ESCS LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE GEOTECHNICAL FILL

Jody Wall, P.E

Reid Castrodale, PhD, P.E.
Carolina Stalite Company

North Carolina Department of Transportation GEO3T2 Conference

Cary, North Carolina

Lightweight aggregate fill has gained popularity over the past ten years in
transportation markets. The increase in popularity stems from the benefits
related to performance and ease of use of lightweight aggregate fill. The
applications that lightweight fill has been used in includes slope stabilization,
subgrade improvement, thermal insulation, fill behind bulkheads and retaining
walls, and fill over poor soils and marshlands.

Lightweight aggregate fill has many performance benefits, which makes it a cost
effective solution to many problems. The unit weight of the aggregate is half that
of normal weight aggregates. It is very durable, chemically inert, free draining,
acid insoluable, pH neutral and has a high internal angle of friction.

With all the benefits of lightweight aggregate fill, it appears that the primary factor
in the increase in popularity is how easy lightweight aggregate fill is to use.
Lightweight aggregate fill can be placed without the use of any special job site
equipment and is readily available in most areas. It does not require forms,
protection prior to placement or leachate control measures. Most importantly it
does not require a specialty contractor to perform the work. The general
contractor can remain in control of the construction schedule and does not have
to pay mobilization charges on start-up, when switching from area to area and
after long delays.

It is easy for contractors because lightweight aggregate fill is open graded coarse
aggregate that weighs less than normal weight stone. It acts like normal weight
open graded coarse aggregate and it is compacted and tested in the same
manner. It really is just rock that weighs less.

Some of the advantages of lightweight aggregate fill are:

• Reduced In-Place Density (55 to 60 pcf compacted)

• High Internal Stability/Shear Strength (40° to 46° )
• High Permeability/Controlled Grading (2.4 cm/sec)
• High Thermal Resistance (~1.3 BTU/hr ft2 °F/in)4
• Reduced Dead Weight, Lateral Forces and Overturning Moments
The in-place density of lightweight aggregate fill ranges from 50 to 60 pcf
depending on the material and compaction effort. The aggregate is typically
tested using ASTM D4253 and D4254 to determine its relative density. The in-
place density is typically specified as 65% relative density as outlined in these
ASTMs. The minimum index density test (ASTM D4254) is used to determine
the minimum index dry density of oven-dried cohesionless, free-draining soils
that contain up to 15%, by dry mass, of particles passing a #200 sieve. There
are three acceptable methods, but only the most common, Method A, is shown
here:
The sample is placed in either a 0.100 or 0.500 cf mold using a funnel or a hand
scoop to place material in the mold. If a funnel is used, its height above the
material should be adjusted continuously to maintain a soil free fall of ~ 0.5 inch.
This test method is applicable to soils in which 100% of soil particles pass a 3
inch sieve and up to 30% by dry mass are retained on a 1.5 inch sieve.

Dry Compacted Density – ASTM D 4253 or “Maximum Index Density”

This method is used to determine the maximum-index dry density of
cohesionless, free-draining soils that contain up to 15%, by dry mass, of particles
passing a #200 sieve and 100% passing a 3-in. sieve. This method requires that
oven-dried soil be placed in a mold of known volume and compacted by a 2 psi
force. The mold is then vibrated at a specified frequency and for a specified time
using an electromagnetic or eccentric/cam-driven vertically vibrating table.

The minimum relative density, D , is calculated using the following equation:

d

γ d max ( γ d − γ d min )
D d (%) = x 100
where: γ d ( γ d max − γ d min )
γ = maximum index density as determined by ASTM D 4253
d max
γ = minimum index density as determined by ASTM D 4254
d min
γ = measured in-place density
d

As with all open graded coarse aggregates, field measurement of density is a

little harder to measure than it is with soils. Open graded coarse aggregate is
often thought of as self-compacting, this is not really the case. All open graded
coarse aggregates, lightweight included require some level of compaction to give
the maximum stability and minimize settlement of the aggregate. The aim is to
not compact lightweight aggregate to a maximum in-place density but to compact
the material to the optimum density to achieve a high stability while avoiding
increasing the in-place density due to aggregate breakage. Since lightweight
aggregate fill is not soil, the typical density tests used on soil and ABC stone do
not work very well. The in-place material has been tested by nuclear density
gauge, volumetric (balloon) method, the ring/sleeve test and various other hybrid
tests. All of the test methods are susceptible to error and interpretation of the
results by a qualified engineer is required.
The method for density control most often used is a combination of prescriptive
compaction requirements and a modified ASTM D698 test developed by the
Expanded Shale Clay and Slate Institute (ESCSI). In the modified D698 the
lightweight aggregate is placed in a 0.5 cf bucket in three layers, with each layer
compacted by 25 blows of a 5.5 lb rammer dropped 12 inches. This modified
D698 test has been shown to give a good approximation of the in-place density
of lightweight aggregate fill compacted using typical prescriptive requirements.

