Centrifugal force

In Newtonian mechanics, the centrifugal force is an inertial force (also called a "fictitious" or "pseudo"
force) that appears to act on all objects when viewed in a rotating frame of reference. It is directed away
from an axis passing through the coordinate system's origin and parallel to the axis of rotation. If the axis
of rotation passes through the coordinate system's origin, the centrifugal force is directed radially
outwards from that axis. The concept of centrifugal force can be applied in rotating devices, such as
centrifuges, centrifugal pumps, centrifugal governors, and centrifugal clutches, and in centrifugal
railways, planetary orbits and banked curves, when they are analyzed in a rotating coordinate system.
The term has sometimes also been used for the reactive centrifugal force that may be viewed as a
reaction to a centripetal force in some circumstances.

Contents
Introduction
Examples
Vehicle driving round a curve
Stone on a string
Earth
Weight of an object at the poles and on the
equator
Equatorial railway
Derivation
Time derivatives in a rotating frame
Acceleration In the inertial frame of reference
Force (upper part of the picture), the
black ball moves in a straight line.
Absolute rotation
However, the observer (brown
Applications dot) who is standing in the
rotating/non-inertial frame of
History of conceptions of centrifugal and centripetal
reference (lower part of the
forces
picture) sees the object as
Other uses of the term following a curved path due to the
See also Coriolis and centrifugal forces
present in this frame.
References
External links

Introduction
Centrifugal force is an outward force apparent in a rotating reference frame.[1][2][3] It does not exist when
a system is described relative to an inertial frame of reference.
All measurements of position and velocity must be made relative to some frame of reference. For
example, an analysis of the motion of an object in an airliner in flight could be made relative to the
airliner, to the surface of the Earth, or even to the Sun.[4] A reference frame that is at rest (or one that
moves with no rotation and at constant velocity) relative to the "fixed stars" is generally taken to be an
inertial frame. Any system can be analyzed in an inertial frame (and so with no centrifugal force).
However, it is often more convenient to describe a rotating system by using a rotating frame—the
calculations are simpler, and descriptions more intuitive. When this choice is made, fictitious forces,
including the centrifugal force, arise.

In a reference frame rotating about an axis through its origin, all objects, regardless of their state of
motion, appear to be under the influence of a radially (from the axis of rotation) outward force that is
proportional to their mass, to the distance from the axis of rotation of the frame, and to the square of the
angular velocity of the frame.[5][6] This is the centrifugal force. As humans usually experience
centrifugal force from within the rotating reference frame, e.g. on a merry-go-round or vehicle, this is
much more well-known than centripetal force.

Motion relative to a rotating frame results in another fictitious force: the Coriolis force. If the rate of
rotation of the frame changes, a third fictitious force (the Euler force) is required. These fictitious forces
are necessary for the formulation of correct equations of motion in a rotating reference frame[7][8] and
allow Newton's laws to be used in their normal form in such a frame (with one exception: the fictitious
forces do not obey Newton's third law: they have no equal and opposite counterparts).[7]

Examples

Vehicle driving round a curve

A common experience that gives rise to the idea of a centrifugal force is encountered by passengers
riding in a vehicle, such as a car, that is changing direction. If a car is traveling at a constant speed along
a straight road, then a passenger inside is not accelerating and, according to Newton's second law of
motion, the net force acting on him is therefore zero (all forces acting on him cancel each other out). If
the car enters a curve that bends to the left, the passenger experiences an apparent force that seems to be
pulling him towards the right. This is the fictitious centrifugal force. It is needed within the passenger's
local frame of reference to explain his sudden tendency to start accelerating to the right relative to the car
—a tendency which he must resist by applying a rightward force to the car (for instance, a frictional force
against the seat) in order to remain in a fixed position inside. Since he pushes the seat toward the right,
Newton's third law says that the seat pushes him toward the left. The centrifugal force must be included
in the passenger's reference frame (in which the passenger remains at rest): it counteracts the leftward
force applied to the passenger by the seat, and explains why this otherwise unbalanced force does not
cause him to accelerate.[9] However, it would be apparent to a stationary observer watching from an
overpass above that the frictional force exerted on the passenger by the seat is not being balanced; it
constitutes a net force to the left, causing the passenger to accelerate toward the inside of the curve, as he
must in order to keep moving with the car rather than proceeding in a straight line as he otherwise would.
Thus the "centrifugal force" he feels is the result of a "centrifugal tendency" caused by inertia.[10] Similar
effects are encountered in aeroplanes and roller coasters where the magnitude of the apparent force is
often reported in "G's".

