HEATING VENTILATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING FOR

BUILDING
A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

AJITH KUMAR.A
MAHA VISHNU.M

In the partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
St. MICHAEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

KALAYARKOIL

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI-600025

APRIL 2020
ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI-600025
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project titled “HEATING VENTILATION AND AIR-
CONDITIONING FOR BUILDING” is the bonafide of

A.AJITHKUMAR [912716114301]
M.MAHA VISHNU [912716114701]

Who carried out the project under my supervision

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
Mr. M.NAGARAJAN,M.E., Mr.Dr.V.G.GOPINATH,M.E.,Ph.D

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Department of Mechanical Engg Department of Mechanical Engg
St.Michael College of Engg & tech St. Michael College of Engg &tech
Kalayarkoil -630551 Kalayarkoil-630551

Submitted for the viva voce examination to held on ___________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our sincere and devoted thanks to Chairman Ln. Dr.

Er. M.STALIN AROCKYARAJ, and Chief Executive officer Dr. S.BRIDJET

NIRMALA, St. Michael group of institutions, for giving us an opportunity to carry out

our projects work.

We are extremely grateful and immeasurably indebted to our Dean, Dr.

V.G.GOPINATH, for providing us with all the motivation of the projects.

We extend our deep gratitude and sincere thanks to our principal, Dr.

S.KARPAGAM, for their scholarly generous assistance for the successful completion

of the project.

We are extremely grateful and immeasurably indebted to our Head of the Department,

Mr. M.NAGARAJAN, for providing us with all the motivation of the project.

We are extremely grateful and immeasurably indebted to our Guide

Dr.V,G.GOPINATH, department of mechanical engineering and all the faculty

member of the mechanical engineering for their support.

We are extremely grateful to our parents providing us with all the motivation in

making this project a grand success. Above all we are to the almighty god for his

blessings and inspiration we needed at bad time.

ABSTRACT

The modern commercial or office building consists of the HVAC system which is Heating,

Ventilation, Air-conditioned. In this report, we’ll going to identify the purpose and

goals of HVACS system, describe, HVAC parts and describe how this part works together or

it’s working cycle. Besides to air-conditioning there are ventilation systems like ceiling

fan, fresh air supply and exhaust fan where ceiling fan is used to ventilate the air with

rotating blades and exhaust fan is used to displace the inside air to the outside

environment, fresh air supply is used to displace the inside air to the outside

environment by supplying fresh air from the outside air.

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 01

2 LITERATION REVIEW 02

3 COMPONENT AND DESCRIPTION 09

3.1 Prior Developments & Other Field 11

3.2 HVAC 13

3.3 Overview of the rest of the report & 16

Algorithms developed

3.4 Test Apparatus 19

3.5 Logical Description 26

3.6 Ventilation 30

3.7 Refrigeration Cycle 36

3.8 HVAC - Economizes” free cooling” 37

4 HVAC-PROCESSES 39

4.1 Heating and Cooling 40

4.2 Perform SCC Test 43

4.3 Testing 47

4.4 Test Result 50

5 WORKING PRINCIPLE 51

6 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES 52

7 APPLICATIONS 54

8 CONCLUSION 55
FIGURE NO LIST OF FIGURE PAGE NO

1 0.1 THREE INTERCONNECTED 21

SYSTEM

2 0.2 VIRTUAL SENSORS 26

SINGLE INPUT, SINGLE OUTPUT

3 0.3 TWO VRITUAL SENSOR 27

4 0.4 HVAC DUCT AND DESIGNING 30

5 0.5 NATURAL VENTILATION 34

6 0.6 PACKAGED UNIT (PX COOLING) 35

OUTSIDE AIR VENTILATION

7 0.7 REFRIGERATION CYCLE 36

8 0.8 HVAC – ECONOMIZES “FREE COOLING” 37

9 0.9 CHILLER 39
10 0.10 COMPLERE SYSTEMS, SECONDARY 42

HVAC SYSTEM

TABLE NO LIST OF TABLE PAGE NO

1 0.1 VENTILATION TABLE 31

2 0.2 THINGS AGTA CHEEK IN THE 41

ENERGY CODE

3 0.3 TESTING RESULT 50

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This document represents the final project report for the Self-Correcting

Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Controls Project jointly

funded by Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) and the U.S. Department of

Energy (DOE) Building Technologies Program (BTP). The project, initiated in

October 2008, focused on exploratory initial development of self-correcting

controls for selected HVAC components in air handlers. This report, along with

the companion report documenting the algorithms developed, Self-Correcting

HVAC Controls: Algorithms for Sensors and Dampers in Air-Handling Units

(Fernandez et al. 2009), document the work performed and results of this project.

Physical and control faults are common in HVAC equipment and systems, both

built up and packaged. Today, large commercial buildings use sophisticated

building automation systems (BASs) to manage a wide and varied range of

building equipment. While the capabilities of BASs have increased over time,

many buildings still do not fully use their capabilities.

Furthermore, most commercial buildings are not properly commissioned,

operated or maintained, which leads to inefficient operation, increased energy

use, and reduced lifetimes of the equipment. Tuning BASs, much like tuning

1
automobiles periodically, ensures maximum building energy efficiency and the

comfort of building occupants. A poorly tuned system can and will maintain

comfortable conditions but at a higher energy cost to overcome inefficiencies. If

these systems can be enabled to self-correct and self-compensate for faults when

encountered, HVAC equipment and systems would continue to operate efficiently

until maintenance and repairs could be performed.

Packaged HVAC equipment is often maintained poorly with degradation of

performance and faults only addressed when occupants complain or a unit fails

to operate at all. Reactive maintenance of this sort leads to inefficient operation

with high energy costs and significant waste. Allowing equipment to operate

with faults also often leads to further physical deterioration of the equipment,

reducing equipment lifetime, and sometimes complete and catastrophic failure.

Both built-up and packaged systems are frequently found with economizers that

do not modulate dampers (Katipamula et al. 2003a, Lunneberg 1999); overridden

automatic controls; valves that leak; simultaneous heating and cooling because

both heating and cooling valves are open; excessive use of reheat during cooling

because the temperature or static pressure set point for air leaving the air handlers

is too low; air-conditioning systems that are improperly charged and operate with

dirty filters and heat exchangers (Houghton 1997); and systems that are operated

2
with failed or faulty sensors. It is also common for building systems to run 24-

hours per day even though the building is unoccupied for many hours each day.

