Phylogeny and Modern Taxonomy 1.

3
In 1859, Charles Darwin published On The Origin of Species, in which he described his
theory of evolution. The theory of evolution states that all living things are descended evolution the scientific theory that
from a common ancestor in the same way that family members are related to each describes changes in species over time
other through a common ancestor. The theory describes how this principle applies to and their shared ancestry
different species. When we say that two people are closely related to each other, we are
usually thinking in terms of just one or two generations. When biologists say that two
species are closely related to each other, they are often thinking in terms of many thou-
sands of generations. Just as some people are much more closely related than others,
some species are much more closely related than others.
Taxonomy—the classification, identification, and naming of organisms—aims to
group organisms according to a set of criteria. One criterion is how closely related
they are to each other.

Phylogeny
Phylogeny is the science that deals with evolutionary relationships between and among phylogeny the study of the evolutionary
species—entire populations of individuals. In many ways, these relationships, or kinships, relatedness between, and among, species
are similar to a large family tree (Figure 1(a)). Only instead of tracing the relationships phylogenetic tree a diagram depicting
between individual family members, phylogeny tracks relationships between entire spe- the evolutionary relationships between
cies. These relationships can be presented in a phylogenetic tree, a branching diagram used different species or groups
to show the evolutionary relationships between and among species (Figure 1(b)).
William Smith Liz Smith

grandparents

parents

Peter David Sarah

Smith Roberts Smith

grandchildren

Luke Ann Alison

(a) Roberts Roberts Roberts (b)
Figure 1 (a) A family tree shows biological relationships between people. Kinships are represented
by connecting lines. (b) Phylogenetic trees show the evolutionary relationships among species.

Just as individuals in a family tree are descendants from common ancestors, the
groups of organisms in a phylogenetic tree are descendants of common ancestors,
too. Most of the evidence for these relationships is based on similarities and differ-
ences in physical and genetic characteristics.

Clades
In a phylogenetic tree, species are grouped into clades. A clade is a taxonomic group clade a taxonomic group that includes
that includes a single ancestor species and all its descendants. Each clade on a phy- a single common ancestor and all its
logenetic tree can be thought of as a branch on the “tree of life.” The tips of a branch descendants
on a phylogenetic tree can represent a particular species or an entire group of species.
Moving back along a branch is like moving back through time.

NEL 1.3 Phylogeny and Modern Taxonomy 21

Clades can be small—including only a small number of species that share a very
recent common ancestor. For example, the members of the horse family form a
particularly small clade (Figure 2(a)). Clades can also be large—including all those
species that share a more distant common ancestor—such as the order Carnivora of
mammals (Figure 2(b)). Regardless of their size, clades are based on the most funda-
mental connection between species: their evolutionary relatedness.

Felidae Hyaenidae Canidae Ursidae Phocidae Mustelidae

rhinoceros horse zebra (cats) (hyaena) (dogs) (bears) (seals) (mink)

Carnivora

(a) (b)

Figure 2 (a) The horse family is a small clade that includes the modern horse and zebra but not
the rhinoceros. (b) The order Carnivora is a larger clade that includes many different families and is
within the class Mammalia. Note that not all members of each clade are shown.

Tutorial 1 Using Phylogenetic Trees

Phylogenetic trees can be used to infer evolutionary relationships between species, as illustrated by Sample Problem 1. Phylogenetic
trees can also be used to identify clades, as you will see in Sample Problem 2.

CASE 1: USING A PHYLOGENETIC TREE TO INFER EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS

Sample Problem 1: Interpreting Phylogenetic Trees

Figure 3 shows a simple phylogenetic tree. How closely are the Step 2. Look at the arrow to the right of the tree. The top of
rhinoceros, horse, and zebra related? the tree represents the present day. As you follow the
branches downward, you are going back in time.
rhinoceros horse zebra present
Step 3. To interpret the kinship, or relatedness, of any two
species, follow their branches backwards (downward) in
time until you reach the place where they meet.
Step 4. Look at the branches for the zebra and the horse.
Species A represents their most recent common
ancestor (Figure 4.)

rhinoceros horse zebra present

past
Figure 3 A simple phylogenetic tree
A
Solution:
Step 1. Carefully examine the phylogenetic tree in Figure 3. The B
species are placed at the tips of the branches across
the top of the diagram. The lines, or branches, represent
past
each species’ ancestors going back in time.
Figure 4 The red arrows trace the ancestors of the horse and zebra
until they meet at species A. The blue arrows trace the ancestors of
the zebra and rhinoceros until they meet at species B.