Stone on a string
If a stone is whirled round on a string, in a horizontal plane, the only real force acting on the stone in the
horizontal plane is applied by the string (gravity acts vertically). There is a net force on the stone in the
horizontal plane which acts toward the center.

In an inertial frame of reference, were it not for this net force acting on the stone, the stone would travel
in a straight line, according to Newton's first law of motion. In order to keep the stone moving in a
circular path, a centripetal force, in this case provided by the string, must be continuously applied to the
stone. As soon as it is removed (for example if the string breaks) the stone moves in a straight line. In this
inertial frame, the concept of centrifugal force is not required as all motion can be properly described
using only real forces and Newton's laws of motion.

In a frame of reference rotating with the stone around the same axis as the stone, the stone is stationary.
However, the force applied by the string is still acting on the stone. If one were to apply Newton's laws in
their usual (inertial frame) form, one would conclude that the stone should accelerate in the direction of
the net applied force—towards the axis of rotation—which it does not do. The centrifugal force and other
fictitious forces must be included along with the real forces in order to apply Newton's laws of motion in
the rotating frame.

Earth
The Earth constitutes a rotating reference frame because it rotates once every 23 hours and 56 minutes
around its axis. Because the rotation is slow, the fictitious forces it produces are often small, and in
everyday situations can generally be neglected. Even in calculations requiring high precision, the
centrifugal force is generally not explicitly included, but rather lumped in with the gravitational force: the
strength and direction of the local "gravity" at any point on the Earth's surface is actually a combination
of gravitational and centrifugal forces. However, the fictitious forces can be of arbitrary size. For
example, in an Earth-bound reference system, the fictitious force (the net of Coriolis and centrifugal
forces) is enormous and is responsible for the sun orbiting around the Earth (in the Earth-bound reference
system). This is due to the large mass and velocity of the sun (relative to the Earth).

Weight of an object at the poles and on the equator

If an object is weighed with a simple spring balance at one of the Earth's poles, there are two forces
acting on the object: the Earth's gravity, which acts in a downward direction, and the equal and opposite
restoring force in the spring, acting upward. Since the object is stationary and not accelerating, there is no
net force acting on the object and the force from the spring is equal in magnitude to the force of gravity
on the object. In this case, the balance shows the value of the force of gravity on the object.

When the same object is weighed on the equator, the same two real forces act upon the object. However,
the object is moving in a circular path as the Earth rotates and therefore experiencing a centripetal
acceleration. When considered in an inertial frame (that is to say, one that is not rotating with the Earth),
the non-zero acceleration means that force of gravity will not balance with the force from the spring. In
order to have a net centripetal force, the magnitude of the restoring force of the spring must be less than
the magnitude of force of gravity. Less restoring force in the spring is reflected on the scale as less weight
— about 0.3% less at the equator than at the poles.[11] In the Earth reference frame (in which the object
being weighed is at rest), the object does not appear to be accelerating, however the two real forces,
gravity and the force from the spring, are the same magnitude and do not balance. The centrifugal force
must be included to make the sum of the forces be zero to match the apparent lack of acceleration.
Note: In fact, the observed weight difference is more — about 0.53%. Earth's gravity is a bit stronger at the poles than
at the equator, because the Earth is not a perfect sphere, so an object at the poles is slightly closer to the center of the
Earth than one at the equator; this effect combines with the centrifugal force to produce the observed weight
difference.[12]

Equatorial railway
This thought experiment is more complicated than the previous examples in that it requires the use of the
Coriolis force as well as the centrifugal force.

If there were a railway line running round the Earth's equator, a train moving westward along it fast
enough would remain stationary in a frame moving (but not rotating) with the Earth; it would stand still
as the Earth spun beneath it. In this inertial frame the situation is easy to analyze. The only forces acting
on the train (assuming no wind resistance or other horizontal forces) are its gravity (downward) and the
equal and opposite (upward) force from the track. There is no net force on the train and it therefore
remains stationary.

In a frame rotating with the Earth the train moves in a circular orbit as it travels round the Earth. In this
frame, the upward reaction force from the track and the force of gravity on the train remain the same, as
they are real forces. However, in the Earth's (rotating) frame, the train is traveling in a circular path and
therefore requires a centripetal (downward) force to keep it on this path. Because this uses a rotating
frame, the (fictitious) centrifugal force must be applied to the train. This is equal in value to the required
centripetal force but acts in an upward direction — the opposite direction to that required. It would seem
that there is a net upward force on the train and it should therefore accelerate upward.