These are a few of the common conditions found that cause substantial energy

waste in our commercial building stock. Although there are no reliable

nationwide or comprehensive Pacific Northwest data on the prevalence of such

faults or energy impacts associated with inefficient operations, there is a general

consensus that 10 to 30% of the energy is being wasted (Ardehali and Smith

2002,

3
CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Ardehali et al. 2003, Brambley et al. 2005a and b, Breuker and Braun 1999,

Claridge et al. 1996, Jacobs 2003, Mills et al. 2004).

Although monitoring and automated diagnostic tools can increase the awareness of

building operators, owners, and HVAC service providers to the presence of

operation faults in HVAC systems and equipment, information alone does not

correct these faults. Action is required to correct faults and improve operational

efficiency.

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has begun in this project to develop

technology for systems to automatically correct soft faults associated with incorrect

set points, improper values for other control parameters (e.g., control constants),

oscillating valves and dampers, sensor faults, incorrect control strategies, poor use

of equipment scheduling, and other problems that can be corrected by changing

software code or the values of constants used for control purposes. Although

physical (hard) faults and failures, such as a bent damper linkage, cannot be

corrected automatically, automatic adjustment could potentially be implemented to

compensate for hard faults. By adding self-compensation for hard faults, the energy

4
use of HVAC systems could be minimized in the presence of physical faults until

repairs can be performed to correct them, optimizing operation to the best

performance possible in the presence of such faults. Hard fault compensation,

however, was not the focus on this project, only soft fault correction.

The PNNL team has developed algorithms for automatically correcting selected

soft faults in air- handler dampers and sensors (Fernandez et al. 2009). These

algorithms have been coded in software and tested on an air-handling unit under

laboratory conditions in the fall of 2009.

These algorithms automatically, in real time, correct and optimally compensate for

faults occurring in the air handling, and could be applied to built-up air handlers,

packaged air- handling units, and packaged HVAC units (air conditioners and heat

pumps), addressing a number of commonly occurring faults such as improper

economizer operation. Air-handling represents the first, yet very important,

application of self-correcting controls to HVAC because of the high prevalence of

economizer faults and the potential energy/cost impacts of improperly controlled

economizers when they are not used and when they are operated incorrectly. Field

demonstration is the next logical step in advancing the technology developed in this

project, but the technical team recommends further laboratory testing before

proceeding to field tests (the reasons for which will be discussed later in this

report).
5
The objective of the project was to develop and test (in the laboratory) algorithms

that implement self-correction capabilities for temperature, humidity and pressure

sensors, economizer dampers, and damper actuators in HVAC systems.

Satisfaction of this objective will lead to 1) algorithms ready for implementation

in controllers for field demonstration and commercial application and 2)

underlying methods that may be transferable to creating self- correcting

capabilities for other HVAC system components. Full-scale commercial

deployment of this technology will capture significant energy savings by

automatically eliminating many of the faults that degrade the efficiency of HVAC

systems, thus maintaining energy efficiency well above the efficiency at which

these systems routinely operate. Furthermore, to the extent that HVAC electricity

use and system peaking are coincident (e.g., in the summer), peak demand will

also be reduced by deployment of this technology.

The objectives of the project were to:

1. develop algorithms that implement self-correction capabilities for

temperature, humidity and pressure sensors, economizer dampers, and

damper actuators in HVAC systems, and

2. test the algorithms developed on actual equipment in a laboratory.

6
3. develop algorithms that implement self-correction capabilities for

temperature, humidity and pressure sensors, economizer dampers, and

damper actuators in HVAC systems, and

4. test the algorithms developed on actual equipment in a laboratory.

Satisfaction of these objectives was intended to lead to:

1. algorithms ready for field demonstration and commercial application,

2. underlying methods that may be transferable to creating self-correcting

capabilities for other HVAC system components.

Furthermore, full-scale commercial deployment of the technology will capture

significant energy savings by automatically eliminating many of the faults that

degrade the efficiency of HVAC systems, thus maintaining energy efficiency

well above the efficiency at which these systems routinely operate. Furthermore,

to the extent that HVAC electricity use and system peaking are coincident (e.g.,

in the summer), peak demand will also be reduced by deployment of this

7
technology.

Overall, the objectives of the project were met, with some qualifications.

Algorithms for self- correction of temperature and humidity sensors, economizer

dampers, and damper actuator control for air handlers were developed. Because

development and testing of algorithms for the air-handler mixing box was

sufficiently challenging by itself, the project was not able to address pressure

sensors (e.g., that would be used to measure the static pressure at the air-handler

discharge).

The algorithms were tested in the PNNL building diagnostics laboratory. The

laboratory tests revealed performance limitations of the algorithms, primarily

associated with initial fault detection. Both the sensor tolerances specified and the

outdoor conditions affect the ability to detect faults passively in the first step of the

self-correction process. Although the tests performed reveal and illustrate these

issues, further laboratory testing is necessary to fully characterize these limitations

for each fault (and corresponding algorithm). Such limitations may, however,

detract little from the value of these algorithms in practice because they do not need

to detect a fault under all conditions just because it exists. This is frequently an

issue with passive observational fault detection; conditions must be appropriate to

reveal the fault. For example, if a fault related to air-side economizing exists, it

8
generally will not be revealed until conditions appropriate for economizing occur.

Although this is a simplistic example, it illustrates the nature of the limitations.

They will be discussed more completely later in this

CHAPTER 3

COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION

 Diagram of test apparatus. Distances between components are not shown to

scale.

 Control system with web-based user control interface

 Schematic diagram of the relationships among a sensor, controller and actuator

for ordinary control (without correction) of a system

 Schematic diagram of a controlled system with a virtual sensor point added

through which corrections to a faulty sensor signal can be implemented

 Diagram of system used to implement and correct faults using two virtual

sensors

 System schematic showing supervisory fault detection, isolation,

characterization and correction processes interfacing with the virtual sensor and

controller

 Relationship between damper signal and OAF

 Baseline test – temperatures

9
 Baseline test - OAF and damper command

 Test T-7-- detection, diagnosis and correction of a biased return-air temperature

sensor

 Test T-1 -- Mixing Box Temperatures

 Test T-1 - OAF and Dampers

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect positive bias faults in OA

temperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect negative bias faults in

OAtemperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect positive bias faults in RA

temperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect negative bias faults in RA

temperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect positive bias faults in MA

temperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test

 Intrinsic level of fault severity necessary to detect negative bias faults in MA

temperature sensors using the minimum occupied position passive test.

