Chapter 1

1. INTRODUCTION
Caissons provide an alternative means to achieve adequate founding at intermediate to
significant depths in both land and water environments. This system has been
frequently used overseas as the most practical means to found major bridges in deep
water conditions and is employed in South African harbour engineering for the
construction of wharves and quays. Whereas open caissons are now seldom used for
bridges in South Africa because installation is comparatively slow, this form of
foundation construction can be a viable option for depths of about 5 m to 9 m because
of the very low establishment costs involved.
The function of caissons is essentially the same as for piles, viz to transmit the
applicable combination of permanent and transient loads applied at the top of the
caisson through weak compressive soil or fill materials onto stiff or dense soil strata
or rock at lower levels, in such a manner as to prevent excessive settlement, horizontal
displacement or rotation of the supported structure at the caisson cap level. In addition
caissons are required to be founded at sufficient depth to prevent instability due to
scour arising from major floods, when located in river environments.
Caissons for bridge foundations are usually cellular reinforced concrete structures,
with circular, rectangular or more streamlined plan cross sections comprising one or
more excavation compartments, and which are wholly or partly constructed at higher
level and sunk in stages to the desired founding level, by internal excavation assisted
by the application of kentledge. Caissons are invariably monolithic with the bridge
substructure components which they support.
Small diameter concrete shafts comprising single open cells and constructed in the
same manner as caissons are usually called cylinders. The distinction between
cylinders and caissons is merely one of size and is necessarily arbitrary. Because of
their smaller size (usually up to about 2.5 m diameter), cylinders lend themselves
readily to precast concrete ring elements in their construction. This form of caisson
construction can be very economical down to intermediate depths of about 7 to 8
meters because of the low establishment costs involved, but are not well suited to
sinking through ground containing large boulders or with high water tables. Cylinders
constructed with precast concrete rings are usually filled with reinforced concrete.
Kentledge refers to concrete blocks or similar heavy loads repeatedly erected on the
top of the caisson walls in order to help overcome the frictional resistance of the soil

vi
surrounding the caisson during the stage by stage process of sinking the caisson into
the ground.
1.1 WHAT IS CAISSON’S?
A caisson is a water-tight box like structure or a chamber, made of wood, steel, or
concrete, usually sunk by excavating within it, for the purpose of gaining access to the
bed of a stream and placing the foundations at a prescribed depth and which
subsequently forms part of the foundation itself. Caissons are adopted when the depth
of water is great and the foundations are to be laid under water. Caissons are generally
built on the shore and launched in to the river floated to the site and sunk at the proper
position.
Caisson foundation is also known as pier foundation. Caisson is a cylinder or hollow
box that is sunk into the ground to a specified depth by auguring a deep hole into the
strata. The cylinder or box is then back filled with concrete, thus creating the
foundation. This type of foundation is most often used when constructing bridge piers
and other such foundations that will be beneath bodies of water since the caissons can
be floated to the correct locations and then sunk in place using concrete.

1.2 WHY TO USE A CAISSON FOUNDATION?

This type of foundation will keep the soils underneath the building or structure from
moving vertically. Since soil will settle over time, the building or structure on top of
the soil will also settle. This can cause major structural damage. Since a caisson
foundation is drilled into the earth and large concrete filled cylinders are placed
within the ground rather than on top, the settlement of the soil will not cause many
difficulties for the building or structure.

1.3 WHEN IS CAISSON FOUNDATION PREFERRED?

The caisson foundations are preferred when any or all of the following conditions
exist:
1. The soil contains large boulders which obstruct penetration of piles or drilled
piers
2. A massive substructure (foundation) is required to touch the river bed or
further down to provide resistance against destructive force due to floating
objects, sand scour.
3. When foundations are subjected to large lateral forces.

vi
1.4 TYPES OF CAISSONS
The shape and size of a caisson depends upon the nature of struct ure for which it is to
be built and the depth up to which it is required to be sunk. Caissons can be broadly
classified in the following three different types.
(1) Open caisson
(2) Box caisson
(3) Pneumatic caisson

1.4.1 Open Caissons

The top and bottom of the caisson is open during construction. It may have any shape
in plan like circular, rectangular, etc. It has a cutting edge which is fabricated at the
site and the first segment of shaft is built on it. The soil inside the shaft is dredged by
suitable means and another segment added to it. The process of sinking is continued
until it reaches the required depth. Then the bottom is sealed with concrete. The shaft
is filled with sand.