The resolution to this paradox lies in the fact that the train is in motion with respect to the rotating frame
and is subject to (in addition to the centrifugal force) the Coriolis force, which, in this example, acts in
the downward direction and is twice as strong as the centrifugal force.

Derivation
For the following formalism, the rotating frame of reference is regarded as a special case of a non-inertial
reference frame that is rotating relative to an inertial reference frame denoted the stationary frame.

Time derivatives in a rotating frame

In a rotating frame of reference, the time derivatives of any vector function P of time—such as the
velocity and acceleration vectors of an object—will differ from its time derivatives in the stationary
frame. If P1 P2, P3 are the components of P with respect to unit vectors i, j, k directed along the axes
of the rotating frame (i.e. P = P1 i + P2 j +P3 k), then the first time derivative [dP/dt] of P with
respect to the rotating frame is, by definition, dP1/dt i + dP2/dt j + dP3/dt k. If the absolute angular
velocity of the rotating frame is ω then the derivative dP/dt of P with respect to the stationary frame is
related to [dP/dt] by the equation:[13]
where denotes the vector cross product. In other words, the rate of change of P in the stationary frame
is the sum of its apparent rate of change in the rotating frame and a rate of rotation attributable to
the motion of the rotating frame. The vector ω has magnitude ω equal to the rate of rotation and is
directed along the axis of rotation according to the right-hand rule.

Acceleration
Newton's law of motion for a particle of mass m written in vector form is:

where F is the vector sum of the physical forces applied to the particle and a is the absolute acceleration
(that is, acceleration in an inertial frame) of the particle, given by:

where r is the position vector of the particle.

By applying the transformation above from the stationary to the rotating frame three times (twice to

and once to ), the absolute acceleration of the particle can be written as:

Force

The apparent acceleration in the rotating frame is . An observer unaware of the rotation would

expect this to be zero in the absence of outside forces. However, Newton's laws of motion apply only in

the inertial frame and describe dynamics in terms of the absolute acceleration . Therefore, the

observer perceives the extra terms as contributions due to fictitious forces. These terms in the apparent
acceleration are independent of mass; so it appears that each of these fictitious forces, like gravity, pulls
on an object in proportion to its mass. When these forces are added, the equation of motion has the
form:[14][15][16]
From the perspective of the rotating frame, the additional force terms are experienced just like the real
external forces and contribute to the apparent acceleration.[17][18] The additional terms on the force side
of the equation can be recognized as, reading from left to right, the Euler force , the
Coriolis force , and the centrifugal force , respectively.[19] Unlike
the other two fictitious forces, the centrifugal force always points radially outward from the axis of
rotation of the rotating frame, with magnitude mω2r, and unlike the Coriolis force in particular, it is
independent of the motion of the particle in the rotating frame. As expected, for a non-rotating inertial
frame of reference the centrifugal force and all other fictitious forces disappear.[20] Similarly, as
the centrifugal force is proportional to the distance from object to the axis of rotation of the frame, the
centrifugal force vanishes for objects that lie upon the axis.

Absolute rotation
Three scenarios were suggested by Newton to answer the
question of whether the absolute rotation of a local frame can be
detected; that is, if an observer can decide whether an observed
object is rotating or if the observer is rotating.[21][22]

The shape of the surface of water rotating in a bucket.

The shape of the surface becomes concave to balance
the centrifugal force against the other forces upon the
liquid.
The interface of two immiscible
The tension in a string joining two spheres rotating
liquids rotating around a vertical axis
about their center of mass. The tension in the string will is an upward-opening circular
be proportional to the centrifugal force on each sphere
paraboloid.
as it rotates around the common center of mass.
In these scenarios, the effects attributed to centrifugal force are
only observed in the local frame (the frame in which the object is
stationary) if the object is undergoing absolute rotation relative to
an inertial frame. By contrast, in an inertial frame, the observed
effects arise as a consequence of the inertia and the known forces
without the need to introduce a centrifugal force. Based on this
argument, the privileged frame, wherein the laws of physics take
on the simplest form, is a stationary frame in which no fictitious
forces need to be invoked.