 Test RH-2: Key variables for fault detection

 Test RH-3: Key variables for fault detection

10
 Test RH-2 -- detection, diagnosis and correction for a -20% RH bias in the

relative humidity sensor

 Damper position signal and OAF during Test MOP-3

3.1 Prior Developments

Although automated self-correction of faults is a new concept in the HVAC field,

it has been under development in the aircraft field for nearly 30 years (Tomayko

2003, Steinberg 2005). Moreover, PNNL completed an early exploratory study of

a small number of fault correction procedures for example devices and automated

one example for a computer-based simulated economizer system prior to this

project. The results of that work were not, however, tested on actual equipment.

The present study built on that earlier work, extending it considerably by

developing more complete algorithms, expanding work to additional HVAC

components, and performing laboratory tests on actual equipment. A PNNL

laboratory specifically developed for physically testing self-correcting HVAC

controls and fault detection and diagnostics for air- handler and terminal box

faults was used for testing.

3.1.1Other fields

Most research and development in self-correcting controls (usually referred to in

the aircraft field as fault-tolerant control systems or FTCS) have been done in the

11
field of aircraft flight control with much less work completed in the areas of

naval/marine vessels, space systems, power plants, process control,

manufacturing, (land) vehicles, and other application areas (with the second most

published work being for naval applications). Work in self-repairing flight control

began in earnest in the late 1970s and early 1980s primarily to improve the ability

of aircraft to respond to physical faults or damage to physical flight control

surfaces (wings, elevators, ailerons, etc.) and actuators controlling those surfaces

to enable the aircraft to safely land while subject to these faults and failures

(Tomayko 2003, Steinberg 2005). The general approach has been to enable the

aircraft to continue to operate usually for a limited time until it can land, albeit

with degraded performance, despite the presence of faults. Work in this field has

focused primarily on development and testing of methods tied directly to

feedback control loops rather than supervisory level control decisions.

Furthermore, solutions have been developed primarily with an eye towards speed

of response, the need to ensure correct fault detection and isolation, and handling

of actuator saturation, among other problems.

In recent years (mid-1990s and later), much of the research in this field has

transitioned to use of intelligent flight control and techniques from the field of

artificial intelligence such as artificial neural networks and genetic algorithms.

Actual flight and simulator tests have shown the techniques to be useful and
12
successful in overcoming limited sets of faults. By the late 1990s, techniques

began to see limited application in aircraft for a small number of faults as a means

to improve aircraft safety. Still, practical considerations, such as how to certify

automatically- reconfigurable flight controls, remain obstacles to widespread

application to a broad range of potential faults on aircraft.

3.2 HVAC

Little research and development has been performed on self-correcting or

fault-tolerant controls for buildings and HVAC systems. As part of an effort to

develop a supervisory control system that adapts to degradation faults to minimize

energy consumption and degradation of occupant comfort, Xiong-Fu and Dexter

(1999, 2001) from Cambridge University used fuzzy models and optimization to

determine the most appropriate set points to meet their objectives. Computer

simulation was used for development and evaluation of the control scheme.

A team from Portugal and the UK (Silva et al. 2006) used the multiple-model

approach, one of the mathematical methods examined extensively in the FTCS

literature to improve the control of an HVAC system terminal unit in the presence

of faults. The responses to two faults were tested, both associated with partial

restriction of fan blade movement. The response in the presence of faults was better

than that of the standard PID (proportional integral derivative) controller and

13
showed little degradation of performance; however, the response was slow

compared to the PID controller and recuperation from the fault was initially slow.

The results were, however,encouraging. Four papers on fault-tolerant control have

been published by university teams in China (Wang and Chen 2002, Xiaoli et al.

2005, Jin and Du 2006, Du and Jin 2007). Wang and Chen (2002) examined a

supervisory control scheme that adapts to flow sensor measurement faults.

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) were trained on data for a range of normal

operating conditions. The models were then used to detect faults, using residuals

(differences) between the measurements from sensors and the values indicated by

the ANNs under similar conditions without the measurement faults present. The

values from the ANNs were then used in place of the faulty measurements in the

feedback control loop to regain control of the flow rate in the presence of the

sensor fault. Tests were performed using dynamic simulation models.

Xiaoli et al. (2005) used the statistical method of principle components analysis

(PCA) to model monitored HVAC systems using data from normal operating

conditions, to detect faulty or missing data in a data series collected over time,

and to replace faulty or missing data. By replacing the faulty or missing data in

the data stream to a controller, the approach enables the controller to operate

effectively in the presence of these data stream problems.

14
The team of Jin and Du (2006, 2007) used PCA, joint angle method, and fault

reconstruction schemes to maintain control of outdoor-air ventilation and air-

handler discharge-air temperature in variable-air-volume (VAV) systems in the

presence of sensor bias faults. System-level models were used to initially detect

faults. The faults were verified and isolated using two local- level models and

joint angle plots. A fault reconstruction scheme was then used to estimate the

magnitude of the bias faults, and corrections were then applied for the biases to

regain proper control. The method has been tested using simulation.

In Katipamula and Brambley (2007) and Katipamula et al. (2003b and c),

two of the authors of this report developed rules based on physical reasoning for

fault detection, isolation and characterization for selected faults in temperature

sensors, valves and dampers. By using these rules in conjunction with proactive

testing, which would be implemented for short periods of time through the

control system, the authors are able to isolate and characterize faults adequately

to implement simple mathematical corrective schemes that showed promise for

implementation as embedded code in control systems. One of the rule sets was

implemented in a simple interactive computer-based example. No physical

testing was completed as part of this initial examination of self-correcting

controls for HVAC components and systems.

15
The authors believe that approaches based on rules derived from engineering

knowledge are likely to represent the best approach for practical implementation

of self-correcting controls for HVAC systems in the near- and mid-term.