Fig 1.1Open caisson

vi
Depending upon their shape, open caissons can be further classified as,
(i) Single wall open caisson
(ii) Cylindrical open caisson
(iii) Open caisson with dredging wells.
 Advantages of Open Caissons
The advantages of open caissons are their feasibility to be sunk to great depths. Their
construction cost is relatively low.
 Disadvantages of Open Caissons
The disadvantages of the open caissons are that the bottom of the caisson cannot be
thoroughly cleaned and inspected. The concrete seal placed in water is not satisfactory
and soil near the cutting edge may require hand excavation by diver. If obstruction
like boulders or logs are encountered the construction gets slowed down.

1.4.2 Pneumatic caisson

This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the bottom. The
water is excluded from the caisson chamber by means of compressed air. The
construction of the pneumatic caisson is similar to the types described above, except
that; the working chamber and shaft are made air-tight. In order that the workmen
may carry out excavation work underneath the caisson and the water may not find its
way inside from below, the pressure of the compressed air in the shaft is kept just
higher than that of the water at that depth. Each caisson has two air locks. Through
one air lock workmen go down for working while through the other excavated
material is taken out. An air lock essentially consists of a steel chamber having two
air-tight doors. One door of this chamber serves as an entry for men and material from
outside into the steel chamber and the other door leads to the air shaft. When a
workman enters the airlock from outside, the pressure inside the airlock is the same as
that of outside atmosphere. Thereafter the outside door is closed and the pressure
inside the airlock is raised slowly. When the pressure inside the airlock becomes equal
to the pressure in the caisson, the door of the airlock which leads to the air shaft is
opened and the workman goes down the air-shaft with the help of a ladder installed
therein. Exactly reverse procedure is followed when the workman comes out of the
caisson. Air-shaft provides means of access for the worker from airlock down to the
working chamber.

vi
Fig 1.2 Pneumatic caisson

This method of providing foundation is complicated, expensive and very slow.

However, in places where it is rather difficult to use bulky equipment required for
alternative method, pneumatic caissons appear to be the only choice. The chief
advantage of this method is that entire operation of sinking the caisson can be carried
out under controlled conditions. This method provides better facilities for removing
obstructions, inspection of work and concreting of foundations bed.
This type of caisson is suitable for depths ranging from 25 m to 40 m. At higher
depths, the persons working inside the caisson for sinking operation are liable to get
caisson disease (resulting from the expansion of bubbles of air trapped on joints,
muscles etc.).
 Advantages of Pneumatic Caissons
The advantages of pneumatic caissons are that all work can be done in dry and there is
control over work. The foundation is prepared better and plumbness of caissons is
easier to control. The concrete placed in dry condition will have good and reliable
quality. The obstruction from boulders and logs can readily be removed and
excavation by blasting may be done if necessary.
 Disadvantages of Pneumatic Caissons
Pneumatic caissons have high cost of construction. They cannot be sunk to depths
greater than 35 m because the higher pressure below this depth cannot be resisted by
human body.

vi
1.4.3 Box caisson
This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at bottom. The
caisson is cast and cured on land and when required, it is launched in water and towed
to the site for sinking. The caisson is sunk by filling sand, gravel, or concrete in the
empty space inside. The place where the caisson base is to rest must be leveled and as
such box caissons are used in places where the strata of sufficient bearing capacity is
available near the ground. In normal practice, the soft natural bottom soil of the river
bed is dredged out to some depth and the trench thus formed is filled with sand to
have a leveled base. The function of the sand layer is to uniformly distribute the
superimposed loads over the soil below and thus avoid tilting of the caisson.

