UNIT1: ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

.
ELECTRIC CHARGE
It is a fundamental physical quantity due which electrical and other effects are produced in the
matter OR Electric charge is the basic property of matter i.e. the property of electron and proton
which gives rise to an electric force between these two kinds of the charges (i) positive charge (ii)
negative charge.
For example: When a glass rod is rubbed with silk then both get electrified i.e. silk becomes
negatively charged and glass rod becomes positively charged. It was observed that if two glass rods
rubbed with wool or silk cloth are brought close to each other, they repel each other [Fig. 1 (a)].

Fig.1
Similarly when a plastic rod is rubbed with fur then both get electrified i.e. plastic rod becomes
negatively charged and fur becomes positively charged.
It was observed that if two plastic rods rubbed with cat’s fur repelled each other [Fig.1(b)] but
attracted the fur. On the other hand, the plastic rod attracts the glass rod [Fig.1(c)] and repels the
silk or wool with which the glass rod is rubbed. The glass rod repels the fur.

Fig.1
Thus the electrification of glass rod and plastic rod is different.
The property which differentiates two kinds of the charge is known as polarity of charge.
Gold-leaf electroscope:
A simple apparatus to detect charge on a body is the gold-
leaf electroscope [Fig.2 (a)]. It consists of a vertical metal
rod housed in a box, with two thin gold leaves attached to
its bottom end. When a charged object touches the metal
knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves
and they diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator
of the amount of charge.
Fig.2 (a)

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CONDUCTORS
Those substances which allow electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors. They
have electric charges (electrons) that are comparatively free to move inside the material. Metals,
human and animal bodies and earth are conductors.
INSULATORS
Those substances which do not allow electricity to pass through them are called insulators. Most of
the non-metals like glass, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood and air offer high resistance to the passage
of electricity through them. They are called insulators
Charging By Induction
The process by which a charged body makes another body charged and has a charge of opposite
sign without touching the body is known as charging by induction.

Fig.3
In this process, the metal spheres will each be equal and oppositely charged. This is charging by
induction.
Grounding or Earthing
The process of sharing the charges with the earth is called grounding or earthing. Earthing
provides a safety measure for electrical circuits and appliances. For example:

Fig.4
BASIC PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC CHARGE
Electric charge has three basic properties: quantization, additivity and conservation.
Additivity
It is the property of electric charges by virtue of which the total charge of a system
is the algebraic sum (i.e., the sum taking into account proper signs) of all individual charges in the
system. For example, let a system consist the charges q1, q2, q3 ….qn, then the total charge on the
system q = q1 + q 2 + ............... + q n .

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Quantization of electric charge
It is the property of electric charges by virtue of which total charge (q) of a body
is always an integral multiple of a basic quantum of charge (e) i.e. q = n e, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,
.... Proton and electron have charges +e, –e, respectively.
For macroscopic charges for which n is a very large number, quantisation of charge can be ignored.
Conservation of electric charges
In an isolated system the total charge remains constant i.e. unchanged with time.
For example
(i) Uranium-238 (92U238) decays into thorium (90Th234) by emitting an α-particle (which is a helium
nucleus, (2He4).
238
92U → 90U234 + 2He4
The amount of charge present before decay is 92e and this is equal to the amount of charge after
the decay (90e + 2e = 92e). Hence, electric charge is conserved.
(ii) Consider glass rod and silk cloth; both are neutral i.e., total charge on the system = zero. When
glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod attains positive charge while silk acquires equal negative
charge. Then the net charge of the system is zero,
Thus, total charge of glass rod and silk system before rubbing is equal to the total charge of glass
rod and silk system after rubbing.
Note that rubbing does not create charge but only transfers it from one body to another. The
charge that is gained by one body is lost by the other. Hence, electric charge is conserved.
COULOMB’S LAW
According to this law, mutual electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges q1 and q2
is proportional to the product of magnitude of charges i.e. q1q2 and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r separating them.

Mathematically,
1
F ∝ q1 q 2 And F ∝
r2
q1 q 2 qq
F∝ 2
Then F = k 1 2 2 -------------- (1)
r r
Where k is called electrostatic force constant and its value depends on the nature of medium in
which two point charges are located and also on the systems of unit.
In CGS System the value of k = 1
1
In SI System the value of k = , where ε o is called absolute electrical permittivity in free space
4πε o
or vacuum and its value is 8.85 × 10 −12 C 2 / Nm 2 .
1
k= = 9 × 10 9 Nm 2 / C 2
4πε o
In vector form
→ qq
F = k 1 2 2 rˆ ---------------------------------- (2)
r

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RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY or DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Permittivity is the property of a medium and affects the magnitude of force between two point
charges.
Consider two point charges q1, q2 are placed in a medium at a small distance r then the force
between them is

1 q1 q 2
F= ------------------------------------------- (1)
4πε r 2
Now the force between the same two charges placed at the same distance in vacuum (or in air or
free space) is

1 q1 q 2
Fo = ------------------------------------------- (2)
4πε o r 2
Divide equation (2) by equation (1)
FO ε
= = ε r or K ---------------------------------------- (3)
F εO
Here ε r or K is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant.
Thus, it is defined as the ratio of electrical permittivity in medium to the electrical permittivity in
vacuum.
OR
It is also defined as the ratio of force between two charges separated by a certain distance in air (or
vacuum) to the force between the same charges separated by the same distance in the medium.
Relative electrical permittivity (or dielectric constant) depends on the nature of medium in which
charges are located or placed.
For vacuum or free space ε r or K =1 for air ε r or K =1.006
For hydrogen ε r or K =1.00026 for glass ε r or K =3 to 4
For mica ε r or K = 3 to 6 for water ε r or K = 81
For metals ε r or K = ∞
For example
FO ε
= = ε r or K , if the medium is water ( ε r or K = 81)
F εO
FO F
= 81 Then FW = O
FW 81
Thus the force between the two point charges in water is equal to 1/81 times the force between the
same two charges in vacuum.

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UNITS OF CHARGE
In SI System unit of charge is coulomb (C)
DEFINITION OF 1C FROM COULOMB’S LAW
We know that
q1 q 2
1
Fo =
4πε o r 2
If q1 = q2 = 1C and r = 1m, then F = 9 × 109 N
Thus 1C is that charge which when placed 1m distance from an equal and similar charge in vacuum
(or air) then it would experience electrical repulsive force of magnitude 9 × 109 N.
In CGS System unit of charge is stat coulomb
In SI System charge on electron = 1.6 × 10 −19 C
In CGS System charge on electron = 4.8 × 10 −10 stat C
1.6 × 10 −19 C = 4.8 × 10 −10 stat C
4.8 × 10 −10
1C = −19
= 3 × 10 9 stat C
1.6 × 10
FORCES BETWEEN MULTIPLE CHARGES OR SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLE
According to this principle, force on any charge due to a number of other charges is the vector sum
of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a time. The individual forces
are unaffected due to the presence of other charges i.e.
→ → → →
F1 = F12 + F13 + ....................................... F1n

Consider charges q1, q2, q3 ... qn located in vacuum at points whose position vectors w.r.t. origin O
→ → → →
are r1 , r2 , r3 .......... rn respectively [See Fig.] then the total force on charge q1 due to all other charges.
→ → → →
F1 = F12 + F13 + ....................................... F1n
→ 1 q1 q 2 1 q1 q3 1 q1q 4 1 q1 q n
F1 = 2
rˆ21 + 2
rˆ31 + 2
rˆ41 + ………….. + rˆn1
4πε O r21 4πε O r31 4πε O r41 4πε O rn21

→ q1 q2 q q q
F1 = [ rˆ + 23 r̂31 + 24 r̂41 + ………….. + 2n rˆn1 ]
2 21
4πε O r21 r31 r41 rn1
→ q1
i=n qi
F1 = ∑ rˆi1
4πε O i =1 ri12

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CONTINUOUS CHARGE DISTRIBUTION
A system of closely spaced charges is known as continuous charge distribution. Its simply meaning
is that discrete charges are distributed in continuous manner. There are three types of continuous
charge distribution.
1. Linear charge distribution
2. Surface charge distribution
3. Volume charge distribution
1. Linear charge distribution
It is defined as the charge is distributed uniformly over to a line. It is represented by λ and λ is
dq
called linear charge density. The linear charge density λ of a wire is defined by λ = , its SI unit is
dl
C/m

Consider a very thin conductor of length L with a uniform

positive linear charge density λ. Let take a very small length dl
of the line L as shown in Fig.. The small amount of charge dq on
→
this element is dq = λ dl. Then small force dF on q0 placed at P
→ 1 qO dq
due to this charge element is dFL = rˆ but dq
4πε O r 2
= λdl
→ 1 qO λ dl
dFL = rˆ ------------------------------- (1)
4πε O r 2
Total force on test charge q0 due to entire linear charge distribution
→ q λ dl → q λ dl
∫ dFL = 4πε O ∫L r 2 rˆ OR FL = ∫
4πε O L r 2
rˆ ------------------ (2)