3.3 Overview of the Rest of the Report

The remainder of this report presents a summary of the algorithms developed in

Section 2, a description of the test apparatus in Section 3, identification of the

laboratory tests performed in Section 4, the test results in Section 5, the

conclusions in Section 6, and recommendations for follow-on work in Section 7.

3.3.1Algorithms Developed
The self-correction algorithms developed in this project are described in detail in

the companion document Self-Correcting HVAC Controls: Algorithms for

Sensors and Dampers in Air-Handling Units (Fernandez et al. 2009). The

algorithms address faults for temperature sensors, humidity sensors, and dampers

in air handling units, including their use for economizing. The algorithms are

presented as a highly integrated set of flow charts and include processes for:

 fault detection
 fault isolation
 fault characterization, and
 fault correction.
All four processes are required to perform fault correction. In the first process,

16
fault detection, the occurrence of a fault in the monitored system is detected. The

specific fault may not be identified but the presence of some fault is detected via

changes in the behavior of the system compared to normal operation, indicating

that a fault of some kind is present. Fault detection is initially performed using

passive observation.

The second process, fault isolation (sometimes called fault diagnosis),

identifies (i.e., isolates) the specific fault that has occurred. This is accomplished

using proactive tests, during which automatic control is suspended and the

component or system is forced into limiting conditions (e.g., a fully open damper

position).

The fault then must be characterized before it can be corrected. This may include

determining that magnitude of the fault, its sign, whether it is constant, growing

or decreasing with time, the rate of growth of the fault severity, whether the fault

oscillates or is intermittent, and other characteristics necessary to sufficiently

characterized the fault behavior that a compensating function can be developed

and applied for correction. Fault characterization is performed using additional

proactive tests and sometimes collection of data for many sampling periods in

order to capture temporal variation of the fault, if present.

The final process is development of the compensating function (e.g., for a biased

17
sensor, the simple subtraction of the bias [of correct magnitude and sign] from

the sensor signal or indicated measured quantity in engineering units). These

processes are sufficiently complex and intertwined that clear separation of them

into separate flow charts is not entirely possible; therefore, some flow charts

contribute to more than one of these processes and address faults with more than

one type of physical component (e.g., temperature sensor and damper faults), or

involve both passive fault detection and proactive fault detection/isolation.

The algorithms developed detect and correct the soft faults and detect and report

hard faults listed below:

Temperature Sensor Faults

Biased mixed-air (MA) sensor, soft Biased outdoor-air (RA) sensor, soft Biased

return-air (RA) sensor, soft Erratic mixed-air sensor, hard Erratic outdoor-air sensor,

hard Erratic return-air sensor, hard

Damper Faults

Outdoor-air damper minimum occupied position is too open, but damper is fully

modulating, soft Dampers hunt, soft

Damper stuck fully open, completely closed or between fully open an

completely closed, hard Outdoor-air damper does not modulate to fully open

(100% OA), hard Outdoor-air damper does not modulate to completely closed
18
(100% RA), hard

Relative Humidity (RH) Sensor Faults

Biased mixed-air RH sensor, soft Biased outdoor-air RH sensor,soft Biased return-

air RH sensor, soft Erratic mixed-air RH sensor, hard Erratic outdoor-air RH sensor,

hard Erratic return-air RH sensor, hard

System Level Fault

Automatic control overridden too long, soft

3.4 Test Apparatus

The self-correcting control (SCC) algorithms were tested on an actual

physical syste3m in the PNNL Building Diagnostics Laboratory. This section

describes the apparatus used for these tests.

3.4.1 Physical Description

The apparatus consists of three interconnected systems, a commercial air

handler, an air- cooled chiller, which provides chilled water to the cooling coil

of the air handler, and a control system. A diagram of the test apparatus is

shown in Figure 1.

Downstream of the OA chilled-water coil is a Johnson Controls HE-6703

Relative Humidity sensor1, with an accuracy of +/- 3% RH, and a pencil-probe

temperature sensor with an accuracy of +/- 2°F. These two sensors measure the
19
actual temperature and relative humidity of the pre-conditioned outdoor-air

stream. An opposing-blade outdoor-air damper is located downstream of these

two sensors. This damper and the mixed-air damper control the relative

proportion of outdoor air and return air entering the mixing box.

The temperature of the return-air stream is measured using a sensor identical to

that used for the outdoor-air stream. A Johnson Controls HE-67N2-0N00P

sensor2 with an accuracy of +/- 2% RH, mounted on a wall of the room near the

air-handler is used to measure the return-air relative humidity.

20
Fig 0.1

In the air handler, outdoor air brought in through the outdoor-air duct is mixed

with air returning from the conditioned space through a parallel-blade return-air

damper. Upon entering the duct, the outdoor air passes through a filter and an

outdoor-air chilled-water coil. The OA chilled- water coil, which is not present in

actual air-handling units used in buildings, provides the capability to control the

temperature of the“outdoor-air” that enters the air-handler mixing boxa desired

21
temperature before it is mixed with return air. As a result, for purposes of testing,

the temperature and humidity of this pre-conditioned outdoor air represent the

entering outdoor-air conditions for the air-handler. Although not implemented

prior to performing tests for this project, the ability to also pre-condition the

outdoor air to a desired temperature by heating will be added in the future,

enabling tests corresponding to spring, fall and even summer conditions to be run

during cold winter days. Because the capability to pre-heat the raw outdoor air

was not installed prior to tests for this project, the tests were subject to the

naturally occurring outdoor-air conditions, limiting the range of conditions during

testing somewhat.

Downstream of the OA chilled-water coil is a Johnson Controls HE-6703

Relative Humidity sensor1, with an accuracy of +/- 3% RH, and a pencil-probe

temperature sensor with an accuracy of +/- 2°F. These two sensors measure the

actual temperature and relative humidity of the pre-conditioned outdoor-air

stream. An opposing-blade outdoor-air damper is located downstream of these

two sensors. This damper and the mixed-air damper control the relative

proportion of outdoor air and return air entering the mixing box.

The temperature of the return-air stream is measured using a sensor identical to

that used for the outdoor-air stream. A Johnson Controls HE-67N2-0N00P

22
sensor2 with an accuracy of +/- 2% RH, mounted on a wall of the room near the

air-handler is used to measure the return-air relative humidity.

