IB Physics SL - Study Guide

Science Skills
List the seven fundamental base units and their abbreviations:
Unit Abbreviation
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd

Metric Prefixes – List the unit prefixes in their appropriate decimal position

Dimensional Analysis
Convert the following:

20 mi hr-1 → m s-1

20 𝑚𝑖 1609 𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚
× × × = 8.9 = 8.9 𝑚 𝑠 −1
1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑚𝑖 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛 60 𝑠 𝑠
0.0007 km2 → m2

1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚 1000 𝑚 2

0.0007 𝑘𝑚2 × × = 700 𝑚2 or 0.0007 𝑘𝑚2 × ( ) = 700 𝑚2
1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚 1 𝑘𝑚

Determine the units for Q:

Q = mc ΔT
m (mass) kg

(𝑘𝑔)(𝐽 )(𝐾) c (specific heat) J kg-1 K-1

𝑄 = (𝑘𝑔)(𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 )(𝐾) = =𝐽
𝑘𝑔 𝐾
ΔT (change in temp) K
Motion

Scalar Vector
How far (m) Distance Displacement
How fast (m s-1) Speed Velocity

Displacement vs Time Velocity vs Time Acceleration vs Time

Slope: Area under the Curve:
Slope: Acceleration
Meaning of the
Velocity Velocity
Graph Area under the Curve:
Displacement

Constant
Displacement

Constant
Positive
Velocity

Constant
Negative
Velocity

Constant
Positive
Acceleration
(speeding up)

Constant
Negative
Acceleration
(slowing down)
Variable
Symbol
Unit Kinematic Equations s u v a t

Displacement s m 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️
1
Initial Velocity u m s-1 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 2𝑎𝑡 2 ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️

Final Velocity v m s-1 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 ✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️

Acceleration a m s-2 𝑠 = (𝑣+𝑢)𝑡

2
✔️ ✔️ ✔️ ✔️

Time t s

Horizontal Component 𝐴𝐻 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃

Vertical Component 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴 sin 𝜃

Vertical

u 0 m s-1
v

a -9.81 m s-2
t

Vertical

u u sinθ
v 0 m s-1
a -9.81 m s-2
t
Forces

Type of Force Variable Description/Important Properties Equation

Weight Fg Force of gravity on an object with mass Fg = mg

Always pulls in the same direction as the

Tension FT rope or chain providing the tension

Normal
Reaction R Always perpendicular to a surface

Friction Ff Always opposes the motion of an object Ff = μR

Air Resistance Fair Increases with surface area and velocity

If an object has a net force of zero its motion is either:

Not moving (velocity = 0 m s-1) or Moving at a constant velocity

Newton’s Laws
Newton’s A object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion remains in motion
First Law until and unless an external force acts upon it (Unbalanced force).

Newton’s The rate of change of momentum of an object is proportional to the

Second Law resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. (F = ma)

Newton’s
All forces occur in pairs. Every action has an equal and opposite reaction
Third Law
Variable
Unit
Symbol
Data Booklet
Equations: Force F N
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 Mass m kg
𝐹𝑓 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑅 Acceleration a m s-1
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑅 Normal Reaction Force R N
Coefficient of Kinetic Friction μd --
Coefficient of Static Friction μs --

The maximum velocity a falling body can achieve. This occurs when the
Terminal Velocity
force of air resistance is equal and opposite to the weight and Fnet = 0 N.
Sliding to a Stop Constant Velocity

Fnet = Ff Fnet = 0 N Fpull = Ff

Forces on a Ramp

Equilibrium Accelerating
R F⊥ R F⊥
Ff F∥ Ff μR
F⊥ Fg cosθ Fnet 0N Fnet F∥ - Ff
F∥ Fg sinθ a 0 m s-1 a Fnet / m
Circular Motion

Variable Draw in
Unit
Symbol vectors
for v, ac,
Distance d m
and Fc →
Angular Distance θ rad
Angular Velocity ω rad s-1 Data Booklet Equations:
Linear Velocity v m s-1 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
2 2
Centripetal Acceleration a m s-2 𝑎 = 𝑣𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑇2 𝑟
2
Centripetal Force Fc N 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑟
Defining Circular Motion
Period T s Angular Velocity ω rad s-1
2𝜋
Time per revolution 𝜔=
𝑇
Vertical Circular Motion
Top: Bottom:

Fnet = Fc = FT + Fg Fnet = Fc = FT - Fg

Top: Bottom:

Fnet = Fc = Fg - R Fnet = Fc = R - Fg
Circular Motion with Friction and Angles
Relationships between variables:

𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝑔

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑅

Relationships between variables:

𝑅 = 𝐹𝑔

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑓

Relationships between variables:

𝑇𝑦 = 𝐹𝑔

𝐹𝑐 = 𝑇𝑥
Energy

Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equations:
Work W Joules [J] 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1
Power P Watts [W] 𝐸𝑘 = 2𝑚𝑣 2
1
Kinetic Energy Ek J 𝐸𝑝 = 2𝑘∆𝑥 2
Elastic Potential Energy Ep J ∆𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ
Gravitational Potential Energy ΔEp J power = 𝐹𝑣
Spring Constant k N m-1
Spring Stretch Δx m

Calculating Work
Constant force at an angle:

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠 cos 𝜃

Varying Force:

Area under the curve

Examples of no work being done for an object in motion:

• Pushing something that doesn’t move (no displacement, no work)
• Waiter carrying a tray horizontally (force is vertical, motion is horizontal)
• Orbiting object (velocity is tangent to path, force is toward the center)
Calculating Power
In terms of work and time: In terms of force and velocity:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐹𝑣
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Units
Standard Unit From Equation Fundamental SI Units

Work J Nm kg m2 s-2

Power W J s-1 kg m2 s-3

Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy Elastic Potential Energy Gravitational Potential Energy
1 2 1 2
2
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑘∆𝑥 𝑚𝑔∆ℎ

Conservation of Energy

Total Energy Before = Total Energy After

Work-Energy Theorem

Work → Energy Energy → Work

1 2
𝐹𝑠 = 12𝑚𝑣 2 2
𝑚𝑣 = 𝐹𝑠
Momentum

Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equations:
Momentum p kg m s-1 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Mass m kg ∆𝑝
𝐹=
Velocity v m s-1 ∆𝑡
Time t s 𝑝2
𝐸𝐾 =
2𝑚
Kinetic Energy EK J
Impulse Impulse Ns or kg m s-1 Impulse = 𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝

Conservation of Energy Problems

“Explosion”

pAB = pA + pB

“Hit and Bounce”

pA + pB = pA + pB

“Hit and Stick”

pA + pB = pAB
Types of Collisions
Kinetic Energy is conserved (perfect hit and bounce)
Elastic *Typically just found in particle collisions

Inelastic Kinetic Energy is not conserved

Calculating Impulse
Constant force:

Force × Time
FΔt

Varying Force:

Area under a
Force vs Time
Graph

Impulse-Momentum Equation

𝐹∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝 = 𝑚∆𝑣 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢

Collision Safety
Explain (using impulse, force, and time) how to decrease the force acting on an object undergoing a collision:

Impulse is the same overall regardless of the impact style because the object has a set mass
and impact velocity. The force can be decreased by increasing the time of the impact.

Impulse = F Δt or Impulse = F Δt
Waves – Sound

Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equations:
Period T s 1
𝑇=
Frequency f Hz 𝑓

Wavelength λ m 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
Amplitude A m
Wave Speed v m s-1

Simple Harmonic Motion Graphs

Velocity vs Displacement

Accel. vs Displacement
Types of Waves Picture Definition Examples
• Light
Particles move perpendicular
Transverse to the motion of the wave
• Ripples in a Pond
• Earthquakes

Particles move parallel • Sound

Longitudinal to the motion of the wave • Earthquakes

Parts of a Wave
Label the Wave:
• Amplitude
• Wavelength
• Crest
• Trough

Harmonics
Open Pipe Closed Pipe String
End Conditions Antinode Antinode Node Antinode Node Node

3rd Harmonic
3 5 3
L=2λ L=4λ L=2λ

2nd Harmonic
3
L=1λ L=4λ L=1λ

1st Harmonic
(Fundamental)
1 1 1
L=2λ L=4λ L=2λ

Interference
Constructive Path Difference = n λ Destructive Path Difference = (n + ½) λ
Waves – Light
Electromagnetic Spectrum
A Radiowaves
B Microwaves
C Infrared
D Visible Light
E Ultraviolet
F X-Rays
G Gamma Waves

Index of Refraction
Medium Wave Speed (v) Index of Refraction (n)
Vacuum 3.00 × 108 m s-1 1.0000 𝑛1 𝑣2
Air 2.999 × 108 m s-1 1.0003 =
Water 2.256 × 108 m s-1 1.33
𝑛2 𝑣1
Glass 1.974 × 108 m s-1 1.52

Refraction

𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
=
𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1