Fig 1.3 Box Caisson

 Advantages of Box Caisson

The advantage of this caisson is its cost of construction. It is used when construction
of caissons at site not feasible or costly.
 Disadvantages of Box Caisson
The disadvantages of this type of caisson are that the bearing strata should be level or
made level. This type is feasible only when suitable bearing stratum is available at
shallow depth. Provision should be made for scour protection. The bearing stratum is
often not compact.

vi
1.5 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF CAISSON’S
Caisson’s have different shapes accordingly there named as
1. Circular

2. Dumb well

3. Double D

4. Double octagonal

5. Rectangular

6. Double hexagonal

Fig 1.4 Different shapes of Caisson’s

vi
1.6 COMPONENTS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION

Fig 1.5 Components of Caisson Foundation

1.6.1 Cutting Edge:
 Sharp edge which is provided at the lower end of the well or open and
pneumatic caisson for accelerating sinking operation is called cutting edge. It
is made up steel or it is made in R.C.C. Its angle to vertical is 30 0 and
normally slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical given better result.
 In concrete caissons, the lower part of the cutting edge is rigidly fastened with
12 mm steel plates with the help of steel strap.
 The cutting edge should be sharp so as to penetrate into the soil and it should
resist the various stresses caused by blows, boulders, blasting, etc.
 A sharp vertical edge is generally provided to the outside face of the caisson.
Edge facilities the rate of sinking.

1.6.2 Topping
 Covering provided over the well or caisson is called as topping.
 Sand is filled in between topping and bottom plug. Topping also acts as a part
of shuttering for laying the well cap.

1.6.3 Bottom Plug:

vi
 The lower portion of well is sealed by the concrete is called as bottom plug.
1.6.4 Steining
 Steining is constructed in concrete or masonry work.
 Use of Steining is to provide dead load during sinking operation.

1.6.5 Well Curbs

 It is made of concrete or brick. Cutting edge of well or caisson is attached to
well curb. During sinking operation well curb impart to the well-Steining and
facilities the formation of bottom.

1.6.6 Well Cap

 R.C.C Slab covering provided over the top of well is termed as well cap.

1.6.7 Sand filling

 The portion between top and bottom plug is filled with sand so as to increase
the self weight of the well and makes safe during earthquake.

Chapter 2
2. CONSTRUCTION, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
CAISSON FOUNDATION
2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF CAISSON FOUNDATION
Step 1: Preparation of the ground for installation
The surface of working site where the caisson is to be installed is leveled and
the surface condition is improved so that appropriate supporting force can be
supplied.

Fig 2.6 Ground Prepration

Step 2: Construction of working chamber

vi
We construct a working chamber at a bottom of the caisson, in which earth is
excavated and removed. The chamber is pressurized to the same pressure as
the ground water pressure to make it watertight.

Fig 2.7 Construction of working chamber

Step 3: Rigging
Cylindrical steel shafts are used for workers to enter or exit the pressurized
working chamber and to remove excavated earth. These shafts have locks (for
both men and materials) to regulate the difference between the atmospheric
pressure on the ground and the pressure in the chamber. Installation of such
locks and shafts is called “rigging work”.

Fig 2.8 Rigging

Step 4: Repeated excavation to sink and construct caisson

The ground is excavated and caisson is constructed at every 4m height and
repeatedly caissons are sinked by excavating the ground and constructing it to
the desired depth.

vi
Fig 2.9 Repeated excavation to sink and construct caisson

Step 5: Testing the bearing capacity of soil

After the caisson has sunk to the specified depth, we test and confirm that
sufficient bearing capacity of soil has been obtained.

Fig 2.10 Testing the bearing capacity of soil

Step 6: Concrete filling for working chamber

After confirming the bearing capacity, the equipments in the working chamber
are removed and it is filled with concrete, which means work is completed.

Fig 2.11 Concrete filling for working chamber

vi
2.2 SINKING PROCESS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION
2.2.1 Laying of Curbs
In dry ground excavate up to 50 cm in river bed and place the cutting edge at the
required position. If the curb is to be laid under water and depth of water is greater
than 5 m, prepare Sand Island and lay the curb. If depth of water exceeds 5 m built
curb in dry ground and float it to the site.

Fig 2.12 Typical Sand Island

2.2.2 Construction of Well Steining
The steining should be built in short height of 1.5 m initially and 3 m after a 6 m grip
length is achieved. The verticality should be maintained. The aim of the well sinking
is to sink the well vertically and at the correct position. The following precautions are
to be taken as far as possible.
Precautions: The following precautions should be taken during well sinking.
 Outer surface should be regular and smooth.
 Radius of the curb should be 2 to 4 cm larger than the radius of the steining.
 Cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.
 Dredging should be done uniformly on all sides.