Within this view of physics, any other phenomenon that is

usually attributed to centrifugal force can be used to identify When analysed in a rotating
absolute rotation. For example, the oblateness of a sphere of reference frame of the planet,
freely flowing material is often explained in terms of centrifugal centrifugal force causes rotating
force. The oblate spheroid shape reflects, following Clairaut's planets to assume the shape of an
oblate spheroid.
theorem, the balance between containment by gravitational
attraction and dispersal by centrifugal force. That the Earth is
itself an oblate spheroid, bulging at the equator where the radial
distance and hence the centrifugal force is larger, is taken as one of the evidences for its absolute
rotation.[23]

Applications
The operations of numerous common rotating mechanical systems are most easily conceptualized in
terms of centrifugal force. For example:

A centrifugal governor regulates the speed of an engine by using spinning masses that
move radially, adjusting the throttle, as the engine changes speed. In the reference frame of
the spinning masses, centrifugal force causes the radial movement.
A centrifugal clutch is used in small engine-powered devices such as chain saws, go-karts
and model helicopters. It allows the engine to start and idle without driving the device but
automatically and smoothly engages the drive as the engine speed rises. Inertial drum
brake ascenders used in rock climbing and the inertia reels used in many automobile seat
belts operate on the same principle.
Centrifugal forces can be used to generate artificial gravity, as in proposed designs for
rotating space stations. The Mars Gravity Biosatellite would have studied the effects of
Mars-level gravity on mice with gravity simulated in this way.
Spin casting and centrifugal casting are production methods that use centrifugal force to
disperse liquid metal or plastic throughout the negative space of a mold.
Centrifuges are used in science and industry to separate substances. In the reference
frame spinning with the centrifuge, the centrifugal force induces a hydrostatic pressure
gradient in fluid-filled tubes oriented perpendicular to the axis of rotation, giving rise to large
buoyant forces which push low-density particles inward. Elements or particles denser than
the fluid move outward under the influence of the centrifugal force. This is effectively
Archimedes' principle as generated by centrifugal force as opposed to being generated by
gravity.
Some amusement rides make use of centrifugal forces. For instance, a Gravitron's spin
forces riders against a wall and allows riders to be elevated above the machine's floor in
defiance of Earth's gravity.[24]
Nevertheless, all of these systems can also be described without requiring the concept of centrifugal
force, in terms of motions and forces in a stationary frame, at the cost of taking somewhat more care in
the consideration of forces and motions within the system.

History of conceptions of centrifugal and centripetal forces

The conception of centrifugal force has evolved since the time of Huygens, Newton, Leibniz, and Hooke
who expressed early conceptions of it. Its modern conception as a fictitious force arising in a rotating
reference frame evolved in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Centrifugal force has also played a role in debates in classical mechanics about detection of absolute
motion. Newton suggested two arguments to answer the question of whether absolute rotation can be
detected: the rotating bucket argument, and the rotating spheres argument.[25] According to Newton, in
each scenario the centrifugal force would be observed in the object's local frame (the frame where the
object is stationary) only if the frame were rotating with respect to absolute space. Nearly two centuries
later, Mach's principle was proposed where, instead of absolute rotation, the motion of the distant stars
relative to the local inertial frame gives rise through some (hypothetical) physical law to the centrifugal
force and other inertia effects. Today's view is based upon the idea of an inertial frame of reference,
which privileges observers for which the laws of physics take on their simplest form, and in particular,
frames that do not use centrifugal forces in their equations of motion in order to describe motions
correctly.

The analogy between centrifugal force (sometimes used to create artificial gravity) and gravitational
forces led to the equivalence principle of general relativity.[26][27]
Other uses of the term
While the majority of the scientific literature uses the term centrifugal force to refer to the particular
fictitious force that arises in rotating frames, there are a few limited instances in the literature of the term
applied to other distinct physical concepts. One of these instances occurs in Lagrangian mechanics.
Lagrangian mechanics formulates mechanics in terms of generalized coordinates {qk}, which can be as
simple as the usual polar coordinates or a much more extensive list of variables.[28][29] Within this
formulation the motion is described in terms of generalized forces, using in place of Newton's laws the
Euler–Lagrange equations. Among the generalized forces, those involving the square of the time
derivatives {(dqk ⁄ dt )2} are sometimes called centrifugal forces.[30][31][32][33] In the case of motion in a
central potential the Lagrangian centrifugal force has the same form as the fictitious centrifugal force
derived in a co-rotating frame.[34] However, the Lagrangian use of "centrifugal force" in other, more
general cases has only a limited connection to the Newtonian definition.