Critical Angle
When 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 𝑛
−1 ( 2 )
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑛1
𝜃2 = 90°

Reflection
Law of Reflection

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection

Polarized Light

𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

I Intensity Observed

I0 Original Intensity

θ Difference in Angle

Double Slit Experiment

Label this diagram:
𝜆𝐷
𝑠=
𝑑
s Distance between fringes
λ Wavelength
D Distance to Screen
d Distance between slits
Electricity
Charge Current
Symbol q Unit Coulombs [C] Symbol I Unit Amperes [A]
Charge of 1 Electron 1.6 × 10-19 C C
Unit in terms of Coulombs A=
# of Electrons per Coulomb 6.25 × 1018 e- s

Drift Speed
Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equation:
Current I A
I = nAvq
# of Electrons per m3 n ---
Cross Sectional Area A M2
Drift Speed v m s-1 Cross Sectional Area:

Charge q C A = πr 2
Electrical Properties
Property What is it? Symbol Unit

Voltage Potential Difference V Volts [V]

Current The rate at which charges move through a wire I Amperes [A]

How hard it is for a current to

Resistance
flow through a conductor R Ohms [Ω]

Kirchhoff’s Laws
ΣI = 0 (junction) ΣV = 0 (loop)
The total current coming into a junction must equal the The sum of the voltages (potential differences) provided
total current leaving the same junction must equal the voltages dissipated across components

Across resistors Always Negative

Entering Junction → ● Positive Negative to Positive → Positive

Exiting Junction ● → Negative Positive to Negative → Negative

Ohm’s Law
Ohmic Resistor Non-Ohmic Resistor
V=I × R

V
I=
R
V
R=
I
Equivalent Resistance
Drawing with R1 and R2 Equation

Series 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + ⋯

1 1 1
Parallel = + +⋯
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2

Measuring Circuits
Ammeter Voltmeter
Ideal Resistance R=0Ω R=∞Ω
How is it connected to the Ammeters must be Voltmeters must be
component being measured? connected in series connected in parallel

Drawing of meter measuring R1

Resistivity
Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equation:
Resistivity ρ Ωm RA
ρ=
Resistance R Ω L
Cross Sectional Area A m2 Cross Sectional Area:

Length L m A = πr 2
Power
In terms of V and I In terms of I and R In terms of V and R

V2
P=V × I P= I2R P=
R

Voltage Dividers
Light-Dependent Resistor Thermistor

Symbol

Light Increases Heat Increases

Relationship
Resistance Decreases Resistance Decreases
Switch turns on in the dark: Switch turns on in a fire:

Circuit

Batteries
Primary Cells Secondary Cells
Can be recharged by passing a current
Cannot be recharged through the battery in the opposite direction
as it would normally travel

Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equation:
Electromotive Force (e.m.f) ε V
ε = I(R + r)
Current I A
Circuit Resistance R Ω
Internal Resistance r Ω
Force Fields

Forces between objects

Coulomb’s Law
Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equations:
Electrostatic Force F N 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
Object 1 Charge q1 C 𝑟2
1
Object 2 Charge q2 C =
4𝜋𝜀0
Separation Distance r M
Coulomb Constant k N m2 C-2 k = 8.99 × 109 N m2 C-2
Permittivity of Free Space ε0 C2 N-1 m-2 ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2

Universal Law of Gravitation

Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equation:
Gravitational Force F N 𝑀𝑚
𝐹=𝐺
Object 1 Mass M kg 𝑟2
Object 2 Mass m kg
Separation Distance r m
Gravitational Constant G N m2 kg-2 G = 6.67 N m2 kg-2

Force Fields
Electric Field Gravitational Field

Symbol E Data Booklet Equation: Symbol g Data Booklet Equation:

𝐹 𝐹 𝑀
Units FC -1 𝐸=𝑞 Units F kg -1 𝑔=𝑚 𝑔 = 𝐺 𝑟2
Magnetic Fields

Right Hand Rule:

Right Hand Rule #1 Right Hand Rule #2 Right Hand Rule #3

Magnetic field around a current Pole orientation for a coil of wire Electromagnetic force direction
carrying wire (electromagnet, solenoid, etc.) on a wire or moving particle

Thumb Current Thumb North Pole Thumb Current

Fingers Magnetic Field Fingers Current Fingers Magnetic Field
Palm Force

Electromagnetic Force
Variable
Unit
Symbol Data Booklet Equations:
Magnetic Force F N
Magnetic Field Strength B T Wire:
Current I A 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 sin 𝜃
Wire Length L m
Angle to Field θ ° Particle:
Particle Charge q C 𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 sin 𝜃
Particle Velocity v m s-1
Charged Particles Moving through a Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field | Out of Screen Magnetic Field | Into Screen
Positive Particle
Negative Particle
Thermal Physics

Data Booklet Equation:

Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) + 273

Conditions for Absolute Zero:

Molecules stop moving. This is the

coldest possible temperature.