Temperature and relative humidity sensors are located 2 feet downstream of the

return-air damper in the mixing box. The temperature sensor is an averaging

sensor with an accuracy of +/- 0.34°F. The averaging sensor combines the

measurements of several thermocouples that are located a cable that is mounted

to snake back and forth across the mixing box. This helps account for spatial

temperature variations that may exist in the mixed-air stream.

The cooling coil of the air handling unit is located downstream of the mixing box.

This coil is used to cool the mixed-air stream to the desired discharge-air

temperature for air-conditioning the spaces served by the air-handler. The supply

fan is located downstream of the cooling coil and is controlled by a variable

frequency drive (VFD). Sensors for measuring the temperature and relative

humidity of the discharge air are located downstream of the supply fan.

For purposes of imposing a cooling load on the air-handling unit greater than

might naturally occur in this laboratory, three banks of electric resistance duct

heaters are located further downstream. Another probe-type temperature sensor

and a differential pressure sensor for are located downstream of the duct heaters.

The air discharged from the unit is distributed to four variable-air-volume (VAV)

23
boxes, two located in the same room as the air handler and two in an adjacent

room. The VAV boxes were not used in the tests for this project.

Chilled water for cooling is supplied by a 13-ton air-cooled chiller located

outdoors. Cold water from the chiller is pumped to a insulated storage tank (of

approximately 100 gallon volume).

The chiller is oversized relative to the air handling unit. To prevent rapid cycling

of the chiller, chilled water is pumped from the chiller to the storage tank. The

chiller maintains the temperature in the water tank based on feedback from the

control system which uses measurements from temperature sensors in the chilled-

water loop. Chilled water is then drawn from the tank to supply the cooling coil

and the outdoor-air pre-cooling coil, when it is used. The two coils are piped in

parallel so that the flow rates through the two coils can be controlled

independently.

The control system consists of a programmable logic controller (PLC), a building

automation server (BAS), an OPC (Object Linking and Embedding [OLE] for

Process Control) server, a human machine interface (HMI), and a database server

as shown in Figure 2. The PLC collects data, including temperature and humidity

sensor signals and damper position signals, and controls the damper position,

chiller and supply fan. The inputs are collected from two input/output data

24
acquisition modules. The BAS, also referred to as the network automation engine

(NAE), is a web-enabled network controller that communicates using information

technology (IT) and Internet languages. The BAS acts as a bridge between the

PLC and user interface/database and allows a fine level of control. All high level

programming is written in the BAS. Programs in the BAS can be manipulated or

viewed by a user logged into the server.

The BAS is connected to the OPC server, which acts as a gateway to an HMI and

a computer server. The OPC server is a software application that acts as an

application programming interface or protocol converter. It translates the data

into an industry standard format. The HMI is implemented in FPMI (Factory

FPMI

Plant Management Interface). FPMI is a web-based front-end to the OPC server

and Structured Query Language (SQL) database. Using the FPMI client

interface, users can monitor live data, specify the control variables and sensor

paths, and initiate tests of diagnostics and correction algorithms. The test data

25
and control variables are stored using a database server.

3.5 Logical Description

The test apparatus was maintained during testing, ensuring that all sensors

were calibrated and operating properly, and both of the dampers were modulating

through their full range of operation. Faults were simulated through a set of

virtual sensor and control points (compare Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5). For a

simple single-input single output controller, the signal produced by a sensor

measuring a property or characteristic of the controlled system is fed to the

controller, which produces an output actuator signal, using a control algorithm.

The control algorithm is a procedure that relates values of the input variable (in

this case, the sensor signal) to the output (in this case, the actuator signal). The

actuator responds to receiving the actuator signal by instigating an action, e.g.,

moving a damper or valve, changing an electrical resistance, etc.

Fig 0.2
In Figure 0.2, a virtual sensor has been added in which corrections to sensor

faults can be implemented given that the proper corrective action has been

identified (for simplicity the process for determination of the corrective action is
26
not shown inthis figure). The virtual sensor

Fig 0.3

uses a correction algorithm to convert a faulty sensor signal, when a fault exists,

to the correct value that the sensor should have output under the conditions at

the time of the measurement. This corrected virtual sensor value, xv(x), is a

unique function of the specific fault that has occurred in the sensor and the value

of the sensor output (x).

Figure 0.3 shows the approach used in the test apparatus to implement faults

using software and to correct faults. Two virtual sensors are used. Virtual Sensor

1 is used for implementing sensor faults by converting a correct sensor signal (x)

to a faulty sensor signal (xV1) using a mathematical function that creates the

desired sensor fault. For example, a positively biased sensor output would be

created by the function xV1 = x + b, where b is the magnitude of the bias. This

function could be used to make Virtual Sensor 1 behave like a sensor with an

output that is always 10 °F too high. If the faulty value of x V1 were input to the
27
controller, the controller would then output an incorrect value for the actuator

signal, resulting in the actuator causing the wrong action for the actual current

conditions. The faults implementable with this scheme are not limited to bias

faults. Any fault for which a mathematical function can be specified can be

implemented in Virtual Sensor 1 to create a faulty sensor output. This includes

faults that increase with time at various rates, oscillating faults, and intermittent

faults.

Virtual Sensor 2 is introduced (as was the virtual sensor in Figure 4) to correct

the faulty output of Virtual Sensor 1 (xV1). Algorithms for the self correction

process automatically detect that a fault has occurred, isolate it to a specific

sensor, characterize it, and then implement a function that corrects the fault to

produce a correct sensor value xV2.