2.2.3 Sinking Operation

The following operation is carried out while sinking the caisson.
 Excavate material under the inside of well curb mechanically or manually
 Allow the well to remain vertical.
 Up to a depth of 1 m, excavation underwater can be made manually. When the
depth of water exceeds 1 m excavate by Jhams or grabs.

vi
 When well goes on sinking skin friction increases and weight of well
decreased due to buoyancy.
 When the well does not sink, sunk by applying kentledge. If this operation is
not sufficient jet outside the well or grease the outside. A typical loading on
steining by kentledge.
 Go on adding sections of steining (2 to 5 m in length) up to the required
founding strata.

Fig 2.13 Loading Steining by Kentledge

2.2.4 JETTING AND LUBRICATION

To facilitate the sinking, the exterior surface of the caisson is sometimes applied with
a film of grease, and/or the jetting is used. Jet pipes of 1.5 inch to 2 inch diameter
with nozzles are cast in the concrete, usually one series of jet pipes is provided on the
sloping surface immediately above the cutting edge, and one or two series on the
periphery of the caisson at several feet above the bottom of the cutting edge. All the
jets are arranged symmetrically to induce straight sinking. Since fixed jet pipes can
readily become plugged, movable jets have been found more efficient. Eight inch
diameter wells may be cast in the concrete for inserting movable jet pipes for inside
jetting.

2.3 LOADS ON CAISSON FOUNDATION

Caisson is a well acted upon by the following loads:
1. Vertical loads
 Self weight of well
 Buoyancy

vi
 Dead load of superstructure and substructure
 Live load
 Kentledge during sinking operation
2. Horizontal forces
 Braking and tractive effort of vehicles
 Forces due to resistance of bearings
 Forces due to water current or waves
 Centrifugal forces
 Wind or Seismic forces
 Earth pressures
 Other horizontal or uplift forces like those due to provision of
transmission line tower with broken wire condition

2.4 ANALYSIS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION

The lateral stability of well foundation is analyzed by the following methods, they are:
 Terzaghi’s analysis
 Pender’s analysis
 Banerjee and Gangopadhyay’s analysis
 IRC method

2.4.1 Terzaghi’s Analysis

In this analysis, the stability of the foundation is determined based on the pressure
acted upon the foundation when it moves. Here, a rigid well foundation is considered.
When this well in a sand deposit moves parallel to its original position, the sand on
the front face of the well is transformed into a passive state whereas on the rear face,
it is transformed into an active state. Thus when the active and passive earth pressures
are fully developed the net resultant pressure is acted on the foundation.
Pz = γz (Kp - KA)
Where, γ = unit weight of the soil
Kp = coefficient of passive earth pressure
KA = coefficient of active earth pressure
Terzaghi’s analysis for the rigid bulkhead assumes that the bulkhead is light; there is
no friction at the base and the sides. Thus the co-efficient of active and passive earth
pressures can be calculated according to Rankine’s theory.

vi
2.4.2 Pender’s Analysis
Pender proposed an analysis for lateral stability of wells in 1947. He considered two
wells for the analysis, namely, light wells and heavy wells.
Assumptions
 The sandy soil around the well was assumed to behave as linear springs with
stiffness increasing with depth.
 In heavy well, friction was assumed to develop at the base, whereas in light
wells, no friction was assumed to develop at the base.
 In heavy well, the well was assumed to rotate about the base, whereas in a
light well the rotation is assumed at a point above the base.
The equation satisfying the boundary conditions of static equilibrium is solved with
the soil modulus using the concept of imminent plastic condition at the surface.
It was suggested that the depth of embedment of the well may be reduced by 15% and
25% for light and heavy wells, if plastic flow of soil up to a certain depth is allowed
in the front face.

2.4.3 Banerjee And Gangopadhyay’s Analysis

Banerjee and Gangopadhyay proposed an analysis for lateral stability of well. This
analysis utilizes the concept of Pender’s plastic flow concept and Terzaghi’s rigid
bulkhead stress distribution with subgrade modulus concept. The analysis was
suitable for well in a sandy soil. Two cases were considered: a general case with no
plastic flow and a second case with partial plastic flow. The equations for various
forces acting on the well were worked out and conditions of equilibrium were
satisfied. They suggested the modifications for heavy wells with rotation about the
base.