22 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL

Step 5. Look at the branches for the zebra and the rhinoceros.
rhinoceros horse zebra present
Their most recent common ancestor is species B in
Figure 4. Species B is located “further back in time”
than species A. This means that the rhinoceros and
zebra are more distantly related than the horse and A
zebra.
Step 6. Note that the horse has the same relationship to the B
rhinoceros as the zebra does (Figure 5). The rhinoceros
is just as closely related to the horse as it is to the past
zebra. Species B is the most recent common ancestor of
all three species. Figure 5 The horse and the zebra have the same
relationship to the rhinoceros.

CASE 2: IDENTIFYING CLADES USING PHYLOGENETIC TREES

Sample Problem 2: Identifying Clades Using Phylogenetic Trees

How can phylogenetic trees be used to identify clades? The Step 3. Look at Figure 7. Phylogenetic trees can portray
steps outlined below explain the process. any number of different groups. This tree shows the
Step 1. Figure 6 shows two clades. The horse family clade evolutionary relationships of a few familiar mammals.
(outlined in purple) includes species A and all its Note that the species outlined in orange form a clade.
descendants. The rhinoceros is not a member of this The species outlined in green do not form a clade. The
clade because it is not a descendant of species A. most recent common ancestor of the bat and seal is
species D. However, the rat, rabbit, and monkey are also
descendants of species D, so they must be included in
rhinoceros horse zebra any clade that includes species D.

seal bat rat rabbit monkey

A

A
B
B

Figure 6 Clades can be part of larger clades. C

D
Step 2. Look at the green outline in Figure 6. All three
species are in this larger clade, which includes all the
descendants of species B.
Figure 7 The species that are outlined in green do not form
a clade.

Practice
1. Sketch Figure 1(b) (page 21) in your notebook and answer the following questions. K/U T/I C A
(a) Indicate the location of the species that is
(i) the most recent common ancestor of foxes and bats
(ii) the most common recent ancestor of all three species
(b) Based on this tree, is a bird more closely related to a fox or to a bat? Explain your reasoning.
2. (a) In your notebook, sketch the phylogenetic tree in Figure 7, above. Do not include the
coloured outlines. Use different colours to show the following clades: K/U T/I C A
(i) the smallest clade that contains the bat and rabbit
(ii) the smallest clade that contains the seal and the rat
(b) What is the maximum number of unique clades (of any size) that can be found in this tree?

NEL 1.3 Phylogeny and Modern Taxonomy 23

Taxonomy Today
One of the major strengths and weaknesses of the traditional classification system is that
it groups species primarily by observed morphological characteristics. These groups are
then arranged into a set number of taxonomic ranks. Grouping species this way is simple
and convenient but may overlook less obvious characteristics that often provide strong
evidence about relatedness.
In contrast, phylogenetic analysis can uncover the evolutionary relatedness of
organisms (Figure 8). The organisms are grouped into different-sized clades that are
not limited to a set number of taxonomic ranks. One challenge of using this system is
uncovering evolutionary relatedness that may go back millions of years—a task that
may require detailed analysis of both fossil and genetic evidence.
Class Class Reptilia Class Aves Mammal Reptile Clade Archaeosaur Clade
Mammalia turtles lizards crocodilians birds Clade turtles lizards crocodilians birds
and snakes mammals and snakes