2. Surface charge distribution

It is defined as the charge is distributed uniformly over to a surface. It is represented by σ and σ is
called surface charge density. The surface charge density σ at the area element is defined by
dq
σ= ; its SI unit is C/m2
dS

Consider a surface S having positive surface charge density σ on

its surface. Let a very small surface element of area dS. The
small charge dq on this element is dq = σ dS. The small force on
→ 1 qO dq
q0 due to this element is dFS = rˆ
4πε O r 2
→ 1 qO σ dS
dFS = rˆ ------------------------- (1)
4πε O r2
Total force on test charge q0 due to entire surface charge distribution
→ q σ dS → q σ dS
∫ dF S = ∫
4πε O S r 2
ˆ
r OR FS = ∫
4πε O S r 2
rˆ ------------------ (2)

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3. Volume charge distribution
It is defined as the charge is distributed uniformly over to a volume. It is represented by ρ and ρ is
called volume charge density. The volume charge density ρ at the volume element is defined by
dq
ρ= ; its SI unit is C/m3
dV

Consider a volume V having positive volume charge density of

ρ.Let a very small element of volume dV. Then small charge dq on
this volume is dq = ρ dV.
→ 1 qO dq
The small force on q0 due to this element is dFV = rˆ
4πε O r 2
→ 1 qO ρ dV
dFV = rˆ ------------------------- (1)
4πε O r2
Total force on test charge q0 due to entire volume charge distribution
→ q ρ dV → q ρ dV
∫ V 4πε O V∫ r 2
dF = ˆ
r OR FV = ∫
4πε O V r 2
rˆ ------------------ (2)

ELECTRIC FIELD
The space around an electric charge in which force of attraction or repulsion can be experienced by
any other charge is called electric field.

The charge +q and – q is called the source charge because it produces the electric field. The charge
+q0 is called the test charge. The test charge should be as small as possible so that its presence does
not affect the electric field due to the source charge.
Electric field at a point or Electric Field Intensity or Strength of Electric Field
Electric field at a point due to a source charge can be defined as the force that a test charge would
experience, if placed at that point.
→
→ F
i.e. E (r ) =
qo
the source charge q must remain at its original location. However, if a charge q0 is brought at any
point around q, q itself is bound to experience an electrical force due to q0 and will tend to move. A
way out of this difficulty is to make q0 negligibly small. The force F is then negligibly small but the
ratio F/q is finite and defines the electric field
→
→
F
E = lim 
q →0  q 
 
It is a vector quantity and its direction is the same as the direction of force. Its SI unit is N/C.
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Electric Field Intensity at a point due to a point charge
Consider a point charge q placed at a point O. Let P be a point at distance r at which electric field is
to be determined.

Force experienced by unit positive test charge q0 at Pdue to point charge charge q
→ qq
F = k 1 2 2 rˆ
r
→
→ F → qq 0 → q
Electric field intensity at point P E (r ) = Or E=k 2
ˆ
r Or E = k 2 rˆ
qo r q0 r
1 q
In magnitude E =
4πε o r 2
Electric field intensity at a point due to group of point charges- Superposition
Principle
Electric field at a point due to group of point charges can be defined as the vector sum of electric
field intensities at that point due to individual charges i.e
→ → → →
E = E1 + E 2 + − − − − − − − − − − − − − E n
→ 1 q1 q q q
E= [ rˆ + 22 rˆ2 P + 23 rˆ3 P + ………….. + 2n rˆnP ]
2 1P
4πε O r1P r2 P r3 P rnP
i= n qi
→ 1
E= ∑ rˆiP
4πε O i =1 riP2

Electric field lines

It is defined as the path straight or curved such that tangent drawn at any point gives the direction of
electric field intensity at that point.
FIELD LINES DUE TO SOME CHARGE CONFIGURATIONS
Electric field lines are an alternative way of representing the electric field due to a charge or group
of charges.
(i) Single positive point charge: Fig (i) shows the electric lines of force (or field lines) due to a
single positive point charge. The electric lines of force are directed radially outward.

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(ii) Single negative point charge: Fig (ii) shows the electric lines of force due to a single negative
point charge. In this case, the electric lines of force are directed radially inward.

(iii) Two equal and opposite point charges: Fig. shows electric lines of force due to two equal and
opposite charges. The electric lines of force are curved in this case and they are directed from the
positive charge to the negative charge. Note that direction of the electric field at point P is tangent
to the field line at point P.

(iv) Two equal positive point charges: Fig. shows electric lines of force due to two equal positive
point charges. It is clear that electric lines of force exert lateral pressure which causes repulsion
between them. Note that point N represents the neutral point where electric field intensity is zero.
Since the point charges are of the same magnitude, the point N lies at the centre of the line joining
the two charges.

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(v) Two unequal positive point charges: In this case, the neutral point will not lie at the centre of
the line joining the two charges. If q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges and r1 and r2 are their
respective distances from the neutral point N (See Fig.), then,

PROPERTIES OF ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

(i) Field lines start from positive charges and end at negative charges. If there is a single charge,
they may start or end at infinity.
(ii) In a charge-free region, electric field lines can be taken to be continuous curves without any
breaks.
(iii) Two field lines can never cross each other. (If they did, the field at the point of intersection will
not have a unique direction, which is absurd.)
(iv) Electrostatic field lines do not form any closed loops. This follows from the conservative nature
of electric field
(v) Tangent drawn at any point on it gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point.
(vi) They exert lateral pressure on account of repulsion.
(vii) They contract longitudinally on account of attraction.
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Electric dipole consist a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by small distance.

ELECTRIC DIPOLE MOMENT

It measures the strength of electric dipole. Its magnitude is given by the product of magnitude of
either charge and distance between them. It is represented by ‘p’
p = q (2a)
→
→
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is Cm. In vector form p = q  2a  .
 
Its direction is from Negative charge to Positive charge.
If q gets larger and larger and distance 2a becomes smaller and smaller, keeping the product q(2a)
remains constant, then such dipole is called ideal or point dipole.

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ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON AXIAL LINE OF AN ELECTRIC
DIPOLE
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges – q and + q separated by a small distance 2a in free
space/vacuum with centre O. Let P be a point at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole on its
axial line (i.e., OP = r) at which electric field intensity is to be determined.

Electric field intensity at a point P due to +q charge

→ 1 q
E1 = Along BP
4πε o BP 2
→ 1 q
E1 = --------------------------- (1)
4πε o (r − a )2
Electric field intensity at a point P due to -q charge

→ 1 q
E2 = Along PA
4πε o AP 2

→ 1 q
E2 = -------------------------- (2)
4πε o (r + a )2
→ → → →
Since E1 and E 2 are collinear vector and acting in opposite direction and E1 > E 2
Therefore resultant EFI at point P
→ → →
E = E1 − E 2

q  1 1  q  (r + a ) − (r − a ) 
→ → 2 2
E =  − E =  
(r + a )2 
Or
4πε o  (r − a ) 2
4πε o  (r 2 − a 2 )2 
→ q  (r 2 + a 2 + 2ar ) − (r 2 + a 2 − 2ar ) → q  4a r 
E =   Or E =  
4πε o  (r 2 − a 2 )2  4πε o  (r 2 − a 2 )2 
→ q  4a r  → q  2a × 2 r 
E =  2  Or E =  
4πε o  (r − a 2 )2  4πε o  (r 2 − a 2 )2 
→ 1  2 p r 
E = ----------------------------------------- (3) [Q p = q (2a )]
4πε o  (r 2 − a 2 )2 
If dipole is very short i.e. r>>a then a2 can be neglected in equation (3)

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→ 2pr → 2p
E = 4
or E = ---------------------------------------------------(4)
4πε o r 4πε o r 3
→ 1
Thus E ∝ 3
r
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY AT A POINT ON EQUATORIAL LINE OF AN
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges – q and + q separated by a small distance 2a in free
space/vacuum with centre O. Let P be a point at a distance r from the centre O of the dipole on its
equatorial line (i.e., OP = r) at which electric field intensity is to be determined.

Electric field intensity at a point P due to +q charge

→ 1 q
E1 = Along BP
4πε o BP 2
→ 1 q
E1 = ------------------------------------ (1)
(
4πε o r + a 2
2
)
Electric field intensity at a point P due to -q charge

→ 1 q
E2 = Along PA
4πε o AP 2

→ 1 q
E2 = ------------------------------------ (2)
4πε o ( r + a2
2
)
Q E1 = E 2
Therefore, the components normal to the dipole axis cancel away. The components along the dipole axis add up.
The total electric field intensity at P is
E = E1 cos θ + E 2 cos θ
1 q a
E = 2 E1 cos θ = 2
4πε o (r + a 2 )
2
(r 2
+ a2 )

17
p
E= --------------------------------------- (3)
(
4πε o r 2 + a 2
3/ 2
)
If dipole is very short i.e. r>>a then a2 can be neglected in equation (3)
p
E=
4πε o r 3
1
Thus E ∝ 3
r
ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN A UNIFORM EXTERNAL FIELD
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p in a uniform external field E, as shown in Fig.