2.4.4 IRC Method

The earlier lateral stability analysis that was carried out determined the resistance of
the soil developed on the sides and base under working loads. The Indian Road
Congress (IRC: 45-1972) recommended elastic theory methods to determine the soil
pressure on the sides and at the under design load, and also recommended ultimate
soil resistance to find actual factor of safety against shear failure. The method is
applicable for non-cohesive soils like sand and surrounded by the same soil below the
maximum scour level. The recommendations will not apply if the depth of

vi
embedment is less than 0.5 times the width of the foundation in the direction of lateral
force.
The assumptions made in the elastic theory method are:
1. The soil surrounding the well and below the base is perfectly elastic,
homogeneous and follows Hooke’s law.
2. Under design loads, the lateral deflections are so small that the unit soil
reaction, p increases linearly with increasing lateral deflection z such that
p=KHz, where KH is the coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction at the
base.
3. The coefficient of horizontal subgrade reaction increases linearly with
depth in cohesion less soil.
4. The well behaves as a rigid body and is acted upon by a unidirectional
horizontal force H and a moment Mo at scour level.
ULTIMATE SOIL RESISTANCE

2.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

 Depth of well foundations
The depth of well foundation is decided with respect to the following
considerations
 Scour
 Stability
Well foundation are taken up to depth such that minimum grip of foundation
below maximum scour depth is 1/3rd of maximum scour depth. The maximum
bearing pressure on the subsoil under the foundation resulting from any
combination of the loads and forces except wind and seismic forces should not
exceed the safe bearing capacity of the subsoil, after taking into account the effort
of scour. Thus, as per IS: 3955 (1967), the depth of the foundation should not be
less than 1.33 times the deepest scour below HFL.
 Scour depth
Well foundations are constructed in river beds; they should be taken to a safe
depth well below the anticipated scour level. Scour around piers depends on
several factors like flood discharge, the angle of attack of the flow, flow
obstruction etc,. the scour depth is calculated as follow

vi
1 /3
Q
Ds = 0.473 *
f( )
Where, Ds = scour depth, m
Q = design discharge, m3/s
f = silt factor = 1.76√ dm
 Cutting edge
The cutting edge should have a sharp angle for cutting through the soil. It should
be strong enough so that it does not bend when penetrating through a soil
containing boulders.
A sharp vertical edge having an angle of 30 0 with the vertical or having a slope of
one horizontal to two vertical.
 Well curb
It is generally made of reinforced concrete. During sinking operation, the curb
cuts through the soil.IRC: 21-1972 recommends a minimum reinforcement of
72kg/m3 in a well curb. The reinforcement should be properly arranged.
The slope of the inner face of the curb should be such as to push forward easily.
The angle with the vertical should preferably be not more than 30 0 in ordinary soil
and 450 for sandy soil.
 Well steining
The wall of the well or well steining is the main box of the caisson. As per IS: 78-
1973, the thickness of steining should not be less than 500mm or that given by the
following equation
t = kd√ De
t = minimum thickness of concrete steining
d = external diameter of circular well
De = depth of well in m below GL
k = constant depending on nature of subsoil and steining material ranging from
0.03 to 0.068

2.6 TILTING AND SHIFTING

The main objective of well sinking is to sink it straight and at the correct position.
However, in practice, this is not easy to achieve and shift and tilt of the foundation
may occur.
Causes of tilts and shifts

vi
1. Non-uniform bearing capacity.
2. Obstruction on one side of the well.
3. Sand blowing in wells during sinking. It will cause sudden sinking of well.
4. Materials should be removed from all sides equally otherwise the well may
experience tilt
5. Sudden sinking due to blasting may also cause tilting of well.
6. Irregular casting of Steining will cause less friction on one side leads to
chances of tilting of well.
The following precautions are useful in avoiding tilts and shifts in wells:
 The outer surface of the well curb and well Steining must be as regular and as
smooth as possible.
 The radius of the well curb should be kept about 20mm to 40mm larger than
the outer radius of the well steining. The well curb thus projects out from the
well steining. This projection should be equal and uniform on all sides.
 Cutting edge should be of uniform thickness and sharpness.
 Dredging should be done uniformly and on all sides of the well. For a twin
well, dredging should be done in both dredge holes uniformly.