In the actual situation (Figure 4), only one virtual sensor would be used, this to

correct for faults in the actual physical sensor when then occur. In that case,

when xV is input into the controller, the correct value of the actuator signal is

produced and the actuated device responds correctly, even though the output of

the physical sensor (x) is faulty. Figure 6 shows the process when implemented

in practice, including the components that perform fault detection, fault isolation,

fault characterization, and formulation of the fault correction. These processes

28
are executed sequentially, so faults are not corrected immediately using this

approach. The time from fault detection to fault correct may take minutes or even

hours, but this is acceptable for most HVAC system faults, whereas it would not

be for some safety critical systems; however, this sort of difference (as well as

others) distinguishes HVAC requirements from other

MOISTURE AND INDOOR AIR QUALITY

Relative humidity levels have a significant impact on a variety of IAQ issues

29
3.6 VENTILATION – THE “V” IN HVAC
HVAC is not just heating & cooling

Fig 0.4.1

• Spot ventilation is used

primarily to remove

moisture & pollutants at

the source

• Whole house

ventilation is used to

ensure occupants have

fresh air provided in a

controlled manner

• Air exchanges through

leaks are irregular,

ineffective, inefficient,

and unhealthy

Fig 0.4.2
30
VENTILATION
• Mechanical ventilation is required by code if the tightness of the home is <5

ACH50

• Ventilation should be sized to comply with table in code

Tab 0.1

TYPES OF WHOLE HOUSE VENTILATION

There are variety of whole house ventilation strategies;

o Exhaust only

o Supply only

31
o Balanced

HVAC system basics

Basic

controls that

save energy

Outside air

economizers

Fan energy limits

Complex systems:

Central plant

Secondary HVAC systems

High energy

impact

complex

controls

Hydronic

system

controls

Air-conditioning for thermal and humidity comfort

Heating Cooling
32
Dehumidification Humidification

Two general types of air conditioning (cooling)

Refrigerant-based: refrigeration cycle moves heat from one space

(indoors) to another (outdoors)

Refrigerant evaporates and condenses continuously within cycle

Refrigerant has a low boiling point, making it ideal for HVAC

systems Similar to car AC system

Non-refrigerant: evaporative cooling

Simple vs. Complex (no longer a code distinction in 2015 IECC)

Simple systems often use direct expansion coils or heat

33
Two types Mechanical ventilation Fans pull outside air into building for ventilation
Ventilation includes both outside air and recirculated air
Requirements are available for minimum outside air, based on occupancy, floor

area and number of occupants (See the International Mechanical Code (IMC)

Natural ventilation
No fans

Fig .0.5
Package Units
Thru-wall air conditioner

Package Terminal Air Conditioner(PTAC)

Package terminal heat pump (PTHP)

Packaged Unit (DX cooling) Outside Air Ventilation

34

Air DX (Direct
(Outside Air) Mixed Supply
Ventilation OA Air Fan
Damper

Inside

Fig 0.6

SA
(Supply Air)
RA or DA
Unit System Board (Return Room (Discharge
Air) Air)
3.7 Refrigeration cycle Thermostat

35
Fig 0.7

Evaporator cooling coil ‘ heats’ refrigerant and cools air , refrigerant changes back to

gas . adds thermal energy to system , Power ; compressor, condenser fan, furnace

blower, furnace in heating mode .

3.8 HVAC – Economizers “Free Cooling”

Quantity of OSA: Meet Minimum Ventilation Requirement Economizer Function:

Flush out building heat with cool outside air

Fig 0.8.1

Fig 0.8.2

36
Packaged Unit (DX cooling) Outside Air Ventilation

Fig 0.8.3

AIR DX(DIRECT
FILTERS EXPANSION)
Mini OAMin F COOLING
OA (Outside Mixed CELL (Direct Supply
Air) Air Expansion) FAN Fan
OA
Ventilation Cooling Coil
Damper

37

RA
return
Unit Room
(Return
Thermostat
Outside

CHAPTER-4

4.0 HVAC PROCESSES

Categories of HVAC systems:

Central Plant

Boilers, chillers, cooling towers A few pieces of large equipment

Distribution Systems

Pumps

Pipe and control valves Ductwork, diffusers and registers

Selected based on:

Space temperature and humidity requirements First cost, operating cost, and

maintenance cost Spatial constraints

Redundancy

Fig 0.9 Chiller

38
4.1 Heating and Cooling
Heating
Typical fuels are electricity and natural

gas Efficiency matters:

Electricity is 100% efficient

E.g., 1,000 W hair dryer heats the room by 1,000 W

But what’s the source efficiency? Coal-fired power plants are typically only
35% efficient

A heat pump is much more efficient than resistance heat; typically :

@ 47F: 330% or COP = 3.3 / 17F: 225% or COP = 2.25 / HSPF = 6.8

Natural gas typically is 80% efficient

E.g., 100,000 Btu/h gas input to a furnace may yield 80,000 Btu/h of heating A

condensing boiler or furnace has higher efficiency; exceeding 90%

Cooling

Central chiller

Water cooled or air cooled

Water cooled requires cooling tower or heat rejection

Things to Check in the Energy Code

39
Tab 0.2

Complex system; secondary HVAC system

40
Fig 0.10

4.2 Using the Test Apparatus to perform SCC tests

The test apparatus is generally run continuously with the outdoor-air damper at the

minimum occupied position. This is the outdoor-air damper position that provides

the minimum amount of outdoor air required to meet the ventilation needs of

building occupants. Air handlers generally operate at this damper position while

buildings are occupied except when economizing. The minimum occupied position

does not correspond to the outdoor damper being fully closed, because outdoor-air
41
ventilation must be provided for building occupants; however, when a building is

not occupied, the outdoor-air damper should be fully closed to minimize energy

consumption for space conditioning.

Continuous operation of the laboratory air handler entails running the supply fan

continuously while sending the damper system a voltage signal that corresponds to

the minimum occupied position. The damper control signal ranges from 0 volts for a

completely closed outdoor-air damper (and fully open return-air damper) and 10

volts for the outdoor-air damper fully open (and return-air damper completely

closed). Within the SCC software code, the damper positioning signal is normalized

to a range of 0 to 100, corresponding to the outdoor air damper positioned from

completely closed (0-volt signal) to fully open (10-volt signal), to provide an more

intuitive indicator of the outdoor-air damper position (0% to 100% open).

For commercial buildings, a key step in commissioning an air-handling unit is to

determine the minimum occupied damper position signal. Frequently, the

assumption is made during installation and setup that the outdoor-air damper

position is directly proportional to the damper positioning signal so, for example,

if an outdoor-air ventilation rate of 20% of the maximum ventilation rate with the

outdoor-air damper fully open is desired, then the damper signal is set to 20% of

maximum (or 2 volts for a signal range of 0 to 10 volts). Actual damper response,

however, if non-linear and this approach leads to incorrect damper positioning for
42
the minimum occupied ventilation rate. As a result, detection and correction of this

type of damper positioning error is very important.