There is a force qE on q and a force –qE on –q. The net force on

the dipole is zero, since E is uniform. However, the charges are
separated, so the forces act at different points, resulting in a torque
on the dipole. When the net force is zero, the torque (couple) is
independent of the origin. Its magnitude equals the magnitude of
each force multiplied by the arm of the couple (perpendicular
distance between the two antiparallel forces).
Magnitude of torque = q E × 2 a sinθ
τ = 2 q a E sinθ = p E sinθ --------------------------- (1)
Its direction is normal to the plane of the paper, coming out of it.
→ → →
Thus, τ = p× E
If the electric field is not uniform then net force on dipole is not zero.

Special cases
1. If θ = 0o
Then from equation (1)
τ = p E sin0o
τ= 0
This is the condition of stable equilibrium.
2. If θ =180o
Then from equation (1)
τ = p E sin180o
τ= 0
This is the condition of unstable equilibrium
3. If θ = 90o
Then from equation (1)
τ = p E sin90o τ = p E ( Maximum)

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ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF ELECTRIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM
ELECTRIC FIELD
Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p placed in a uniform electric field E . Let the dipole
moment of the dipole make an angle θ to the direction of electric field.

Then torque acting on the dipole is given by;

τ = pE sin θ
If the dipole is rotated through a very small angle dθ
against this torque, then small amount of work done is
dW = τ dθ = pE sin θ dθ
Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ1 to θ2 is
θ2
W = ∫ pE sin θ dθ
θ1

W = pE [− cos θ ] or W = − pE[cos θ 2 − cos θ1 ]

θ2
θ1

This workdone is stored as potential energy of dipolein uniform electric field.

i.e U = − pE [cos θ 2 − cos θ1 ]
If θ1 = 90 0 andθ 2 = θ
[
U = − pE cos θ − cos 90 0 ]
U = – pE cos θ
→ →
In vector form U = p . E
Special cases
(i) When θ = 0°; U = – pE cos 0° = – pE
In this position, the dipole has minimum potential energy and hence it is in stable equilibrium. The
dipole has more potential energy in all other positions.
(ii) When θ = 90°; U = – pE cos 90° = 0
In this position, the potential energy of the dipole is zero.
(iii) When θ = 180°; U = – pE cos 180° = + pE
In this position, the dipole has maximum potential energy and is in unstable equilibrium.
AREA VECTOR
In many problems, the area of a surface has to be represented by a vector. The length of the vector
represents the magnitude of the area and its direction is along the outward drawn normal to the area.

The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be in the direction of
the outward normal. This is the convention used in Fig.

19
Thus, the area element vector ∆S at a point on a closed surface equals ∆S ˆn where ∆S is the
magnitude of the area element and ˆn is a unit vector in the direction of outward normal at that
point.
ELECTRIC FLUX
Electric flux through a closed surface in an electric field can be defined as the total number of field
lines passing through the surface normally.
Let a small planar element of area ∆S normal to E at a point, the number of field lines crossing it is
proportional to E ∆S. Now suppose we tilt the area element by angle θ.
Clearly, the number of field lines crossing the area element will be smaller. The projection of the
area element normal to E is ∆S cosθ. Thus, the number of field lines crossing ∆S is proportional to
E ∆S cosθ. When θ = 90°, field lines will be parallel to ∆S and will not cross it at all (as shown in
Fig)

Electric flux ∆φ through an area element ∆S is defined by

∆φ = E.∆S = E ∆S cosθ
the total flux φ through a surface S is
φ ~ Σ E.∆S
→ →
If ∆S → 0 , then electric flux φ E = ∫ E. dS
It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is Nm2C-1
GAUSS’S LAW: The flux of electric field through any closed surface S in vacuum is 1/εo times
the total charge enclosed by S. The law is especially useful in
determining electric field E, when the source distribution has simple
symmetry:
→ → q
∫ E. ds =
εo

GAUSSIAN SURFACE
Thus a gausssian surface around a charge distribution is a closed surface such that electric field
intensity at all points on the surface is the same and electric flux through the surface is along the
normal to the surface at every point on the surface.

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PROOF OF GAUSS’S LAW
Consider a single point charge + q placed at point O as shown in Fig.. Imagine a sphere (Gaussian
surface) of radius r with point charge + q. Electric field is radially outward from the charge.
→ → →
Consider small elementary area dS on this surface. It is clear that E is parallel to dS i.e., angle
→ →
between E and dS is zero.
Therefore, electric flux (φE) passing through this closed surface is given by;
→ →
φ E = ∫ E. ds = ∫ EdS cos 0 o = ∫ EdS

q
φ E = E ∫ dS = × 4π r 2
4πε o r 2
q
φE =
εo
If there are n point charges q1, q2, q3 ....qn lying inside the surface, then according to superposition
principle, each charge will contribute to electric flux independent of others.
φE = φ1 + φ2 + φ3 + .................... + φn
q1 q2 q3 qn
φE = + + +−−−−−−+
εo εo εo εo
1
φE = (q1 + q 2 + q3 + − − − − − − + q n )
εO
i =n
1 Q
φE =
εO
∑q
i =1
i =
εo
The law implies that the total electric flux through a closed surface is zero if no charge is enclosed
by the surface

Consider a closed cylindrical surface, with its axis parallel to the uniform field E. The total flux φ
through the surface is φ = φ1 + φ2 + φ3, where φ1 and φ2 represent the flux through the surfaces 1
and 2 (of circular cross-section) of the cylinder and φ3 is the flux through the curved cylindrical part
of the closed surface. Now the normal to the surface 3 at every point is perpendicular to E, so by
definition of flux, φ3 = 0. Further, the outward normal to 2 is along E while the outward normal to 1
is opposite to E.
Therefore, φ1 = –E S1, φ2 = +E S2
S1 = S2 = S
where S is the area of circular cross-section. Thus, the total flux is zero,

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APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW
1. Electric field intensity at a point due to an infinitely long uniformly charged straight wire.
Imagine a cylindrical Gaussian surface, as shown in the Fig.
Flux through the Gaussian surface = flux through the curved
cylindrical part of the surface = E × 2πrl
The surface includes charge equal to λ l. Gauss’s law then
gives E × 2πrl = λl/ε0
λ
E=
2πε O r
→ λ
Vectorially, E at any point is given by E = nˆ
2πε O r
where ˆn is the radial unit vector in the plane normal to the
wire passing through the point. E is directed outward if λ is
positive and inward if λ is negative.
2. The electric field intensity at a point near a uniformly charged infinite plate sheet.
Consider the Gaussian surface to be a cylindrical surface of cross sectional area A, as shown in fig.

Contribution of electric flux towards by

curved surface of cylindrical Gaussian
surface is zero because angle between
area vector and electric field is 90o
The unit vector normal to surface 1 is in
–x direction while the unit vector
normal to surface 2 is in the +x
direction. Therefore, fluxes E.∆S
through both the surfaces are equal and
add up. Therefore the net flux through the Gaussian surface is 2 EA. The charge enclosed by the
closed surface is σ A.
Therefore by Gauss’s law, 2 EA = σA/ε0
or, E = σ/2ε0
→ σ
In vector form E = nˆ
2ε O
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane and going away from it. E is directed away from the
plate if σ is positive and toward the plate if σ is negative.
3. The electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell at an (i) outside point (ii)
inside point.
Let σ be the uniform surface charge density of a thin spherical shell of radius R (Fig.). The field at
any point P, outside or inside, can depend only on r (the radial distance from the centre of the shell
to the point) and must be radial (i.e., along the radius vector).

22
(i) Field outside the shell:
Consider a point P outside the shell with radius vector r. To calculate E at P, let the Gaussian
surface to be a sphere of radius r and with centre O.

E and dS at every point are parallel and the flux through each
element is EdS.
Electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by
ФE = E × 4 π r 2.
The charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is given by
q = σ × 4 π R2.
q
Applying the Gauss’s law φE =
εo
2
σ σR q
E × 4π r 2 = 4πR 2 Or E = 2
=
εo εo r 4πε o r 2
Where q = 4 π R2 σ is the total charge on the spherical shell.
→ q
In vector form E = rˆ
4πε o r 2
The electric field is directed outward if q > 0 and inward if q < 0.
(ii) Field inside the shell:
Consider the Gaussian surface is again a sphere through P centred at O.
Electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by
ФE = E × 4 π r 2.
In this case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge q = 0.
q
Applying the Gauss’s law φ E =
εo
2
E × 4 π r = 0 i.e., E = 0 (r < R) that is, the field due to a
uniformly charged thin shell is zero at all points inside the
shell.
The variation of electric field intensity with distance from
the centre O for a uniformly charged spherical shell is shown
below.