2.7 REMEDIAL MEASURES TO RECTIFY TILT AND SHIFT

The following methods are found useful in rectifying tilt and shift. Any of these
methods may be adopted, either separately or in combination.

2.7.1 Water Jetting

 This is the one of the method used to prevent tilting. In this method, water jet
is forcedly applied on tilt.
 Application of water jetting on higher side reduces skin friction. Thus the
tilting is rectified.
 This method is not more effective but gives the better result if used with the
combination of other methods.

vi
Fig 2.9 Water Jetting
2.7.2 Eccentric Loading
 The caisson is normally given the additional loading called kentledge in order
to have necessary sinking effort. In this method, eccentric loading or kentledge
is applied in higher side so as to have greater sinking effort.
 For proper application of eccentric loading a platform with projection on
higher side can be placed over the top of caisson
 The eccentric load is kept on projected part of platform. Thus tilt can be
rectified.

Fig 2.10 Eccentric loading on higher side

2.7.3 Excavation Under Cutting Edge;
 During sinking process, filled caisson will not set or straighten due to
unbroken stiff strata on its higher side. In such situation, dewatering is
preferably done to loosen stiff strata. If dewatering is not possible or unsafe,
then drivers are sent to loosen the stiff strata.
 Sometimes if possible and safe, an open excavation is done under the cutting
edge.

Fig 2.11 Excavation on Higher side

vi
Sinking of caisson on higher side due to excess excavation is more. This is all right in
the early stages, otherwise dewatering of caisson or well is needed and open
excavation may be done on higher side.

2.7.4 Providing temporary obstacles below the Cutting Edge

 Rectification of tilt can be done by inserting the wooden sleeper temporarily as
an obstacles below the cutting edge on the lower side so as to prevent further
tilt of the well or caisson.
 Later on, wooden sleeper can be removed, for better understanding.

Fig 2.12 Wooden sleeper provided below cutting edge

2.7.5 Pushing the Caissons or Well with Jack
Mechanical jack or hydraulic jack can be used to rectify the tilt of well or caisson.
Well or caisson can be pushed by jack to bring it a vertical position.

Fig 2.13 Pushing of Caisson by Jack

vi
2.7.6 Pulling the Well or Caisson
This method is most suitable and effective in preliminary or early stages of sinking
operation. Steel ropes or cables are used pull the caisson or well. Pulling of caisson or
well is done on higher side of well or caisson

Fig 2.14 Pulling the well

2.7.7 Strutting the Caissons or Well:
 Method of strutting the caisson or well is used to prevent any further and
possible rise in tilting of the caisson or well.
 The caisson or well is supported on the tilting side by giving inclined support
of a strong wooden member. This inclined wooden member is called as a strut.
 The caisson or well steining is provided so as to distribute the uniform
pressure or load from strut.

Fig 2.15 Strutting the caissons

vi
Chapter 3
3. USES, APPLICATIONS AND CAISSON DISEASE
3.1 USES OF CAISSONS
 Caissons are more suitable for the deep foundation under water where the
foundation should be extended up to or below the river bed so as to obtain the
proper stability.
 Caissons as type of well foundation is constructed in connection with
excavation for foundation of piers and abutments in rivers and lake, bridges,
break water dock structures for the point of view of shore protection, lamp
house etc.
 When the construction of well foundation to be done underwater, the
construction of caisson are more preferable.

vi
 When depth of water in river, lake or sea etc. is more, then caisson structure is
used.
 Caisson is used as foundation for bridges piers, and abutments in rivers, seas,
lakes, break waters and other shore construction works.
 It is also used for pump house which are subjected to huge vertical as well as
horizontal forces.
 It is also occasionally used for large and multi storey building and other
structures.