Absolute Zero = 0 K = -273 K

Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat

Variable Symbol Unit
Data Booklet Equations:
Heat Energy Q J
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Mass m kg
Specific Heat Capacity c J kg-1 K-1 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿

Change in Temperature ΔT K
Specific Latent Heat L J kg-1

EK Kinetic Energy → Temperature EP Potential Energy → Phase Change

Heating Curves
Pressure
Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equation:
Force F N 𝐹
𝑝=
Area A m3 𝐴
Pressure p N m-3 Pa

Kinetic Theory and Temperature

Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equation:
Average Kinetic Energy ̅
Ek J 3 3 𝑅
𝐸̅𝐾 = 2𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 2 𝑁 𝑇
Absolute Temperature T K 𝐴

Boltzmann’s Constant kb J K-1 𝑘𝐵 = 1.38 × 10-23 J K-1

Avogadro’s Number NA 6.02 × 1023

Ideal Gas Law

Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equations:
Pressure p Pa 𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑅 = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1

Volume V m-3 Conditions for Ideal Gases:

Number of Molecules n mol
Gas Constant R J K-1 mol-1
Temperature T K

Ideal Gas Relationships

Atomic Physics
Types of Decay
Alpha Beta-Negative Beta-Positive
4 A
A
ZX → A−4
Z−2X + 2He
A
ZX → Z+1X + −10e + 𝑣̅𝑒 A → A + 0 +
ZX Z−1X +1e 𝑣𝑒
Parent Daughter Alpha Parent Daughter Anti- Parent Daughter
Electron Positron Neutrino
Nuclide Nuclide Particle Nuclide Nuclide neutrino Nuclide Nuclide

Alpha Beta Gamma

Property
(α) (β+ or β-) (γ)

Relative Charge +2 +1 or -1 0

Relative Mass 4 0.0005 0

107 2.5 × 108 3.0 × 108
Typical Speed
m s-1 m s-1 m s-1

Ionizing Effect Strong Weak Very Weak

Half Life
# of Fraction Percentage
Half-Lives Remaining Remaining

0 1 100%
1 1/2 50%
2 1/4 25%
3 1/8 12.5%
4 1/16 6.25%
5 1/32 3.125%
6 1/64 1.5625%
Mass-Energy Equivalence
Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equation:
Energy E J
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
Mass m kg
Speed of Light c m s-1 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 𝑚 𝑠 −1

Unified Atomic Mass Unit 𝑢 1.661 × 10-27 kg 1.000000 u 931.5 MeV c-2

Electron Rest Mass 𝑚e 9.110 × 10-31 kg 0.000549 u 0.511 MeV c-2

Proton Rest Mass 𝑚p 1.673 × 10-27 kg 1.007276 u 938 MeV c-2

Neutron Rest Mass 𝑚n 1.675 × 10-27 kg 1.008665 u 940 MeV c-2

Converting between Joules and Electron-Volts

{𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐽}
{𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉 } = {𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝐽} = {𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑉 } × 1.60 × 10−19
1.60 × 10−19

Process for Calculating Binding Energy

1. Add up the “before and after” masses
2. Find the mass defect by taking the difference
3. Convert atomic mass units (u) into MeV c-2 by using the conversion factor 1 u = 931.5 MeV c-2
4. The c-2 cancels out when converting to energy using E = mc2 so this is your binding energy

Describe Examples Challenges

Proper amounts of
Lighter elements are
Nuclear Power fissionable elements
Fission created by splitting
heavier elements
Nuclear Weapons required to maintain
chain reaction

Heavier elements are

Requires high heat and
Fusion created by combining
lighter elements
The Sun/Stars
high pressure
Fundamental Particles
The following two tables are provided in the IB Physics Data Booklet
Baryon
Charge Quarks Charge Leptons
Number
2 1
3
u c t 3
−1 e 𝜇 𝜏

1 1
−3 d s b 0 𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝜇 𝑣𝜏
3

All quarks have a strangeness number of 0 except the All leptons have a lepton number of 1 and
strange quark that has a strangeness number of –1 antileptons have a lepton number of –1