Common four- Common four-

limbed ancestor limbed ancestor

(a) traditional classification (b) phylogenetic classification

Figure 8 In the (a) traditional classification system, crocodiles are grouped with turtles, snakes, and
lizards because of their shared physical features. In (b) modern taxonomy, crocodilians are grouped
with birds because they share a more recent common ancestor. Both birds and crocodilians are
included in the larger reptile clade.
The International Barcode of Life Project
Modern genetics is providing taxonomists with a powerful new tool for identifying
species. DNA barcoding was first proposed by Paul Herbert, a researcher at the
University of Guelph. The idea is to use DNA technology to create a DNA profile of
every species in the form of a barcode. Ultimately researchers in the field will be able
to use a handheld device to immediately identify any species from a tiny sample of
DNA (Figure 9). This will have tremendous benefits. Because DNA is found in all
cells the identification system can be used on organisms at any stage of their life, from
egg to adult, and can even be used to identify tissue samples such as hair, feathers, or
Figure 9 The barcode for the frog- meat. This can be a very useful tool for controlling the trafficking in products made
eating bat Trachops cirrhosus. from endangered species.
The International Barcode of Life Project (iBOL) was launched in 2010. It is sup-
ported by 25 countries and involves hundreds of leading research scientists. The project’s
hub will be at the Biodiversity Institute of Ontario at the University of Guelph.
Dr. Herbert’s lab has already used DNA barcoding technology to reveal widespread
false labelling of fish products sold in Canada and the U.S. Investigative journalists
bought 153 samples of fish from grocery stores across Canada. DNA testing revealed
wEB LINK
that 34 of the samples were mislabelled. For example, fish labelled as wild-caught
coho salmon was actually farm-raised Atlantic salmon, and fish labelled as cod was
To learn more about the International actually haddock.
Barcode of Life Project, Eventually DNA barcoding technology may allow for very low cost routine sam-
pling and monitoring of species diversity in entire ecosystems. As of November 2010
G O T O N E L S O N S CI E NCE
a barcode database had already been created for about 90 000 species.
Today, taxonomists choose different methods for classifying organisms. Some are
“purists,” basing classifications strictly on phylogenetic relationships. Others still prefer
to group species by more easily recognizable features. Throughout the rest of this
24 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL
unit, you will have opportunities to use your understanding of both traditional and CAREER LINK
modern classification systems to examine the major groups of Earth’s organisms. For
convenience, we may use the names of the traditional ranks to describe groups. You Taxonomist
will also explore some surprising evolutionary relationships between some of the most Taxonomists are scientists who
well known groups of organisms. specialize in the identification and
classification of species. To learn
1.3 Summary more about a career as a taxonomist,

GO T O N ELSON S C I EN C E
• Modern biological classification is based on phylogeny—the evolutionary
relatedness of species.
• A clade is a taxonomic group that includes all the descendants of a common
ancestor.
• Phylogenetic trees are used to show evolutionary relationships among species
and groups.
• Both traditional and phylogenetic classification systems have advantages and
disadvantages.

1.3 Questions
1. Why is a classification system based on relatedness 9. Sketch the phylogenetic tree in Figure 10 in your notebook.
more objective than a classification system based on the T/I C

comparison of observed characteristics? K/U

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P
2. Clades can be described as “natural groups.” Why do you
think this is so? T/I
3. What do the “tips” and “branches” of a phylogenetic tree
represent? K/U
4. Describe how you “trace ancestors back through time” on
a phylogenetic tree. K/U
5. Compare and contrast traditional and phylogenetic Figure 10 A phylogenetic tree
classification systems. K/U T/I
(a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? (a) Which coloured groups represent a clade? Explain.
(b) Think of an example of when it would be useful to use (b) Are the orange groups more or less closely related to
a traditional classification. Why would this system be the green groups than they are to the pink groups?
the best choice in this case? Explain.
(c) Think of a situation where it would be useful to use (c) Place a letter “X” on the tree to represent the most
a phylogenetic classification system. Why would this recent common ancestor to all the orange and green
system be the best choice in this case? groups.
6. Traditional and phylogenetic classification systems usually (d) Circle three true clades that occur within the green box.
place species in the same groups. For example, both 10. Examine Figure 2(b) on page 22 and answer the following
systems place lions and tigers together, and horses and questions. K/U T/I
zebras together. Why is this not surprising? K/U T/I (a) The Mustelidae family includes both mink and otters.
7. Sketch a simplified version of the phylogenetic tree from Both of these species spend most of their time in the
Figure 8(b) (page 24) in your notebook: T/I C A water. Using evidence from the phylogenetic tree,
(a) Place the letter “A” at the location that represents the explain why this makes sense.
most recent common ancestor of mammals and lizards. (b) In your opinion, does a bear seem more similar to a
(b) Are mammals more closely related to one taxonomic dog or to a seal? Consider its physical appearance,
group than any other? Explain. ecological niche, and behaviour.
(c) The closest relatives of crocodiles are birds. Why do (c) Is a bear more closely related to a seal or to a dog?
you think traditional taxonomists place crocodiles in the How do you know?
same class as turtles, lizards, and snakes? (d) Evolutionary changes do not occur at the same rate
in different groups. How might this help explain your
8. Brainstorm why an understanding of phylogenetic analysis might
answer to (c)?
be useful to scientists working to preserve biodiversity. T/I A

