are commonly used
in corporate environments.

6. Configuration baselines – Baselining is the process of measuring changes in networking, hardware,

software, etc. To create a baseline, select something to measure and measure it consistently for a period
of time. Establish baselines and measure on a schedule that is acceptable to both your standard for
maintaining security and meeting your clients' needs.