23
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO TWO THIN INFINITE PARALLEL
SHEETS OF CHARGE
Suppose two large and plane sheets A and B of positive charge are held parallel to each other as
shown in Fig. Let σA and σB be uniform surface charge densities on the sheets A and B respectively.

In Region I: The resultant electric field intensity in region I is given by;

σ σ 1
EI = − A − B = − [σ A + σ B ] ------------------------------ (1)
2ε O 2ε O 2ε O
In Region II: The resultant electric field intensity in region II is given by;
σ σ 1
E II = A − B = [σ A − σ B ] -------------------------------- (2)
2ε O 2ε O 2ε O

In Region III: The resultant electric field intensity in region III is given by;

σA σB 1
E III = + = [σ A + σ B ] -------------------------------- (3)
2ε O 2ε O 2ε O

Special case. If σA = σ and σB = – σ (i.e., sheets have equal and opposite uniform surface densities
of charge), then,
In Region I: The resultant electric field intensity in region I is given by;
1
EI = −
2ε O
[
σ −σ = 0 ]
In Region II: The resultant electric field intensity in region II is given by;
1 2σ
E II = −
2ε O
[
σ +σ =
2ε O
]
σ
E II =
εO
In Region III: The resultant electric field intensity in region III is given by;
1
E III =
2ε O
[
σ −σ = 0 ]
Thus electric field intensity is zero in the regions I and III whereas it is σ/ε0 in region II. This means
that electric field is constant between the sheets and is independent of the distance between the
sheets.

24
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Electric potential at a point is the work done per unit charge (by an external agency) in bringing a
charge from infinity to that point in electrostatic field against electrostatic force along any path. i.e
W∞ B
V=
qo
The unit of electric potential is JC–1 which is called volt (1JC–1 = 1V).
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Consider a point charge +q placed at point O in space as shown in Fig. The points A and B are in the
electric field of charge +q.

VB – VA = Work done/C in moving +q0 from A to B

WA B
VB − V A =
qo
Hence, electric potential difference (or simply potential difference) between two points (such as B
and A) in an electric field is the amount of work done/coulomb in bringing a small positive test
charge from the point of lower potential (point A) to the point of higher potential (point B) along
any path.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO A SINGLE POINT
CHARGE
Consider a point charge +q placed at point O in free space/air as. Let P be a point at distance r from
the point charge +q at which electric potential is to be determined.

Electric Field Intensity at a point A due to +q charge

1 q
E= --------------------------------------- (1)
4πε o x 2
Small amount of work done for moving unit positive test charge from A to B
→ →
dW = E . dx = E dx cos180 0 = − E dx ------------ (2)
Total amount of work done for bringing unit positive test charge from ∞ to the point P
W r q r 1
∫0 dW = ∫∞ − Edx = − 4πε o ∫∞ x 2 dx

25
r
q  1 q 1 1 
W =−  −  =  r − ∞ 
4πε o  x  ∞ 4πε o

q
W= = V ------------------------------ (3)
4πε o r
1
Thus V ∝
r
The following figure shows how the electrostatic potential ( ∝ 1/r) and the electrostatic field ( ∝ 1/r
2
) vary with r.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
It is defined as the algebraic sum of electric potential due to individual charges at a point.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + − − − − − − − − − + Vn
Consider a system of charges q1, q2… qn with position vectors r1, r2… rn relative to some origin.
1 q1
The potential V1 at P due to the charge q1 is V1 =
4πε O r1P
where r1P is the distance between q1 and P.

Similarly, the potential V2 at P due to q2 and Vn due to qn are given by

1 q2 1 q3 1 qn
V2 = , V3 = ----------------------------- Vn =
4πε O r2 P 4πε O r3 P 4πε O rnP
Total electric potential at point P due to group of point charges

V = V1 + V2 + V3 + − − − − − − − − − + Vn

1  q1 q 2 q 
V =  + +−−−−−−−−−+ n 
4πε O  r1P r2 P rnP 

i=n
1 qi
V=
4πε O
∑r
i =1 iP

26
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AT A POINT DUE TO AN ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Consider an electric dipole which consists of two charges -q and q separated by a (small) distance
2a. Its total charge is zero. Let P be a point at distance r
from the centre of dipole at which electric potential is
to be determined. Thus the potential at point P due to
the dipole is the sum of potentials due to the charges q
and –q
→ ∧
1 p.r 1 p cos θ
V (r ) = 2
Or V (r ) =
4πε o r 4πε o r 2
The result is true also for a dipole (with charges –q and
q separated by 2a) for r >> a.
Potential on the dipole axis (θ = 0, π ) is given by
1 p cos 0 o or 180 o
V (r ) =
4πε o r2
1 p
V (r ) = ± (Positive sign for θ = 0, negative
4πε o r 2
sign for θ = π.)
The potential in the equatorial plane (θ = π/2) is zero.

EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
An equipotential surface is a surface with a constant value of potential at all points on the surface.
q
For a single charge q, the potential is given by V =
4πε o r
This shows that V is a constant if r is constant. Thus,
equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric
spherical surfaces centred at the charge.

For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a

point is normal to the electric field at that point.

(i) Equipotential surfaces for Isolated point charge (ii) Equipotential surfaces for a
uniform electric field.

27
Some equipotential surfaces for (a) a dipole,(b) two identical positive charges.

Relation between electric field and electric potential

Consider two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and B (as shown in Fig) with potential values
V and V + δV, where δV is the change in V in the direction of the electric field E. Let P be a point on
the surface B. δl is the perpendicular distance of the surface A from P. Imagine that a unit positive
charge is moved along this perpendicular from the surface B to surface A against the electric field.
The work done in this process is |E|δ l.

This work equals the potential difference VA–VB.

Thus,
|E|δ l = V−(V +δV)= –δV
→ δV
E =− ------------------------------ (1)
δl
Since δV is negative, δV = – |δV|. we can rewrite
→ δV δV
Eq (1) as E = − =+
δl δl
We thus arrive at two important conclusions
concerning the relation between electric field and
potential:
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the
potential decreases steepest.
(ii) Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit displacement normal
to the equipotential surface at the point.
POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES
It is defined as work done to bring the charges from an infinite separation to their respective final
positions in the electrostatic field of another charge.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF TWO-CHARGE SYSTEM
→ →
Consider two point charges +q1 and +q2 at A and B with position vectors r1 and r2 respectively as
→
shown in Fig. Let AB = r12

28
Electric potential at point B due to point charge q1
q1
V=
4πε o r12

Work done for bringing charge +q2 from ∞ to its respective position B
W = Charge × Electric potential at point B due to point charge q1
W= q2 V
q1q 2
W=
4πε o r12
This work done is stored as electric potential energy of a system of two point charges
qq
U= 1 2
4πε o r12
POTENTIAL ENERGY IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD
Potential energy of a single charge
The external electric field E and the corresponding external potential V may vary from point to
point. By definition, V at a point P is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity
to the point P. (We continue to take potential at infinity to be zero.) Thus, work done in bringing a
charge q from infinity to the point P in the external field is qV.This work is stored in the form of
potential energy of q. If the point P has position vector r relative to some origin, we can
write:Potential energy of q at r in an external field = qV(r) where V(r) is the external potential at the
point r.
Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external field
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 located at r1and r2, respectively, in an external field.
Amount of work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to r1
W1=q1 V(r1),
Amount of work done in bringing the charge q2 from infinity to r2
W2=q2 V(r2),
While bringing the charge q2 ,work has also been done against electrostatic field of charge q1

q1q2
W3 =
4πε o r12
Thus,
Potential energy of the system = the total work done in assembling the configuration
U = W1 + W2 + W3
→ → qq
U = q1V (r1 ) + q 2V (r2 ) + 1 2
4πε o r12
UNITS OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Its S I unit is joule and another unit is electron volt(eV) Thus if an electron with charge q = e =
1.6×10–19 C is accelerated by a potential difference of ∆V = 1 volt, it would gain energy of q∆V =
1.6 × 10–19J. This unit of energy is defined as 1 electron volt or 1eV, i.e., 1 eV=1.6 × 10–19
1 keV = 103eV = 1.6 × 10–16J,
1 MeV= 106eV = 1.6 × 10–13J,
29
1 GeV = 109eV = 1.6 × 10–10J
and 1 TeV = 1012eV= 1.6 × 10–7J.
ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS
Important results regarding electrostatics of conductors/Properties of conductor
in electrostatics.
A conductor (hollow or solid) in electrostatic equilibrium has the following properties
(i) Inside a conductor, electrostatic field is zero
(ii) At the surface of a charged conductor, electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every
point
(iii) The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation
(iv) Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same
value (as inside) on its surface
(v) Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor.
→ σ ∧ ∧
E= n , here n is the unit vector along the outward
εo
normal to the surface and σ is the surface charge density.
ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
It is defined as the phenomena of protecting certain region of space from the external electric field.