To understand the actual behavior of the damper system in the laboratory air

handler, a response curve was empirically developed for the system. This curve

can be used to determine the signal required to provide the desired minimum

occupied position. Because airflow sensors are generally not installed in air-

handling units because they are somewhat complex and relatively expensive, we

use the outdoor-air fraction (OAF) as the next best indicator of the amount of

outdoor air entering the system. The OAF can be readily calculated from the

temperatures of the outdoor-, return- and mixed-air, using the relation

43
and then back from 100 to 0 in steps of 10. The resulting relationship

between the OAF and damper position signal is shown in Figure

100%

90% Modulating 0‐100 Modulating 100‐0 Overall Average Inferred Relationship

80%

70%

60%

50%
OAF

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

0 20 40 60 80 100

Damper Signal

Two important characteristics are evident for this particular system. First,

the outdoor-air and return-air dampers do not physically respond to changes

in the damper signal in the range of 0 to 20. The outdoor-air damper

remains in its fully closed position for this range of signals, and the return-

air damper remains in its fully open position. Second, when one damper is

fully open, there is about 10% leakage through the other damper. This has

some important consequences for the fault detection, diagnosis, and

correction processes, which are discussed in Section 5 of this report.

Between a damper signal of 20 and 100, the OAF appears approximately

44
increase linearly from 10% to a maximum of 90%. In general, for testing

purposes, the damper signal at minimum occupied position was set to 35,

corresponding to an OAF of about 30%.

The SCC code is configured for the passive diagnostics algorithms

run every 5 minutes, whenever a test is initiated, using all of the virtual

sensor points to determine if a fault is present. At the beginning of each

test, the “corrected bias’’ component of the virtual sensor is set to zero,

and “instigated bias” is set to the value selected for the specific test. To

simplify testing, the system was always run in minimum occupied position

as a default. This is different from the operation during economizing for

which the dampers would modulate to achieve the levels of outdoor air

necessary to provide the desired level of free cooling (when outdoor

conditions are appropriate for economizing). During the tests, the return-

air temperature was set to 70 F by maintaining the room at this

temperature. The duct heaters in the system (see Figure 1) cycled on and

off automatically to maintain the room temperature at approximately 70

F. At times, the room-air temperature oscillated about this set point. All

tests were performed in late autumn, when the outdoor-air temperature

was less than the return-air temperature. Because no pre-heater was yet

installed in the outdoor-air duct, the outdoor-air temperature was left

uncontrolled for the duration of testing.

45
4.3 Testing
Being the first tests of self-correction for air handling, testing for this

project focused on investigating automatic correction of soft faults in the

air handler. The goal of the testing was two-fold. The first goal is to

determine how effectively the proposed rule-based algorithms detect,

diagnose, and correct faults under actual driving conditions. A failure of

the algorithms to do so could be caused by a previously unforeseen

problem in the formulation of the algorithms or natural limitations of the

algorithms in detecting faults under certain driving conditions. The second

goal is to determine the sensitivity of the fault detection and correction

processes to the specified tolerances for measured variables, which have an

influence on the ability to detect when a fault condition exists (see section

2.5 of Fernandez et al. (2009) for a description of the role of tolerances in

fault detection, diagnosis and correction). When the tolerances are

decreased, the minimum fault severity at which detection is possible

decreases for a specific fault, but the likelihood that the algorithms will

reach an incorrect conclusion also increases. Two types of incorrect

conclusions can occur, detection of a fault when none exists (a false

positive) and the wrong component is identified as faulty and

automatically “corrected.” A third type of error can also occur, not

detecting a fault when one is present (a false negative), but this generally

has much less significant consequences, than the other two types of faults,

46
and occurs whenever conditions (e.g., the fault severity) are below the

limits of detection of the algorithms.

The tests performed included detection, diagnosis, and correction of two

basic types of air- handler sensor faults, biases in temperature sensors and

relative-humidity sensors plus one type of damper fault, an incorrectly set

damper signal for the minimum occupied position. A list of all tests

performed is shown in Table 1. For each test, the table provides the type of

fault, the specific component that the fault is applied to, the severity of the

fault, and the tolerances set for temperature and relative humidity

measurements. The tolerances in the table are for individual sensors, and

are applied identically for all sensors of the same kind.

Test # Fault Type Component Severity Temperature/RH

Tolerances

T-1 Temperature Return-Air Sensor -3°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-2 Temperature Return-Air Sensor -3°F 1°F/3%

Sensor

T-3 Temperature Return-Air Sensor +3°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-4 Temperature Return-Air Sensor +5°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

47
T-5 Temperature Return-Air Sensor +5°F 2°F/3%
Sensor

T-6 Temperature Return-Air Sensor -8°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-7 Temperature Return-Air Sensor +8°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-8 Temperature Outdoor-Air Sensor +8°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-9 Temperature Outdoor-Air Sensor -8°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

T-10 Temperature Mixed-Air Sensor +8°F 2°F/3%

Sensor

RH-1 RH Sensor Mixed-Air Sensor -10% 2°F/3%

RH-2 RH Sensor Mixed-Air Sensor -20% 2°F/3%

RH-3 RH Sensor Mixed-Air Sensor -30% 2°F/3%

MOP-1 Damper Signal at N/A Damper Signal 2°F/3%

Minimum Occupied at M.O.P.3 = 50,
Position Incorrectly Expected OAF =
Set 30%

MOP-2 Damper Signal at N/A Damper Signal 2°F/3%

Minimum Occupied at M.O.P. = 20,
Position Incorrectly Expected OAF =
Set 30%

MOP-3 Damper Signal at N/A Damper Signal 3°F/3%

Minimum Occupied at M.O.P. = 20,
Position Incorrectly Expected OAF =
Set 30%

MOP-4 Damper Signal at N/A Damper Signal 3°F/3%

Minimum Occupied at M.O.P. = 65,
Position Incorrectly Expected OAF =
Set 30%

48
4.4 Test Results
In this section, results from the tests described in Section 4 are presented,

organized by fault type.