NEL 1.3 Phylogeny and Modern Taxonomy 25

1.4 Kingdoms and Domains
The Linnaean classification system recognized only two kingdoms of living things—
Animals and Plants. When biologists began to use microscopes, they discovered
many new micro-organisms and gained a better understanding of the cellular struc-
prokaryote a single-celled organism ture of living things. Biologists discovered prokaryotes—unicellular organisms, such
that does not contain membrane-bound as bacteria, that do not have membrane-bound organelles. They also discovered
organelles many new eukaryotes—unicellular and small multicellular organisms with organelles.
eukaryote any organism whose cells These organisms were called protists—their cells had a nucleus and other organelles
contain organelles; some eukaryotic but showed an extraordinary diversity of shapes, sizes, and life cycles. Biologists also
organisms are single-celled, while others began to see evidence of significant differences between plants and fungi.
are multicellular Today, most biologists classify the more than 1.7 million known living species
into six kingdoms. As you will learn, these six kingdoms are grouped within a higher
BOOKMARK
taxonomic rank.

Kingdoms of Life
Figure 1 shows a typical representation of the six kingdoms of life. The most easily rec-
ognizable kingdoms are the Animals, Plants, and Fungi. These kingdoms include many
large multicellular organisms. The other kingdoms include mostly or entirely microscopic
LEARNING TIP single-celled, or unicellular, organisms. The eukaryotic Protista is by far the most diverse
Name Change
group of organisms. Many of these are tiny, single-celled organisms such as amoeba and
Archaea used to be called
paramecium, while others, such as the kelps, are among the largest living organisms.
Archaebacteria, but we now know The Eubacteria, which are commonly called “bacteria,” and Archaea are prokaryotic and
that they are distinct from Eubacteria, are often extremely difficult to distinguish due to their extremely small size and lack of
the “true bacteria.” internal structure. Most prokaryotes consist of individual cells, but some others consist
of many cells that have joined to form long strands or clustered arrangements.

echinodermata arthropoda nematoda

angiosperms basidiomycetes
pteridophyta
chordata
mollusca
Kingdom
ascomycetes Animals

Kingdom annelida
cnidaria
Plants Kingdom rotifera
Fungi
gymnosperms bryophyta
zygomycetes platyhelminthes
phaeophyta
chrysophyta porifera
rhodophyta pyrrophyta
sarcodina

sporozoa chlorophyta mastigophora

ciliophora
Kingdom Protista
extreme
halophiles
proteobacteria
spirochetes
extreme
other bacteria thermophiles
cyanobacteria
methanogens
Figure 1 The six kingdoms of life Kingdom Eubacteria Kingdom Archaea

26 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL

You should note that the relative size of each kingdom in most diagrams, including UNIT TASK
Figure 1, does not represent the diversity, sheer numbers, or evolutionary relation-
ships of the various kingdoms. The Animal, Plant, and Fungi kingdoms are usually Which kingdom or kingdoms do the
greatly exaggerated in size. This reflects our own interest in these groups as well as organisms in your chosen group
belong to?
our familiarity with them in our everyday life.
Table 1 gives an overview of key characteristics of the six kingdoms. Keep in
mind that there are exceptions to these general descriptions and that the number of
different species of micro-organisms is likely grossly underestimated.
Table 1 Common Characteristics of the Six Kingdoms of Life

Kingdom Cell characteristics Other characteristics Examples (Organisms shown in the photos are bolded.)

Eubacteria • Prokaryotic •  Diverse means of obtaining energy  Escherichia coli,

> 10 000 •  Cell walls contain a  and nutrients—photosynthetic, Salmonella,
described unique compound. chemotropic, or heterotrophic nitrogen-fixing bacteria
species •  Cells are variable in  •  All can reproduce asexually
shape and size.