For example – A person is safe inside a car or house from the thunderstorm accompanied by
lighting in comparison to the open ground.
The effect can be made use of in protecting sensitive instruments from outside electrical influence.
DIELECTRIC
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances. In contrast to conductors, they have no (or negligible
number of) charge carriers. But they transmit the electric effect with out conducting when placed in
external electric field.

30
There are of two types of dielectrics
1. Non polar dielectric
2. Polar dielectric
1. Non polar dielectric
In a non-polar molecule, the centres of positive and negative charges coincide. The molecule then
has no permanent (or intrinsic) dipole moment. Examples of non-polar molecules are oxygen (O2)
and hydrogen (H2) molecules which, because of their symmetry, have no dipole moment.

2. Polar dielectric
a polar molecule is one in which the centres of positive and negative charges are separated (even
when there is no external field). Such molecules have a permanent dipole moment. An ionic
molecule such as HCl or molecules of water (H2O) are examples of polar molecules.

DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION
In an external electric field, the positive and negative charges of a nonpolar molecule are displaced
in opposite directions. The displacement stops when the external force on the constituent charges of
the molecule is balanced by the restoring force (due to internal fields in the molecule). The non-
polar molecule thus develops an induced dipole moment.The dielectric is said to be polarized by the
external field.

31
A dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net dipole moment in an external field.

Thus in either case, whether polar or non-polar, a dielectric develops a net dipole moment in the
presence of an external field. The dipole moment per unit volume is called polarisation and is
denoted by P. For linear isotropic dielectrics,
P= χe E
where χe is a constant characteristic of the dielectric and is known as the electric susceptibility of the
dielectric medium.
CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE
A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator.

The ability of a capacitor to store charge is known as its capacitance. Its capacitance is defined by C
= Q/V, where Q and –Q are the charges on the two conductors and V is the potential difference
between them. C is determined purely geometrically, by the shapes, sizes and relative positions of
the two conductors.
C is independent of Q or V, as stated above. The capacitance C depends only on the geometrical
configuration (shape, size, separation) of the system of two conductors. It also depends on the
nature of the insulator (dielectric) separating the two conductors.
The SI unit of capacitance is 1 farad (=1 coulomb volt-1) or the unit of capacitance is farad, 1 F = 1
C V –1.
A capacitor with fixed capacitance is symbolically shown as , while the one with variable
capacitance is shown as
DIELECTRIC STRENGHT
The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without break-down (of its
insulating property) is called its dielectric strength. For air it is about 3 × 106 Vm–1.
PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel conducting plates separated by a small
distance with intervening medium vacuum.
32
Let A be the area of cross section of each plate and d be the distance of separation between them.

Electric field between the plates

σ Q
EO = But σ =
εO A
Q
EO = -------------------------------- (1)
Aε O
Potential Difference between the plates

V = EO d

Q
V= d ------------------------------- (2)
Aε O
The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is then
Q ε A
C o = = o ---------------------------- (3)
V d
If the medium between the plates of a capacitor is filled with an insulating substance (dielectric), the
electric field due to the charged plates induces a net dipole moment in the dielectric. This effect,
called polarization, gives rise to a field in the opposite direction. The net electric field inside the
dielectric and hence the potential difference between the plates is thus reduced. Consequently, the
capacitance C increases from its value C0 when there is no medium (vacuum), C = KC0, Here K
is the dielectric constant of the insulating substance.
CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR WITH
CONDUCTING SLAB BETWEEN PLATES
Consider a charged (±Q) parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and plate separation d with
intervening medium air/vacuum between the plates.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor of plate area A separated by small diatance d with
ε A
intervening medium vacuum is C o = o
d

Now insert a conducting slab of thickness t (t < d) between the plates of

capacitor
Then electric field now extends over a distance (d – t) because field
inside the conducting slab is zero. As a result, p.d. between the capacitor
plates is reduced i.e
σ Q
V = Eo (d − t ) = (d − t ) = (d − t ) --------------------------- (1)
εo εo A
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor

33
Q ε A
Or C = = o
V (d − t )

εo A Co
C= =
t  t  Thus it is clear that with the introduction of conducting slab between the
d (1 − ) 1 −  plates of capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor is increased i.e.
d  d C>C .
O

CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CHARGED CAPACITOR WITH

DIELECTRIC SLAB BETWEEN PLATES
Consider a charged (±Q) parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and plate separation d with
intervening medium air/vacuum between the plates.
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor of plate area A separated by small diatance d with
ε A
intervening medium vacuum is C o = o
d
Now insert a dielectric slab of thickness t (t < d) between the plates of capacitor, the magnitude of
electric field within the dielectric is E0/K. Since the magnitude of
electric field within the dielectric is reduced, As a result, p.d. between
E
the capacitor plates is reduced i.e V = EO (d − t ) + O
K
1
V = EO [(d − t ) + ]
K
σ 1
V= [(d − t ) + ]
εO K
Q 1
V= [(d − t ) + ] ----------------------------- (1)
εO A K
Q
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor C =
V
εO A
C=
 t 
(d − t ) + K 
εo A
C= ---------------------------------- (2)
 1
d − t 1 − 
 K
Thus it is clear that with the introduction of dielectric slab between the plates of capacitor, the
capacitance of the capacitor is increased i.e. C > CO .
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Capacitors in series:
The capacitors are said to be connected in series if charge on each plate is the same (i.e., +q on one
plate and –q on the other).

34
Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 connected in series across a battery of V
volts as shown in Fig. Let q be the charge on each capacitor. Let V1, V2 and V3 be the potential
difference across C1, C2 and C3 respectively.

V = V1 + V2 + V3
q q q
V= + +
C1 C 2 C 3
q
Let CS be the equivalent capacitance of this combination. Then V =
CS
q q q q
= + +
C S C1 C 2 C 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
C S C1 C 2 C 3
Capacitors in parallel
The capacitors are said to be connected in parallel if potential difference across each capacitor is the
same. Consider three capacitors of capacitances C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel across a battery
of V volts as shown in Fig. Let q1, q2 and q3 be the respective charges on the capacitors.

Total charge on parallel combination is

q = q1 + q2 + q3

q= C1V + C2V + C3V = V (C1 + C2 + C3)

35
Let CP be the equivalent capacitance of this combination. Then q = CPV

CPV= V (C1 + C2 + C3)

CP= (C1 + C2 + C3)

ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C being charged from a d.c. source of V volts as shown in Fig..

Suppose at any stage of charging, the charge on the capacitor is q′ and p.d. between the plates is v .
Then, C = q’/V
If a small charge dq is further transferred, then small amount of work done is
dW = Vdq = CV dV [q′ = CV; dq = C dV]
The total work done in raising the potential of uncharged capacitor to V is
V
V 2  1 1
W =∫
V
[ ]
CV dV = C   = C V 2 − 0 = CV 2
0
 2 0 2 2

This work done is stored as electric potential energy in the electric field between the plates of the
1
capacitor. Thus energy stored in the capacitor U = CV 2
2
ENERGY DENSITY
It is defined as energy stored per unit volume of parallel plate capacitor.It is represented by( u)
Energy stored
Energy density =
Volume
2
CV ε A
u= = O 2 E 2d 2
2 Ad 2 Ad
1
u = εOE2
2
Therefore, energy density (i.e., electric field energy stored per unit volume)
in any region of space is directly proportional to the square of the electric
field in that region.
DISCHARGING ACTION OF SHARP POINTS
Consider a sphere of radius r which carries small charge q then its surface charge density
q q
σ= =
A 4π r 2

36
σ q
Electric field on the surface E = =
ε O 4πε o r 2
1
E∝
r2

At the pointed end of the conductor surface density is very high

consequently electric field also become very high ,due to which
surrounding air get ionized and oppositly charged neutralizes the
charge at the pointed end and similar charge ion move away from
the pointed end. When fresh air molecules come near the pointed
end then they take the charge from the pointed end and set up an
electric wind. This process is known as Corona Discharge.

VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR

Van de Graaff is a machine that can build up high voltages of the order of a few million volts. The
resulting large electric fields are used to accelerate charged particles (electrons, protons, ions) to
high energies needed for experiments to probe the small scale structure of matter.
Principle: The working of Van de Graff generator depends on the following factors
(i) The discharging action of pointed ends sets up an “electric wind”.
(ii) A charge given to a hollow conductor is transferred to the outer surface and spreads uniformly
over it.
Construction and Working
It consists of a large spherical conducting
shell (a few metre in diameter) mounted on
two insulating supporting column. A long
narrow endless belt insulating material, like
rubber or silk, is wound around two pulleys –
one at ground level, one at the centre of the
shell. This belt is kept continuously moving
by a motor driving the lower pulley. It
continuously carries positive charge, sprayed
on to it by a brush at ground level, to the top.
There it transfers its positive charge to
another conducting brush connected to the
large shell. Thus positive charge is
transferred to the shell, where it spreads out
uniformly on the outer surface. In this way,
voltage differences of as much as 6 or 8
million volts (with respect to ground) can be
built up.
The leakage of charge can be minimized by enclosing entire generator in an earth-connected steel
tank containing a suitable gas (e.g., nitrogen, methane, etc.) at high pressure.

37
Very short Answer type Questions [1 marks each]

1. What is the cause of charging?

Ans: Actual transfer of electrons from one material body to another material body
during rubbing.
2. Is mass of a body affected on charging?
Ans: Yes electrons have a definite mass. The mass of a body slightly increases if it gains
electrons while the mass decreases if the body loses electrons.
3. An ebonite rod is rubbed with fur or wool. What type of charge do they acquire?
Ans: Ebonite rod acquires negative charge and fur or wool acquires positive charge.
4. What is the basic cause of quantization of charge?
Ans: The basic cause of quantization of charge is that during rubbing only an integral
number of electrons can be transferred from one body to another.
5. In a medium, the force of attraction between two point electric charges, distance d apart is F.
What distance apart should these be kept in the same medium so that the force between them
becomes (i) 3 F (ii) F/ 3?
1 d
Ans: Q F ∝ 2 , ∴ (i) (ii) 3d
d 3
6. Two point charges Q1 and Q2 are placed close to each other. What is the nature of force
between them? When (i) Q1Q2 >0 (ii) Q1Q2 <0 .
Ans : (i) Repulsive (ii) Attractive
7. Can the relative permittivity of a medium be less than 1?
Ans. No. Air or vacuum has minimum relative permittivity (K = ε0/ε0 = 1). The relative
permittivity of all other media is greater than 1.
8. What is the advantage of expressing Coulomb’s law in vector form?
Ans. It shows at a glance about the nature, magnitude and direction of the electrostatic
force.
9. How does the force between two point charges change if the dielectric constant of the
medium in which they are kept increase?
1
Ans: Decreases because F ∝ As K increases F decreases.
K
10. In an electric field an electron is kept free. If the electron is replaced by a proton, what will
be the relationship between the forces experienced by them?
Ans: A proton has charge equal and opposite to that of electron. Hence Force
experienced by proton = - Force experienced by electron
11. Give the S.I. unit of electric field intensity. Is electric field intensity a scalar or a vector
quantity?
Ans : N/C , Vector quantity
12. Why does the electric field inside a dielectric decrease when it is placed in an external field?
Ans :Due to dielectric polarization.
13. Consider the situation shown in the figure below. What are the signs of q1 and q2?

38
Ans : q1 is positive and q2 is negative
14. When is an electric dipole in stable equilibrium in an electric field?
Ans: an electric dipole in stable equilibrium in an electric field when angle between p
and E is zero.
15. Draw lines of force to represent a uniform electric field?
Ans

16. Draw the pattern of electric field around a point charge (i)Q > 0 (ii) Q < 0.
Ans:

(i) (ii)
17. An electric dipole is placed, in a uniform electric field. What is net force acting on it?
Ans: Zero
18. Under what conditions, the electric lines of force are straight?
Ans. The electric lines of force are straight due to a point charge.
19. Under what conditions, the electric lines of force are curved?
Ans. The electric lines of force are curved due to two or more charges. It is because
under such conditions, electric field intensity varies from point to point.
20. On going away from a point charge, electric field intensity due to charge decreases. This is
also true for a small dipole. Does electric intensity decrease at the same rate in both cases?
Ans. No. In case of a point charge, E ∝ 1 / r 2 whereas for a small dipole E ∝ 1 / r 3 .
Hence, electric field intensity due to dipole decreases more rapidly as the distance
increases.
21. The potential energy of an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is zero. What is
→ →
the orientation of vectors p and E ?
Ans. The potential energy of an electric dipole displaced through θ from the direction
→
of uniform electric field E is given by U = – pE cos θ. The potential energy of the
→
dipole will be zero when θ = 90°, i.e. dipole is at right angles to the direction of field E .
22. Can electric potential at a point be zero while electric intensity at that point is not zero?
Ans. Yes. The electric potential on the perpendicular bisector of an electric dipole is
zero while electric intensity is not zero.
23. When kept in an electric field, does a proton move from lower to higher potential or from
higher to lower potential?

39
Ans. A proton is a positively charged particle. In an electric field, a proton will move in
the direction of the electric field i.e. from the higher to lower potential.
24. Draw an equipotential surface in a uniform electric field.
Ans :

25. Draw an equipotential surface for a point charge q > 0.

Ans :

26. What is the amount of work done in moving a 100 µc charge between two points 5 cm apart
on an equipotential surface?
Ans : Zero
27. Name the physical quantity which has its unit joule coulomb –1. Is it a scalar or a vector
quantity?
Ans : Electric potential , scalar quantity.
28. An electric dipole of dipole moment 20 × 10 −6 C m is enclosed by a closed surface. What is
the net electric flux coming out of surface?
Ans Zero because the net charge on the dipole is zero.
29. Which physical quantity has its SI Unit as
(i) C-m (ii) V-m
Ans (i) Electric dipole moment (ii) Electric flux
30. The graph shown here, shows the variation of the total energy (E) stored in a capacitor
against the value of the capacitance(C) itself. Which of the two - the charge on the capacitor
or the potential used to charge it is kept constant for this graph?

1 Q2 1
[Ans Energy E = if Q is constant then E ∝ ]
2 C C
31. In parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance increases from 4µF to 80 µF, on introducing a
dielectric medium between the plates. What is the dielectric constant of the medium?
C
Hint K = m [Ans. 20]
Co

40
Short Answer Type Questions-I [2 marks each]

32. A metallic sphere is charged negatively. Will its mass increase, decrease or remain the
same?
Ans. When the sphere is negatively charged, it means electrons have been added to it.
Since electrons have finite mass, the mass of the negatively charged sphere will
increase.
33. If q1 q2 < 0, what can one say about the nature of force between the charges?
Ans. If q1 q2 < 0, it means the product of the magnitude of the charges is negative. In
other words, these are unlike charges, i.e., one charge is positive and the other charge
is negative. Hence, the electrostatic force between them is attractive.
34. Although ordinary rubber is insulator, the rubber tyres of air craft are made slightly
conducting. Why?
Ans. During the take off and landing, the friction between tyres and the run-way
causes electrification of tyres. If the tyres are non-conducting, excessive charge will
accumulate on the tyres which may cause sparking. If the material of the tyres is
slightly conducting, the accumulated charge can flow to earth, thus eliminating any
danger of fire.
35. What does q1 + q2 =0 signify in electrostatics?
Ans: The equation signifies that the electric charges are algebraically additive and here
q1 and q2 are equal and opposite.
Hence, the acceleration of the electron will be 1836 times that of the proton.
36. Two point charges +q and –q are held some distance apart. What are the points at which the
resultant field is parallel to the line joining the two charges?
Ans. The system constitutes an electric dipole. We know that in case of an electric
dipole, the resultant field is parallel to the line joining the two charges at
(i) any point on the line joining the charges,
(ii) any point on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the charges.
37. Two point electric charges of unknown magnitude and sign are placed some distance apart.
The electric intensity is zero at a point not between the charges but on the line joining them.
Write two essential conditions for this to happen.
Ans. The two essential conditions are:
(i) The charges must be of opposite signs.
(ii) The point where electric field intensity is zero has to be closer to the smaller charge
than the bigger charge.
38. An electrostatic field line cannot be discontinuous. Why?
Ans: Electrostatic field lines exist throughout the region of an electric field. The
electric field of a charge decreases gradually with increasing distance from it and
becomes zero at infinity i.e. electric field cannot vanish abruptly. Therefore field lines
cannot have sudden break.
39. What is an electric dipole moment and write its SI unit and direction.
Ans: A system of two equal and opposite point charges separated by a small distance is
called an electric dipole. Its SI unit is Cm and direction from –ive charge to +ive
chatge.
40. Why two electric field lines never cross each other at any point?

41
Ans: Electric field lines never intersect each other. In case the two electric
lines of force intersect each other at a point (such as point P in Fig.), then two tangents
can be drawn at that point. This would mean two directions of electric field at that
point which is impossible.