Quarks Leptons
Symbol Name Charge Baryon # Symbol Name Charge Lepton #
2 1
u Up +3 3 e Electron −1 1
1 1
d Down −3 3 μ Muon −1 1
2 1
c Charm +3 3 τ Tau −1 1
1 1 Electron
s Strange −3 3 𝑣𝑒 Neutrino 0 1
2 1 Muon
t Top +3 3
𝑣μ Neutrino 0 1
1 1
b Bottom −3 3 𝑣τ Tau Neutrino 0 1

Anti-Quarks Anti-Leptons
Symbol Name Charge Baryon # Symbol Name Charge Lepton #
2 1 Antielectron
u̅ Antiup −3 −3 e̅ (positron) +1 −1
d̅
1 1
Antidown +3 −3 μ̅ Antimuon +1 −1
2 1
c̅ Anticharm −3 −3 τ̅ Antitau +1 −1
1 1 Electron
s̅ Antistrange +3 −3 𝑣̅𝑒 Antineutrino 0 −1
2 1 Muon
t̅ Antitop −3 −3 𝑣̅μ Antineutrino 0 −1
Tau
b̅
1 1
Antibottom +3 −3 𝑣̅τ Antineutrino 0 −1

Explain the phenomenon of Quark Confinement:

Quarks have never been observed on their own. The amount of energy required to
overcome the strong nuclear force holding the quarks together gets converted into mass
and forms a new quark pair.
Fundamental Forces Particle Configurations
Strength Distance Proton Neutron
Gravitational Weakest Long Range

Weak Weak Short Range

Electromagnetic Strong Very Long Range

Strong Strongest Very Short Range Total Charge +1 Total Charge 0

Feynman Diagrams
You can only draw two kinds of lines You can only connect these lines if The x-axis represents time and is read
you have two lines with arrows from left to right. Everything left of
meeting a single wiggly line the vertex is the “before” condition.

Beta-Negative Decay Beta-Positive Decay

Energy Production
Global Energy Usage
Rank Energy Source %

1 Oil 32%
2 Coal 28%
3 Natural Gas 22%
4 Biomass 10%
5 Nuclear 5%
6 Hydropower 2.5%

Efficiency
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛

Sankey Diagram Rules:

Width of the arrow proportional to the
amount of energy

Energy Density
Definition Units

Specific Energy Energy transferred per unit mass J kg-1

Energy Density Energy transferred per unit volume J m-3

Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary Energy Sources Secondary Energy Sources

Energy sources found in the natural environment Useful transformations of the primary sources
(fossil fuels, solar, wind, nuclear, hydro, etc.) (electricity, pumped storage for hydro, etc.)
Fossil Fuels
Number of years left in global reserves Describe the process of Fracking:
Coal ~100-150 years 1. Drill hole into shale rock
2. Inject fracking fluid at high pressure to create cracks
Oil ~50 years
3. Extract newly released natural gas
Natural Gas ~50 years 4. Seal fracking fluid in the hole

Nuclear Power
% of U-235 Why is the concentration of U-235 important?
Only U-235 can undergo a fission chain reaction
Uranium Ore 0.7%
Fuel-Grade 3.5% What is done with the nuclear waste?
Stored on-site in spent fuel pools and/or concrete dry cask storage
Weapons-Grade 90%

Moderator Control Rods

Slows down neutrons to be absorbed by U-235 Absorbs neutrons to limit number of chain reactions
Made from Water or Graphite (carbon) Made from Boron

Renewable Energy
Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equations:
Power P W 1
Power = 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3
Cross-Sectional Area A m2 2
Air Density ρ kg m-3
A = 𝜋𝑟 2
Air Speed v m s-1

Photovoltaic Cells Solar Concentrator Solar Heating Panel

Converts solar energy directly into Mirrors focus sunlight onto a central Sun’s radiation is absorbed by black
electricity. Useful in solar panels on tower. The high thermal energy is pipes that transfer thermal energy
top of building or solar farms converted to steam and runs to the water flowing through them.
connected to the energy grid turbines to produce electricity Replaces hot water heater.