3.2 APPLICATIONS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION

3.2.1 Box Caisson
 Bearing stratum is available at shallow depth
 Loads are not heavy
 For break waters

3.2.2 Pneumatic Caisson

 Foundation of road and railway bridges
 Subway tunnels facilities
 Basements and foundations buildings
 Water supply and sewage facilities
 Other facilities (example: garbage pits)

3.3 CAISSON DISEASES

In case of sinking process of pneumatic caisson, workers or workmen have to work in
working chamber under compressed air. If the compressed air pressure is less than
0.35 N/mm2 to 0.4 N/ mm2, then workmen may suffer from the following pains:

 Workmen may suffer from giddiness

 There is pains in ears of workmen

 There is breaking of ear drums of workmen

 There is bursting of blood vessels in the nose or ears of workmen

 The above mentioned pains are not that serious or fatal, but a workman is
actually suffering during decompression and effect causing depression is
called caisson disease.

vi
 Regardless of the name, the disease remains the same. It is “too much nitrogen
disease.” Normally, tissues at a constant pressure are saturated with a certain
amount of dissolved inert nitrogen. If ambient pressure drops, there is a
concomitant fall in the nitrogen pressure. Disequilibrium ensues and tissue
super saturation takes place. As a result, the tissues tend to release "excess"
nitrogen to the vascular system for delivery to the lungs where it is exhaled
into the atmosphere. Thus, a new equilibrium is established. Unfortunately, the
change in pressure can exceed the body's capability to release the extra
nitrogen. Once a critical point is reached the nitrogen can no longer remain
dissolved and bubbles form. These bubbles may develop in the tissues
themselves or in the vasculature or, for that matter, may simply grow from
circulating micronuclei (micro bubbles) already present. In any event, the
myriad of symptoms caused by these bubbles define decompression sickness.
Following are the caisson disease caused by decompression:
 Severe pains in joints leading to bends.
 It may cause paralytic death.
 Excessive oxygen get absorbed in the blood and tissues during decompression
is more troublesome to workmen. Absorbed oxygen gas is thrown out of blood
in the form of bubbles which can block in vessels and may cause bursting of
vessels.
 If bubbles are developed in joints it causes bends.
 If the bubbles are developed in spinal cord, it causes paralysis and if the
bubbles are developed in heart, it causes heart attack.
 Caisson diseases can be controlled by recompression followed by slow
decompression.

vi
MY CONTRIBUTION

In this study, from all the previous discussion and consideration it is concluded that
Caissons provide an alternative means to achieve adequate foundation at intermediate
to significant depths in both land and water environment. Therefore, Caissons serve a
wide variety of purposes in bridge, quay, lock head, breakwater or many other
projects. Caisson foundation will keep the soils underneath the building or structure
from moving vertically. Since a caisson foundation is drilled into the earth and large
concrete filled cylinders are placed within the ground rather than on top, the
settlement of the soil will not cause many difficulties for the structure.
While a caisson foundation sounds ideal, there are also many downfalls to using this
type of foundation rather than the traditional foundation.

vi
 There is a lack of expertise of these types of foundations. Construction
managers and crews are not as familiar with the procedures and protocols related
to caissons.
 The construction procedures for placing caissons are very sensitive. This is
why there are not many construction managers who are willing to work on a job
requiring caissons to be placed.
 There is a major lack of inspectors who are qualified to inspect the
construction of caisson foundations to ensure that they are safe and secure.
This form of foundation construction is subjected to various degree of financial,
technical and physical risk because of the uncertainties and arising from deep
foundations in ground conditions which can be highly variable and environment
which often have high water tables or are subject to flooding.

REFERENCES
1. Gopal Ranjan, Rao A S R – BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL MECHANICS,
New Age International Publishers, 2000

2. Jiunn-Shyang Chiou, Shang-YiHsu, Yu-ChingTsai, and Yung-YenKo

“TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF A LATERALLY LOADED BRIDGE
CAISSON FOUNDATION IN GRAVEL” - The Japanese Geotechnical
Society, June 2012; 52 (3); 562-573

3. Khoo E, Leung C. F and Lee F. H. “BEHAVIOR OF GRAVITY CAISSON

ON SAND” - Journal of Geotechnical and Geo-environmental Engineering,
March 1997, 123(3): 187-196