41. Can two equipotential surfaces intersect each other?

Ans. No. The intersection of two equipotential surfaces means that at the point of
intersection, there are two values of potential which is impossible. Alternatively;
electric lines of force are normal to equipotential surfaces. If two equipotential surfaces
intersect each other, it means that electric field at the point of intersection has two
directions which is not possible.
42. Electric field intensity in a given region is zero. Can we conclude that electric potential must
be zero?
Ans. Not necessarily. E = –dV/dr or 0 = – dV/dr. Since dr cannot be zero, dV = 0. This
means that electric potential is constant. The constant value can be zero or non-zero.
43. Two nearby points are at the same potential. What is the intensity of electric field in this
region?
Ans. E = – dV/dr where dV is change in potential for displacement dr. Since there is no
change in potential, dV/dr = 0. Hence, electric intensity in the region is zero.
44. What would be the work done if a point charge +q is taken from point A to point B on the
circumference of a circle with another charge +q at the centre?
Ans. Fig. shows the conditions of the problem. Since points A and B are equidistant
from the charge +q at the centre, the points A and B are at the same potential.
Therefore, work done in taking charge +q from point A to point B is zero.

45. What is the work done in moving a 2µC point charge from corner A to corner B of square
ABCD [See Fig.] when a 10 µC charge exists at the centre of the square?

Ans. Since points A and B are at the same distance from 10 charge, points A and B are
at the same potential i.e. VA = VB. Therefore, work done in moving 2 charges from
point A to point B is zero.
46. A point charge q is placed at O as shown in Fig.5. Is VA – VB positive, negative or zero if q
is a (i) positive charge (ii) negative charge?

42
1  q q 
Ans :We know that V A − VB = −
4πε o  OA OB 

As OA < OB , so VA > VB ∴ (V A − VB ) is positive.
(i) If q is positive , ∴ (V A − VB ) is positive
(ii) If q is negative , ∴ (V A − VB ) is negative.

47. A uniform electric field E exists between two charged plates as shown in the figure. What
would be the work done in moving a charge ‘q’ along the closed rectangular path ABCDA?

Ans :Work done in electric field is independent of the path and depends on the initial
and final positions. i.e. W = q (V final − Vinitial ) = q (V A − V A ) = 0
48. What would be the work done if a point charge +q, is taken from a point A to the point B on
the circumference of a circle drawn with another point charge +q at the center?

Ans : W = q(VB − V A ) = q(V A − V A ) = 0

49. If a point charge +q, is taken first from A to C and then form C to B of a circle drawn with
another point-charge +q as center, the along which path more work will be done?

A :Points A,B and C on the circumference of circle are at same potential

∴ W AC = q(VC − V A ) = 0
WCB = q(VB − V A ) = 0
Thus work is zero for both paths A to C and C to B
50. Show that the electric field is always directed perpendicular to an equipotential surface.
Ans : We know that W = E dl Cos θ ,but work done on equipotential surface is
zero.∴ E dl Cos θ = 0 but E ≠ 0 , dl ≠ 0 ,it means Cosθ = 0 then θ = 90o Therefore E ⊥
dl .

43
51. Show that no work is done in moving a test charge from one point to another point over an
equipotential surface?
Ans : We know that W = E dl Cos θ , but E ⊥ dl i.e θ = 90o ∴ W = E dl Cos90o = 0
Therefore work done on equipotential surface is zero.
52. Using Gauss’s law, show that no electric field intensity exists inside a hollow charge
conductor.
→ → q
A : According to Gauss’s law ∫ E. ds = As charge inside the hollow conductor is zero
εo
(q = 0). Therefore electric field intensity exists inside a hollow charge conductor is zero
(E = 0)
53. A point charge of 1.8 µC is at the centre of a cubical Gaussian surface having each side 50
cm. What is the net electric flux through the surface?
Ans. According to Gauss's law, regardless of shape and size of the Gaussian surface,
the electric flux passing through the surface is equal to 1/ε0 times the net charge
enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
q 1.8 × 10 −6
Electric flux through Gaussian surface, φ E = = = 2 × 105 Nm 2C −1
ε o 8.85 × 10 −12
54. In Fig. a charge +q is at a distance d/2 directly above the centre of a square of side d. What
is the magnitude of electric flux through the square? [Ans q/6ε0]

Ans. Construct a cube with square as one of the faces such that charge is enclosed in
this cube. Then cube is the Gaussian surface. According to Gauss’s law, the electric
flux passing through the cube φE = q/ε0. By symmetry, the electric flux passing through
each face of the cube is the same. ∴ Electric flux through square = φE/6 = q/6ε0

Short Answer Type Questions-II [3 marks each]

55. Define electric flux. Write its S.I. units. A spherical rubber balloon carries a charge that is
uniformly distributed over its surface. As the balloon is blown up and increases in size, how
does the total electric flux coming out of the surface change? Give reason.
[Ans Total electric flux coming out of the surface will remain same because electric
flux does not depend upon the shape and size of the closed surface.]
56. Explain the meaning of the statement ‘electric charge of a body is quantized’.
Ans Quantization of electric charge means that the total charge q of a body is always
an integral multiple of a basic charge e which is the charge on an electron. Thus q=ne,
where n = 0, ± 1, ± 2, ± 3,...........
57. Vehicles carrying inflammable materials usually have chains that hang down and drag on
the ground. Why?

44
Ans. When a vehicle is in motion, its tyres rub against the road and gets charged due to
friction. Further, due to friction of air, the body of the vehicle also gets charged. If the
accumulated charge becomes excessive, sparking may occur and the inflammable
material may catch fire. Since the chain ropes are touching the ground, the charge
leaks to the earth. Hence, the danger of fire is avoided.
58. A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10–7 C and qB = –2.5 × 10–7 C located at points A: (0,
0, –15 cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole
moment of the system?
[Ans Total charge is zero. Dipole moment = 7.5 × 10–8 C m along z-axis.]
Solution: Fig. shows the conditions of the problem. It is clear that the two charges
constitute an electric dipole.

Total charge, q = qA + qB
= (2.5 × 10–7) + (– 2.5 × 10–7) = 0 C
Separation of charges, AB = 15 + 15 = 30 cm = 30 × 10–2 m
Electric dipole moment, p = either charge × AB
= (2.5 × 10–7) × 30 × 10–2 = 7.5 × 10–8 Cm
Note that the direction of p is from qB (– ve charge) to qA (+ ve charge) i.e. along
negative Z-axis.
59. Fig shows tracks of three charged particles crossing a uniform electrostatic field with same
velocities along the horizontal. Give the signs of the three charges. Which particle has the
highest charge to mass ratio?

[Ans. Since particles 1 and 2

are attracted towards the positive plate, they are negatively charged. However, particle
3 is attracted towards the negative plate and hence it is positively charged. Since the
particles enter the field with the same horizontal velocity, their initial velocity along the
vertical is zero.
F qE
Acceleration, a = =
m m
1 1 qE 2 1 qE 2
Vertical deflection, y = ut + at 2 = 0 × t + t = t
2 2 m 2 m
Since the particles enter the field with the same horizontal velocity, they remain in the
field for the same time t. Therefore E and t are constant in the expression for y.
q
∴y∝
m

45
Since vertical deflection is maximum for particle 3, its charge to mass ratio is the
highest.]
60. An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges of magnitude 1µC each and is separated
by a distance of 3 cm. The dipole is placed in an electric field of 4 × 105 N/C. Find the
maximum torque on the dipole.[Ans = 1.2 × 10–2 Nm]
Torque on a dipole placed in uniform electric field is
τ = pE sin θ The torque will be maximum when θ = 90°
τ max = pE = (q × 2a) E = (1 × 10–6 × 3 × 10–2) × 4 × 105
= 1.2 × 10–2 Nm
61. Two identical plane metallic surfaces A and B are kept parallel to each other in air separated
by a distance of 1 cm as shown in figure.

A is given a positive potential of 10V and the outer surface of B is earthed.

(i) What is the magnitude and direction of the uniform electric field between Y and Z?
(ii) What is the work done in moving a charge of 20µc from X to Y?
dV 10
Ans : (i ) E = − = = 1000 V/m, direction from A to B
dr 1 × 10 − 2
(ii) Zero because the points X and Y at the same potential.
62. The following data was obtained for the dependence of the magnitude of electric field, with
distance, from a reference point O, within the charge distribution in the shaded region.

Field Point A B C A’ B’ C’

Magnitude E E/8 E/27 E/2 E/16 E/54

of electric
field

(i) Identify the charge distribution and justify your answer.

(ii) If the potential due to this charge distribution, has a value V at the point A, what is its
value at the point A’?
[Ans (i) the charge distribution is a short electric dipole. This is because the magnitude
of electric field due to a short electric dipole on its axial and equatorial lines varies E ∝
1
. Moreover E axial = 2 Eequatorial
r3
(ii) The point A' is an equatorial point for the given electric dipole. Hence the electric
potential of A' is zero.]

46
63. The graph shows the variation of voltage V across the plates of two capacitors A and B
versus increase of charge q stored on them. Which of the two capacitors has higher
capacitance? Give reason.