In another instance the term refers to the reaction force to a centripetal force, or reactive centrifugal
force. A body undergoing curved motion, such as circular motion, is accelerating toward a center at any
particular point in time. This centripetal acceleration is provided by a centripetal force, which is exerted
on the body in curved motion by some other body. In accordance with Newton's third law of motion, the
body in curved motion exerts an equal and opposite force on the other body. This reactive force is exerted
by the body in curved motion on the other body that provides the centripetal force and its direction is
from that other body toward the body in curved motion.[35][36] [37][38]

This reaction force is sometimes described as a centrifugal inertial reaction,[39][40] that is, a force that is
centrifugally directed, which is a reactive force equal and opposite to the centripetal force that is curving
the path of the mass.

The concept of the reactive centrifugal force is sometimes used in mechanics and engineering. It is
sometimes referred to as just centrifugal force rather than as reactive centrifugal force[41][42] although
this usage is deprecated in elementary mechanics.[43]

See also
Balancing of rotating masses
Centrifugal mechanism of acceleration
Equivalence principle
Folk physics
Lagrangian point
Lamm equation

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Space In Multi-dimensional Chaos: Applications to chemical reaction dynamics in complex
systems. Wiley. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-471-71157-5. "As is evident from the first terms ..., which
are proportional to the square of , a kind of "centrifugal force" arises ... We call this force
"democratic centrifugal force". Of course, DCF is different from the ordinary centrifugal
force, and it arises even in a system of zero angular momentum."
34. See p. 5 in Donato Bini; Paolo Carini; Robert T Jantzen (1997). "The intrinsic derivative and
centrifugal forces in general relativity: I. Theoretical foundations" (http://cds.cern.ch/record/5
03373). International Journal of Modern Physics D (Submitted manuscript). 6 (1): 143–198.
arXiv:gr-qc/0106014v1 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0106014v1).
Bibcode:1997IJMPD...6..143B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997IJMPD...6..143B).
doi:10.1142/S021827189700011X (https://doi.org/10.1142%2FS021827189700011X).. The
companion paper is Donato Bini; Paolo Carini; Robert T Jantzen (1997). "The intrinsic
derivative and centrifugal forces in general relativity: II. Applications to circular orbits in
some stationary axisymmetric spacetimes" (http://cds.cern.ch/record/503373). International
Journal of Modern Physics D (Submitted manuscript). 6 (1): 143–198. arXiv:gr-
qc/0106014v1 (https://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0106014v1). Bibcode:1997IJMPD...6..143B (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1997IJMPD...6..143B). doi:10.1142/S021827189700011X (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1142%2FS021827189700011X).
35. Mook, Delo E. & Thomas Vargish (1987). Inside relativity (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=QnJqIyk_dzIC&pg=PA47&dq=%22reactive+centrifugal+force%22&lr=&as_brr=0&sig=ED
mHHDZRZB4AC37tklWe03SD_tY). Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-
02520-7, p. 47.
36. G. David Scott (1957). "Centrifugal Forces and Newton's Laws of Motion" (http://www.deepd
yve.com/lp/american-association-of-physics-teachers/centrifugal-forces-and-newton-s-laws-
of-motion-0bO8fgiEUy). 25. American Journal of Physics. p. 325.
37. Signell, Peter (2002). "Acceleration and force in circular motion" (http://physnet.org/module
s/pdf_modules/m17.pdf) Physnet. Michigan State University, "Acceleration and force in
circular motion", §5b, p. 7.
38. Mohanty, A. K. (2004). Fluid Mechanics (https://books.google.com/books?id=eF-H6O11fdk
C&pg=PA121&dq=%22reactive+centrifugal+force%22&lr=&as_brr=0#PPA121,M1). PHI
Learning Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-203-0894-8, p. 121.
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e/0031-9120/36/5/305/pe1505.pdf) (PDF). Physics Education. 43 (5): 399–405.
40. Lloyd William Taylor (1959). "Physics, the pioneer science" (https://books.google.com/?id=fp
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dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961AmJPh..29..563T). doi:10.1119/1.1937847 (https://doi.org/10.1
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numerous examples (https://books.google.com/?id=mE4GAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA357) (25th
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42. Joseph A. Angelo (2007). Robotics: a reference guide to the new technology (https://books.
google.com/?id=73kNFV4sDx8C&pg=PA267). Greenwood Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-1-
57356-337-6.
43. Eric M Rogers (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind (https://archive.org/details/physicsforin
quir00roge). Princeton University Press. p. 302 (https://archive.org/details/physicsforinquir0
0roge/page/302).

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