Sensor and Outdoor Air Return Air Passive Proactive Fault

Test #
Severity Temperature Temperature Detction Diagnostics Correction

Baseline None 39‐47°F 60‐79°F None None None

T‐1 TRA, ‐3°F 35‐45°F 70‐75°F

T‐2a TRA, ‐3°F 53‐58°F 68‐75°F M.O.P TMA +2.3°F, MA

T‐2b TRA, ‐3°F 53‐57°F 66‐77°F M.O.P TRA ‐2.3°F, RA

T‐3 TRA, +3°F 50‐60°F 60‐80°F

T‐4 TRA, +5°F 45‐50°F 75‐80°F

T‐5a TRA, ‐5°F 53‐57°F 70‐72°F M.O.P TRA ‐4.2°F, RA

T‐5b TRA, ‐5°F 49‐51°F 70‐75°F M.O.P TMA +3.8°F, MA

T‐6 TRA, ‐8°F 53‐59°F 67‐77°F Temp TRA ‐7.5°F, RA

T‐7 TRA, +8°F 49‐51°F 64‐66°F M.O.P TRA +9.0°F, RA

T‐8a TOA, +8°F 56‐58°F 70‐74°F

T‐8b TOA, +8°F 45‐53°F 70‐75°F

T‐9 TOA, ‐8°F 56‐58°F 70‐72°F

T‐10 TMA, +8°F 48‐53°F 70‐74°F M.O.P TMA +6.6°F, MA

Tab 0.3

49
CHAPTER-5

WORKING PRINCIPLE
This document represents the final project report for the Self-Correcting

Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Controls Project jointly

funded by Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) and the U.S.

Department of Energy (DOE) Building Technologies Program (BTP). The

project, initiated in October 2008, focused on exploratory initial

development of self-correcting controls for selected HVAC components in

air handlers. The report, along with the companion report documenting the

algorithms developed.

The objective of the project was to develop and laboratory test

algorithms that implement self- correction capabilities for sensors,

economizer dampers, and damper actuators in building air- handling

systems. Satisfaction of this objective led to 1) algorithms ready for

implementation in or connected to building and equipment control systems

for field demonstration and commercial application and 2) underlying

methods that may be transferable to creating self- correcting capabilities

for other heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system

components. Full-scale commercial deployment of this technology will

capture significant energy savings by automatically eliminating many of

the faults that degrade the efficiency of HVAC systems, thus maintaining

energy efficiency well above the efficiency at which these systems

50
routinely operate. Furthermore, to the extent that HVAC electricity use and

system peaking are coincident (e.g., in the summer), peak demand will also

be reduced by deployment of this technology.

Algorithms were developed for detecting, isolating, characterizing and

correcting the following specific faults:

 biases in temperature and relative-humidity sensors in outdoor-,

return- and mixed-air streams,

 an incorrectly set signal to position the outdoor-air damper of an air

handler to meet the minimum ventilation requirements of the

building while it is occupied,

 hunting (continuously oscillating) dampers, and

 controllers left in a state of manual control override that should

be in an automatic control mode.

Laboratory tests for biased temperature and humidity sensors and

incorrectly set values of the minimum occupied outdoor-air damper

position signal showed that automatic self-correction of these faults can be

successfully performed; however, under some conditions passive detection

of the presence of a fault may not be possible, and the fault isolation

process may reach an incorrect conclusion under some circumstances.

51
CHAPTER-6

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

Very energy efficient because all the components in an optimize way.

Takes less space to install as it is set up on your roof. most of the homes

in the city don’t have space in the backyard.

Installing the RTU HAVC unit for your home is that it is very easy to

install.

As all the components of the HVAC system are in one place.it is very

much easy for the professional HVAC technician to diagnose the problem

and fix it .

DISADVANTAGES

RTU HVAC system is installed in rooftop, thus they are exposed to

heat ,bad weather, rain , snow , etc..

Only applicable to small buildings , if your building is multistoried ,

you cannot use the RTU unit for your building.

They are also vulnerable to animals like cats and birds .

As they are installed in the rooftop of your building , and because of

52
that, you don’t get to see the HVAC system often, as a result

CHAPTER-7

APPLICATIONS

 Additional lab testing to better understand and quantify behavior (e.g.,

limits of detectability and correction).

 Field testing to demonstrate HVAC viability to stakeholders and to

identify additional field deployment issues that are difficult to identify

except with field tests.

 Integration of HVAC with package unit controllers for retrofits of

existing units and into packaged unit controllers for new equipment.

This should be explored with package unit manufacturers.

 Integration of HVAC into device controllers and/or field panels.

 Development of self-correction to other HVAC equipment, systems and

integrated whole-building control.

53
CHAPTER-8

CONCLUSION
The tests performed have provided important validation that the rule-based

algorithms developed for self-correcting controls for building air handlers

are a viable solution, capable of detecting, diagnosing and correcting real

faults. In the set of tests performed, a variety of temperature sensor faults

were accurately detected, diagnosed, and corrected to within an accuracy of

around 1°F (which should improve further with some of the recommended

follow-on work). Relative humidity sensor faults were detected, diagnosed,

and corrected to within 5-7% RH.

This set of tests has highlighted that the performance of rule-based

automated fault detection and diagnosis (AFDD) is highly dependent both

on the driving conditions and on the type of fault that exists. While certain

faults are not readily detectible given certain outdoor- and return-air

temperatures, this shortcoming simply implies time may be required for

appropriate conditions to occur for faults to be detected. If a fault is not

detectable under outdoor temperatures less than 70°F, for example, this may

just require that the system wait until the outdoor-air temperature falls

within that range. In many cases, the fault may not have a significant impact

on energy use or the performance of the air handler until such conditions

54
occur. This, however requires further analysis.

The threshold for detecting temperature sensor bias faults with 2°F

tolerances currently appears to be around 3 to 5°F for mixed-air sensors, 4

to 6°F for return-air sensors, and 8 to 15°F for outdoor-air sensors, when

the outdoor-air damper is at minimum occupied position, with the exact

value depending on the outdoor-air temperature. Minimum thresholds for

detecting RH sensor faults appear to be in the 10% to 20% bias range, but

the exact threshold is also likely strongly dependent on the specific air

stream being measured and the outdoor and return-air conditions.

Critical to the implementation of self-correcting controls is the assurance

that the algorithms will not detect, diagnose and correct a fault that does

not exist (false positives), nor diagnose and correct the wrong fault

(incorrect fault isolation or diagnosis). Such errors by self-correcting

controls could cause more harm than good. At the current stage of

development, more work is necessary to ensure that faults are diagnosed

correctly and corrected accurately with a preference toward avoiding false

positive fault detection.

55