Q 1
Ans : Hint C = = As slope of A is smaller , so capacitance of A is higher.
V Slope
64. The given graph shows the variation of charge Q versus potential difference V for capacitors
C1 and C2. The two capacitors have same plate separation, but the plate area of C2 is double
than that of C1.Which of the lines in the graph correspond to C1 and C2 and why?

εo A
Ans: Hint C = ∝ A , As plate area of C2 is double to that of C1 i.e C2 = 2 C1
d
q
Slope of q-V graph = = C , As slope of A is greater than of B, so A corresponding to
V
larger capacitance and B to smaller capacitance. So lines corresponding to C1 and C2
are B and A respectively

65. S1 and S2 are two parallel concentric spheres enclosing charges Q and 2Q respectively as
shown in Fig.
(i) What is the ratio of electric flux through S1 and S2?
(ii) How will electric flux through sphere S1 change, if a medium of
dielectric constant 5 is introduced in the space inside S1 in place of
Q
air? [Ans (i) 1/3 (ii) ]
5ε 0
(i) Let φ1 and φ2 be the flux through spheres S1 and S 2 respectively.

47
Q Q + 2Q 3Q
φ1 = and φ2 = =
εO εO εO
φ1 Q / ε O 1
= =
φ2 3Q / ε O 3
(ii) When a medium of dielectric constant (K=5) is introduced in the space
inside S1 , then its electric field is reduced by a factor K
Q Q Q
φ/ = = =
ε O K ε O × 5 5ε O

Long Answer Type Questions [5 marks each]

66. An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field (i) using suitable diagram show that it
does not undergo any translatory motion and (ii) drive an expression for the torque acting on
it and specify its direction.
67. State Gauss’s theorem applies this theorem to obtain an expression for the electric field
intensity at a point due to an infinitely long uniformly charged straight wire.
68. State Gauss’s theorem. Use it to obtain an expression for the electric field intensity at a point
near a uniformly charged infinite plate sheet.
69. State the theorem which relates the enclosed charge, inside a closed surface, with the electric
flux through it. Use this theorem to obtain the electric field due to a uniformly charged
thin spherical shell at an (i) outside point (ii) inside point.
70. Derive an expression for electric potential due to an electric dipole at any point on its axis.
Mention the contrasting feature of electric potential of a dipole at a point as compared to that
due to a single charge.
71. (a)Deduce an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with air as the
medium between the plates
(b)A dielectric slab of thickness‘t’ is kept in between the plates each of area A of parallel
plate capacitor separated by a distance of‘d’. Drive an expression for the capacitance of
capacitor for t <<d.
72. (i) Explain briefly how a capacitor stores energy on charging. Obtain expression for energy
stored
(ii) A parallel plate capacitor of plate separation’s’ is charged to a p.d. ‘V’. A dielectric
slab of thickness d and dielectric constant K is introduced between the plates while the
battery remains connected to the plates.
(a) Find the ratio of energy stored in the capacitor after and before the dielectric in
introduced, give physical explanation for this charge in stored energy.
(b) What happens to the charge on the capacitor?
(c)How does the electric field between plates change.
73. (a) Draw electric field lines between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor with (i) air and
(ii) dielectric as the medium.
(b)A parallel plate capacitor with air as dielectric is connected to a power supply and
charged to a potential difference Vo. After disconnecting from power supply, a sheet of

48
insulating material is inserted between the plates completely filling the space between them.
How will its (i) capacity (ii) electric field and (iii) energy, change

EO
(i) C = KCO (ii) E =
K
UO
(iii) U =
K

74. Give the principle of working of a Van de Graff generator. With the help of a labeled
diagram, describe its construction and working. How is the leakage of charge minimized
from the generator?
→ →
75. An electric dipole with moment P is placed in a uniform electric field E . Write the
expression for the torque experienced by the dipole. Identify two parts of perpendicular
vectors in the expression. Show diagrammatically the orientation of the dipole in the field
for which the torque is (i) maximum (ii) half the maximum value (iii) zero.
→ → →
Expression for the torque experienced by the dipole τ = P × E
→ →
P is electric dipole moment and E is uniform electric field
We know that τ = P E sinθ

(i) maximum torque τ = P E sin900 = P E

PE 1
(ii) = P E sin θ , or = sin θ then θ = 30 0
2 2

(iii) τ = P E sin00

76. Define electric field intensity. Write its S.I. unit. Write the magnitude and direction of
electric field intensity due to an electric dipole of length 2a at the mid-point of the line
joining the two charges

NUMERICAL PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

77. An electric flux of –6 x 103 Nm2/C passes normally through a spherical Gaussian surface of
radius 10 cm, due to point charge placed at the center.
(a) What‘s the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface?

49
(b) If the radius of Gaussian surface is doubled, how much flux would pass through the
surface? [Ans. (a) – 53.12 x 10-9C (b) flux remains same]
78. Total capacitance of the combination between A and B in the given figure is 15µF. Calculate
the capacitance of capacitor C. [ Ans. 60 µF]
C1C 2
A: Hint C s =
C1 + C 2
79. Two identical charges, Q each, are kept at a distance r from each other. A third charge q is
placed on the line joining the above two charges such that all the three charges are in
equilibrium. What is the magnitude, sign and position of the charge q? [Ans Q/4, +ive , r/2]
80. Two point charges +4e and +e are fixed a distance ‘a’ apart. Where a third charge q should
be placed on the line joining the two charges so that it may be in equilibrium? In which case
the equilibrium will be stable and in which unstable?
[Ans At a distance 2a/3 from the charge +4e, equilibrium of +ive q is stable and
equilibrium of -ive q is unstable]
81. Two point charges of charge values Q and q are placed at distance x and x/2 respectively
from a third charge of charge value 4q, all charges being in the same straight line. Calculate
the magnitude and nature of charge Q such that the net force experienced by the charge q is
zero. [Ans Q = q/4 , +ive ]
82. Two point charges 4Q and Q are separated by 1m in air. At what point on the line joining
2 1
the charges is the electric field intensity zero? [Ans m from 4Q and from Q]
3 3
−8 −8
83. Two point charges q1 = 10 × 10 C and q2 = − 2 × 10 C are separated by a distance of 60 cm
in air.(i) Find at what distance from the charge q1 , would the electric potential be zero
(ii) Also calculate the electrostatic potential energy of the system.
[Ans (i) 50 cm from q1 or 75 cm (ii) - 3 × 10 −5 J ]
84. Three charges –q, Q and –q are placed as shown in fig. at equal distances on a straight line.
If the potential energy of the system of three charges is zero. What is the ratio of Q: q?
[Ans 1:4]

85. Calculate the capacitance between points A and B in Fig. [Ans 3µF]

86. In a Van de Graaff type generator a spherical metal shell is to be a 15 × 106 V electrode. The
dielectric strength of the gas surrounding the electrode is 5 × 107 Vm–1. What is the
minimum radius of the spherical shell required? (You will learn from this exercise why one
cannot build an electrostatic generator using a very small shell which requires a small charge
to acquire a high potential.) [Ans 30cm]
87. A parallel plate capacitor with air as dielectric is connected to a power supply and charged
to a potential difference Vo. After disconnecting from power supply, a sheet of insulating

50
material is inserted between the plates completely filling the space between them. How will
its (i) charge on the plates (ii) electric field between the plates (iii) potential difference
between the plates (iv) capacitance (v) energy stored in the capacitor.[Ans (i) QO is
E V U
constant (ii) E = O (iii) V = O (iv) C = KCO (V) U = O ]
K K K
88. On charging a parallel plate capacitor to a potential V, the spacing between the plates is
halved, and a dielectric medium of ε r = 10 is introduced between the plates, without
disconnecting the d.c source. Explain using suitable expressions, how the (i) capacitance (ii)
electric field (iii) energy density of the capacitor change.
[Ans(i) C ' = 20 CO (ii ) E ' = 2 EO (iii ) u = 40 u o ]
89. The electric field components due to a charge inside the cube of side 0.1m are as shown :

E x = αx, where α = 500 N / C − m

E y = 0, E z = 0
Calculate (i) the flux through the cube and (ii) the charge inside the cube.

[Ans (i ) 0.5 Nm 2 / C (ii ) 44.2 × 10 −12 C ]

90. Use Gauss’s law to obtain an expression for the electric field due to an infinitely long
straight uniformly charged wire.

Electric field in the above figure is directed along + X direction and given by
Ex = 5Ax + 2B, where E is in NC-1 and x is in metre, A and B are constants with dimensions
Talking A=10NC-1m-1 and B = 5NC-1 calculate.
(i) the electric flux through the cube.
(ii) net charge enclosed within the cube.
[Ans (i ) 0.05 Nm 2 / C (ii ) 44.25 × 10 −14 C ] ]

******************************************************************************

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