The typical prescriptive construction recommendations are to place the material

in approximately uniform horizontal layers and avoid operating construction
equipment other than compaction equipment on exposed lightweight aggregate.
The thickness of the layers should not exceed 12 inches loose thickness when
using a vibratory roller. The vibratory roller should weight no more than 12 ton
static weight and should make a minimum of two passes in the area to be
compacted. In areas where access does not allow the use of vibratory rollers
and portable vibratory plate compactors must be used it is recommended that the
maximum lift thickness be 6 inches and minimum of 2 passes be made across
the area. A pass is considered to be vibration of the area covered by the
vibratory plate compactor for at least 10 seconds before moving to an adjacent
location.

The physical properties other than unit weight that make lightweight aggregate fill
suitable for use in geotechnical applications are:
• High internal angle of friction • High permeability
• Low soundness loss • Controlled Gradation
• pH Neutral • Acid Insoluable
• Low LA Abrasion loss • High Resistivity
• Low chlorides • Low Sulfates

Lightweight aggregates provide an essentially cohesionless, granular fill that

develops stability from inter-particle friction. Extensive testing on large 250 x 600
mm (10 x 24 in. high) specimens has confirmed angles of internal friction of more
than 40 degrees1. Testing of expanded slate lightweight aggregate in triaixal
and direct shear shows angles of internal friction of 40 to 46 degrees. When
tested in direct shear in accordance with ASTM, the internal angle of friction is
between 42 and 44 degrees.
Soundness Test
The soundness loss of lightweight Test results from NCDOT Approved Coarse
aggregate fill is very similar to that Aggregate list - 3/8” results are shown
of other aggregates used in North
– Average all sources 0.91%
Carolina. In the chart to the right
you can see that lightweight – Stalite - Gold Hill 0.90%
aggregate has the same or lower – Stalite - Aquadale 0.40%
soundness loss as the average of NCDOT requirements - Std Specs 1014-2 (B)
the quarries on the NCDOT – General requirement 15%
Approved Coarse Aggregate List. – for f’ c > 6 ksi 8%
– For LWA 10%
LA Abrasion Test
Lightweight aggregate also has a
relatively low Los Angeles Abrasion Test results from NCDOT Approved Coarse
loss value. It is slightly lower than the Aggregate list
average of the quarries on the – Average all sources 32.2%
NCDOT Approved Coarse Aggregate – Stalite - Gold Hill 32%
List. Some specifications call for an – Stalite - Aquadale 30%
amended Los Angeles abrasion test NCDOT requirements - Std Specs 1014-2 (D)
to be run on lightweight aggregate fill.
– General requirement 55%
The amended test reduces the
volume of lightweight aggregate in for f’ c > 6 ksi 40%
the abrasion machine to avoid
overcrowding during the test. The results of the amended test method can vary
depending on the aggregate, but for lightweight aggregate fill discussed in this
paper the values for the two test methods are essentially the same.

Expanded Slate lightweight aggregate with a gradation conforming to ASTM C-

330 AASHTO M-195 (¾” to #4) has a coefficient of permeability of greater than
2.4 cm/sec when tested in accordance with ASTM D 2434. This is typical of
normal weight clean gravel. The free draining nature of the lightweight aggregate
fill minimizes hydrostatic potential and allows exfiltration systems to work
effectively.

The pH, sulfates, chlorides and resistivity of lightweight fill meet the FHWA
requirements for MSE wall backfill. Below are the results of the testing recently
completed on the 11th Street Bridge Project.

Test FHWA Specification 11th St. Test Result

pH 5.0 – 10.0 8.3
Chlorides < 100 ppm < 1 ppm
Sulfates < 200 ppm 32.1 ppm
Resistivity >3,000 ohm-cm 35,209 ohm-cm
Organic Content 1% Maximum 0%

The other questions we often get about lightweight aggregate fill are related to
the aggregates compressibility and how it interacts with geotextiles. As far as
compressibility, in large-scale compressibility tests completed on lightweight
aggregate fills it was demonstrated that the curvature and slope of the LWA fill
stress-strain curves in confined compression were similar to those developed for
companion limestone samples2. These tests were completed at UNB by Tom
Holm and Alexander Valsangkar. Additional cyclic plate-bearing tests on LWA
fills indicated vertical subgrade reaction responses that were essentially similar
for the lightweight and normal weight aggregate samples tested3

The interaction between lightweight aggregate fills and geotextiles was tested by
Valsangkar and Holm5, the variables of differing aggregate types and densities,
thickness of aggregate layer, and geotextile types were used in their studies.
The results indicated that the overall roadbed stiffness is unaffected when LWA
is used instead of normal weight aggregate for small deflections and initial load
applications. These tests were followed by a large-scale test2, which reported
that the comparison of the friction angles between the LWA or the normal weight
aggregate and the geotextiles indicate that interface friction characteristics are, in
general, better for LWA than normal weight aggregates.

In summary, lightweight aggregate fills are cost effective, readily available and
easy to use. They provide proven performance and durability in a wide range of
geotechnical applications.