4. Swami Saran – ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF SUBSTRUCTURES – Limit

State Design, Oxford and IBH Publishers, 2013

vi
5. Varghese P. C. – FOUNDATION ENGINEERING,PHI private limited,
February 2011

6. Wayne C. Teng – FOUNDATION DESIGN, PHI private limited February

1992

CONTENTS
Abstract....................................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................................iv

Contents....................................................................................................................................v

List of Figures...........................................................................................................................vii

1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................1
1.1 WHAT IS CAISSON’S?......................................................................................................2
1.2 WHY TO USE A CAISSON FOUNDATION?........................................................................2

vi
1.3 WHEN IS CAISSON FOUNDATION PREFERRED?...............................................................2
1.4 TYPES OF CAISSONS........................................................................................................3
1.4.1 Open Caissons..........................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Pneumatic caisson...................................................................................................4
1.4.3 Box caisson...............................................................................................................6
1.5 DIFFERENT SHAPES OF CAISSON’S..................................................................................7
1.6 COMPONENTS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION.....................................................................7
2. CONSTRUCTION, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF CAISSON FOUNDATION..................................9
2.1 CONSTRUCTION OF CAISSON FOUNDATION...................................................................9
2.2 SINKING PROCESS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION..............................................................11
2.2.1 Laying of Curbs.......................................................................................................11
2.2.2 Construction of Well Steining................................................................................11
2.2.3 Sinking Operation...................................................................................................12
2.3 LOADS ON CAISSON FOUNDATION...............................................................................13
2.4 ANALYSIS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION...........................................................................13
2.4.1 Terzaghi’s Analysis.................................................................................................13
2.4.2 Pender’s Analysis...................................................................................................14
2.4.3 Banerjee And Gangopadhyay’s Analysis................................................................14
2.4.4 IRC Method............................................................................................................15
2.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS............................................................................................15
2.6 TILTING AND SHIFTING.................................................................................................17
2.7 REMEDIAL MEASURES TO RECTIFY TILT AND SHIFT......................................................17
2.7.1 Water Jetting..........................................................................................................17
2.7.2 Eccentric Loading...................................................................................................18
2.7.3 Excavation Under Cutting Edge;.............................................................................18
2.7.4 Providing temporary obstacles below the Cutting Edge........................................19
2.7.5 Pushing the Caissons or Well with Jack..................................................................19
2.7.6 Pulling the Well or Caisson.....................................................................................20
2.7.7 Strutting the Caissons or Well:...............................................................................20
3. USES, APPLICATIONS AND CAISSON DISEASE......................................................................22
3.1 USES OF CAISSONS........................................................................................................22
3.2 APPLICATIONS OF CAISSON FOUNDATION...................................................................22
3.2.1 Box Caisson............................................................................................................22
3.2.2 Pneumatic Caisson.................................................................................................22

vi
3.3 CAISSON DISEASES........................................................................................................23
MY CONTRIBUTION.............................................................................................................25
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................26

List of Figures
Fig 1.1Open caisson.......................................................................................................3
Fig 1.2 Pneumatic caisson..............................................................................................5
Fig 1.3 Box Caisson.......................................................................................................6
Fig 1.4 Different shapes of Caisson’s............................................................................7
Fig 1.5 Components of Caisson Foundation..................................................................7
Fig 2.1 Ground Prepration..............................................................................................9
Fig 2.2 Construction of working chamber.....................................................................9
Fig 2.3 Rigging.............................................................................................................10
Fig 2.4 Repeated excavation to sink and construct caisson.........................................10
Fig 2.5 Testing the bearing capacity of soil.................................................................10
Fig 2.6 Concrete filling for working chamber.............................................................11
Fig 2.7 Typical Sand Island.........................................................................................11
Fig 2.8 Loading Steining by Kentledge.......................................................................12
vi
Fig 2.9 Water Jetting....................................................................................................18
Fig 2.10 Eccentric loading on higher side....................................................................18
Fig 2.11 Excavation on Higher side.............................................................................19
Fig 2.12 Wooden sleeper provided below cutting edge...............................................19
Fig 2.13 Pushing of Caisson by Jack...........................................................................20
Fig 2.14 Pulling the well..............................................................................................20
Fig 2.15 Strutting the caissons....................................................................................21

vi