Biomass Coal Geothermal Hydropower Natural Gas Nuclear Petroleum Solar Wind

Renewable ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Produces CO2 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Thermal Energy Transfer
Conduction Convection Radiation

Energy is transferred through

Energy is transferred through Energy circulates through the
electromagnetic radiation. Can
molecular collisions expansion and rising of hot fluids
travel through a vacuum

Emissivity Black Body Radiation

Sun ~1 An idealized object that

absorbs all the
Earth ~0.6
electromagnetic radiation
Black-Body 1 the falls on it

Power Emissivity Variable Symbol Unit

Data Booklet Equations:
Power P W
𝑃 = 𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇 4
Emissivity e ---
Surface Area A m2 2.90 × 10−3
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑇
Temperature T K
Max Wavelength λmax m 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4

Solar Radiation and Climate Change

Intensity Variable Symbol Unit
Data Booklet Equations:
Intensity I W m-2 power
𝐼=
Power P W 𝐴

Area A m2 𝐴𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Greenhouse Gases Positive Feedback Loop Negative Feedback Loop

Water Vapor (H2O) Melting ice (decreases albedo) Cloud formation (increases albedo)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Melting permafrost (releases methane) Increased photosynthesis (uses CO2)

Methane (CH4) Rising ocean temp releases methane Climate Change leads to renewables
Astrophysics
The Scale of Astrophysics
Unit Conversion Definition

1 light year (ly) = 9.46 × 1015 m The distance the light travels in an earth year

The average distance between the

1 parsec (pc) = 3.26 ly
earth and the sun
The distance at which the mean radius of the
1 astronomical unit (AU) = 1.50 × 1011 m
earth’s orbit subtends an angle of 1 arc second

Stellar Quantities
Brightness Luminosity

Star intensity to an observer on earth How much total power a star emits
Units: W m-2 Units: W

Variable Symbol Unit Data Booklet Equations:

Distance d pc 1
𝑑 (parsec) =
𝑝 (arc − second)
Parallax Angle p sec
𝐿
Brightness b W m-2 𝑏=
4𝜋𝑑 2
Luminosity L W
Max Wavelength λmax m 𝜆max 𝑇 = 2.9 × 10−3 m K

Temperature T K 𝐿 = 𝜎𝐴𝑇 4
Surface Area A m2 𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4

Describe the process of Stellar Parallax:

Observe how far a star moves relative to distant
stars six months apart so that earth has its
maximum displacement and an angle can be
measured
Atomic Spectra
Variable Symbol Unit
Data Booklet Equations:
Energy E J or eV 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
Planck’s Constant h Js ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
Frequency f Hz 𝐸
Speed of Light c m s-1 ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 J s
Wavelength λ m 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 m s −1

ℎ𝑐 1.99 × 10−25 J m 1.24 × 10−6 eV m

H-R Diagrams and Life Cycle of a Star

Label the Following:
□ Main Sequence
□ White Dwarfs
□ Red Giants
□ The Sun
□ Line representing the life
cycle of our sun

Chandrasekhar Limit Oppenheimer-Volkhoff Limit

The maximum mass of a core that The maximum mass of a core that
can become a white dwarf is 1.4 can become a neutron star is 3
times the mass of the sun (1.4 Mʘ) times the mass of the sun (3 Mʘ)

Sun Like Stars (< 1.5 Mʘ) Huge Stars (1.5 – 3 Mʘ) Giant Stars (> 3 Mʘ)
⬇ ⬇ ⬇
White Dwarf Neutron Star Black Hole
The Expanding Universe
Standard Candles Evidence for Expanding Universe

Objects of known luminosity that can be Hubble discovered that the farther away
used with the apparent brightness to stars and galaxies are, the more their light
measure distance from earth is redshifted.

Cephid Variables and Type Ia Supernovas This means, more distant objects are
traveling faster than nearer objects.

Variable Symbol Unit

Data Booklet Equations:
Redshift z --- ∆𝜆 𝑣
𝑧= ≈
Change in Wavelength Δλ m 𝜆0 𝑐

Original Wavelength λ0 m 𝑅
𝑧= −1
Relative Velocity of Source v m s-1 𝑅0

Speed of Light c m s-1 𝑣 = 𝐻0 𝑑

Current Scale Factor R ---
Scale Factor when Emitted R0 --- 𝑐 = 3.00 × 108 m s −1
Hubble’s Constant H0 km s-1 Mpc-1 𝐻0 ≈ 70 𝑘𝑚 𝑠 −1 𝑀𝑝𝑐 −1

The Big Bang

Peak Wavelength Temperature
Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
~0.001 𝑚 (1 𝑚𝑚) ~2.9 𝐾

Describe why the CMB is evidence of the Big Bang:

The CMB is the heat signature from the early universe. As the universe has expanded
to its current size, the wavelength stretched out to the current value seen in the CMB.
This radiation is fairly uniform and it can be observed in every direction.