Archaea • Prokaryotic •  Some colonize extreme  extreme thermophiles

> 400 •  Cell walls and cell  environments. (organisms that thrive at
described membranes have a •  Live in the digestive tracts  high temperatures),
species unique structure. of mammals and marine methanogens (micro-
•  Most are extremely  environments organisms that produce
small. •  All can reproduce asexually. methane as a byproduct)

Protista • Eukaryotic •  May be heterotrophic or  Amoeba, kelps, green

> 100 000 •  Cells have extreme  photosynthetic, or both algae
described diversity of cellular •  Have variable forms of movement
species structure. •  Usually live in aquatic or other 
•  Some have chloroplasts  moist environments
and cell walls. •  Reproduce sexually and 
asexually

Fungi • Eukaryotic • All are heterotrophic mushrooms, yeasts,

> 100 000 •  The cell wall is  • Most are terrestrial moulds
described composed of chitin. •  Reproduce sexually and asexually
species • Most are multicellular.
•  Cells have no 
chloroplasts.

Plants • Eukaryotic •  Autotrophic and photosynthetic mosses, ferns, conifers,

> 250 000 • All are multicellular • Most are terrestrial flowering plants
described •  Cell walls are  •  Reproduce sexually and asexually
species composed of cellulose.
•  Possess chloroplasts

Animals • Eukaryotic •  All are heterotrophic elephants, sponges,

> 1.2 • All are multicellular. •  Most reproduce sexually. corals, insects, snails,
million •  Cells have no cell walls  •  Live in terrestrial and aquatic  birds, humans
described or chloroplasts. environments
species

NEL 1.4 Kingdoms and Domains 27

A simplified phylogenetic tree (Figure 2) shows key evolutionary relationships
among the six kingdoms. Note that the Protist Kingdom does not represent a single
clade. The brown, red, and green algae are more closely related to plants, while the
amoeboid protists are more closely related to fungi and animals.

thermophiles
halophites
Archaea
methanogens

Animals
nonphotosynthetic
eukaryotes Fungi
ancestral amoebozoa
eukaryotic
original cell brown algae
cell photosynthetic
red algae Protists
eukaryotes
green algae

Plants
purple bacteria
photosynthetic bacteria
Eubacteria
other bacteria

past present

Figure 2 A simplified phylogenetic tree of the six kingdoms

Domains of Life
In 1996, Carl Woese conducted a detailed analysis of living organisms. He revealed
domain the highest taxonomic level; that all organisms could be classified into three distinct groups. These groups, called
there are three domains of life domains, showed significant differences in their genetic makeup, which was very com-
pelling evidence of their distinct evolutionary kinships (Figure 3).
Eubacteria Archaea Eukaryotes

m
slim
me
gram

eth
animals
green nonsulfur bacteria

an
tha

gi
e mo
en

ob fun
the

pu
no

tam
posit

rpl me ac
sa

ter
rmo

tha
ulds

e
oe

plants
r ci

ba no ium
ba
ive

na

cte cilia
pro

co
e

tes
s

ria pyr cc a
teu

cyano o us ae
bacte dic rch
s

ria tium oa flagella

h al tes
mi trich
flavobacteria omon
cro dipl ads
sp om
ori ona
thermotogales d ia d s
Most recent common ancestor
of all living organisms

Figure 3 The three domains of life based on the work of Carl Woese. This detailed arrangement of
the branches is continually being refined as new data become available.

28 Chapter 1 • Understanding Biodiversity NEL

The Domain Eubacteria contains only the Kingdom Eubacteria. Similarly, the Investigation 1.4.1
Domain Archaea contains only the kingdom Archaea. The third domain, Eukaryotes,
contains the other four kingdoms: Protista, Animals, Plants, and Fungi. The branches Sampling the Diversity of Life (page 32)
of the tree and the distances between the branches show an estimate of how closely After reading about Kingdoms
related the groups are. You may be surprised to see that, while there are very dramatic and Domains, you can complete
differences in the physical appearances of animals, plants, and fungi, they were all Investigation 1.4.1.
placed very close together on this tree. The proximity is determined largely by com- In this field study, you will sample
paring the genetic makeup of different species and groups. and then classify organisms from a
chosen ecosystem.

Research This
Who Is in My Clade?
SKILLS
Skills: Researching, Analyzing, Communicating HANDBOOK A2.1

Taxonomists have studied the phylogenetic relationships of all well- 4. Find two or three simple phylogenetic trees that illustrate
known groups of organisms. Their findings are often presented the relationships among these species and clades that your
in the form of phylogenetic trees. In this activity you will examine chosen species belongs to. Draw your own version of the
the phylogenetic relationships of a species of your choosing. You tree based on the information you have found. Be creative,
should choose a relatively well known mammal or bird, since you but present your findings accurately.
are more likely to be familiar with its related groups. A. How similar were members of the same genus? What
1. Choose a species and describe its distinguishing features do they share? What features can be used to tell
characteristics. Using the Internet and other resources, find them apart? K/U T/I
out its genus name. B. List and describe a number of other species to highlight the
2. Research the names and characteristics of all other species diversity within the same order. K/U T/I
that are in the same genus. C. Based on your research, which groups within the order are
3. Find out which taxonomic family and order your species most closely related? K/U
belongs to. List the names of several other species that are
GO TO N ELS ON S C I EN C E
in the same order.

1.4 Summary UNIT TASK BOOKMARK

To which domains do the organisms in

• Most biologists classify living things using a system of six kingdoms and three
your chosen group belong?
domains.
• Th
e most easily recognized kingdoms are Animals, Plants, and Fungi.
• Protista is the only kingdom that does not represent a clade.
• Eubacteria and Archaea are diffi cult to distinguish because of their extremely
small size and lack of internal structure.
• Th
e six-kingdom, three-domain system is based on phylogenetic relationships
revealed by genetic evidence.

1.4 Questions
1. List the six kingdoms and three characteristics of each. K/U (d) Are animals more closely related to the Archaea or to
2. Why do you think biologists originally placed fungi within the Eubacteria? Explain your reasoning.
the plant kingdom? K/U T/I 4. Make a simple sketch of a “tree of life” that includes six
3. Use the simplified phylogenetic tree in Figure 2 (page 28) to kingdoms. Label the kingdoms but colour the branches
answer the following questions: K/U T/I C according to domain. Use a different colour for each
(a) State the four groups that gave rise to the protists. domain. K/U C
(b) To which other group(s) are the Amoebozoa most 5. Describe the most significant differences between the
closely related? three domains of life. Why are the Eubacteria and Archaea
(c) Suggest some possible reasons to account for why difficult to distinguish? K/U C
biologists have grouped the Amoebozoa with brown,
red, and green algae in the kingdom Protista.

NEL 1.4 Kingdoms and Domains 29

SBI 3U Summary of the 6 Kingdoms (pg. 27) Name: ______________________________

KINGDOM Cell Characteristics Other Characteristics Examples

(# of species) Cell Type Cell Number Other features Nutrition Reproduction Any significant
(Prok/Euk) (Uni/Multi) (heter/auto/photo Characteristics
etc…)

13
Shark Dichotomous Key
1. A. Body kitelike in shape (if view from above).............................................
B. Body not kitelike in shape (if view fro above)......................................... ............... Go to statement 2
2. A. Pelvic fin absent and nose sawlike........................................................... .........Family Pristophoridae
B. Pelvic fin present.......................................................................................
3. A. Six gill slits present................................................................................... ........... Family Hexanchidae
B. Five gills present.......................................................................................
4. A. Only one dorsal fin present....................................................................... ........ Family Scyliorhinidae
B. Two dorsal fins present............................................................................. ................. Go to statement 5
5. A. Mouth at the front of the head rather than back along underside of head.. ..... Family Rhinocodontidae
B. Mouth back along underside of head........................................................ .................Go to statement 6
6. A. Head expanded on the side with eyes at the end of expansion................. ............... Family Sphyrnidae
B. Head not expanded....................................................................................
7. A. Top half of caudal fin exactly same size and shape as bottom half.......... ....................Family fsuridae
B. Top half of caudal different in size and shape from the bottom half......... .................Go to statement 8

8. A. First dorsal fin very long, almost half the length of the total body............ ........Family Pseudotriakidae
B. first dorsal fin length much less than the half the total length of body.... ................. Go to statement 9
9. A. Caudal fin very long, almost as long as the entire body............................ ................ Family Aloplidae
B. Caudal fin length much less than length of entire body............................ .............. Go to statement 10

10. A. Nose with long needlelike point on end.................................................... ...Family Scapanorhynchidae

B. Nose without needlelike point..................................................................
11. A. Anal fin absent.......................................................................................... .................Family Squalidae
B. Anal fin present.........................................................................................
12. A. Small dorsal fin present near tip of tail..................................................... ....................Family Rajidae
B. Small dorsal fin absent near tip of tail......................................................
13. A. Hornlike appendages at front of shark.......................................................
B. Hornlike appendages not present at front of shark.................................... ............... Family Dasyatidae

I CAN
identify
an
organism
using a
dichotomous
key.