References:

1. Stoll, R.D., and T.A. Holm; Expanded Shale Lightweight Fill: Geotechnical Properties, Journal
of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 111, No. 8, Aug. 1985
2. Valsangkar, A.J., and T.A. Holm; Geotechnical Properties of Expanded Shale Lightweight
Aggregate, Geotechnical Testing Journal, ASTM, Vol. 13, No.1, March 1990, pp 10-15
3. Valsangkar, A.J., and T.A. Holm; Cyclic Plate Load Tests on Lightweight Aggregate Beds,
nd
Presented at the 72 Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C.,
Jan. 1993
4. Valore, R.C.; The Thermophysical Properties of Masonry and Its Constituents, International
Masonry Institute,Washington D.C., 1988
5. Valsangkar, A.J., and T.A. Holm; Model Tests on Peat-Geotextile-Lightweight Aggregate
System, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Elsevier Science Publishers, Ltd., England, 1987

The following pages contain brief summaries of projects that are in progress or
have been completed utilizing expanded shale, clay or slate lightweight
aggregate.
Tranters Creek Bridge Approach

Location: Washington, NC
Owner: North Carolina Department of
Transportation
Geotechnical Engineer: NCDOT Geotechnical
Unit / Mactec
Contractor: Atwell Construction

The project consisted of widening the existing

embankment, raising the elevation one foot and
lengthening the bridge 120 feet. The soils
consisted of roadway embankment fill underlain by
alluvial muck. The embankment fill was very
loose to loose, silty fine to coarse sand. The
alluvial muck was about 9 feet to 16 feet thick and
generally showed SPT values of 2 to 4 blows per foot.

The area from station 16+25 to 19+98 on

the west side of the bridge was undercut 2
feet and covered with an embankment
stabilization fabric and backfilled to
subgrade level with lightweight aggregate
fill. About 3600 cubic yards of lightweight
aggregate fill was used for the project.
11th Street Bridges Design-Build
Location: Washington, D.C.
Owner: District DOT
Designers: URS, HNTB Corp.
Geotechnical Engineer: JMT
Contractors: Skanska/Facchina JV

The $390 million 11th Street Bridge

Project is critical to improving travel
and achieving the larger vision of
the Anacostia Waterfront Initiative.
The project is replacing two bridges
built in the 1960s with three new
bridges that separate local and
freeway traffic.1

Winner of the Road and Bridge 2012 Bridge Project of the Year, the 11th Street
Bridge Design-Build Project in Washington DC is a great example of how
innovative ideas lead to advances in construction. One of the many innovative
things done on the project was the extensive use of lightweight aggregate fill to
speed the construction, reduce settlement under the roadway, protect historic
structures and 2800 cubic yards of lightweight aggregate concrete to reduce load
on the new bridge decks.

The project area contained storm water drainage outfall structures that were
constructed in the 1850’s. The historic structures had up to 20 feet of new fill
going on them. In order to minimize the new load placed on the structures
lightweight fill was placed over the structures and normal weight fill was used in
the areas not overtop of the structures. In the pictures below you can see two of
the areas where the lightweight aggregate fill was used separated by normal
weight fill in the non- load critical areas.

1) Press Announcement District Department of Transportation http://www.anacostiawaterfront.org/awi-

transportation-projects/11th-street-bridge/?utm_source=shorturl&utm_medium=shorturl&utm_campaign=shorturl
Lightweight aggregate was also used as backfill for MSE walls on the project.
The project specifications for lightweight aggregate included specific limits on pH,
chlorides, and resistivity along with the other requirements.

Test Specification Test Result

pH 7.0 – 9.0 8.3
Chlorides < 100 ppm < 1 ppm
Sulfates Not specified 32.1 ppm
Resistivity 30,000 – 40,000 ohm-cm 35,209 ohm-cm
LA Abrasion < 40 percent loss 27.2 percent loss

As shown in the picture below on the left, lightweight aggregate fill was used
under the roadway to minimize settlement and speed construction in some areas
on the south side of the project.

The specifications required the following testing to be performed on all the

lightweight aggregate for the project. “During the initial placement of the
lightweight aggregate fill, the density will be determined at the point of placement
by the contractor….The contractor shall determine the in-place moist density
(unit weight) of a given aggregate using the procedure as follows:
a) Lightweight aggregate producer shall submit documentation of a
compacted wet density of less than 65 lb/ft3 determined from a one point
proctor test conducted in accordance with a modified version of ASTM
D698 “Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction `Characteristics
of Soil Using Standard Effort”. Due to the cohesionless nature of coarse
lightweight aggregate, the standard shall be modified as follows: The
aggregate sample shall be placed in a 0.5 cubic foot bucket at the
moisture content that the aggregate is delivered to the jobsite. The
sample shall be placed in three equal layers with each layer compacted 25
times using a 5.5 pound rammer by dropping from a distance of 12 inches
(AASHTO T-99 modified as above)
b) Material shall be compacted to a minimum of 65% relative density in
accordance with ASTM D4253 and D4254. The maximum index density
and unit weight shall be determined using a vibratory table when tested in
accordance with ASTM D4253 and the minimum index density and unit
weight is determined when tested in accordance with D4254.”

The modified D698 proctor test is easy to run and was run on the materials
shipped to the project. The determination of the in-place compacted density
was harder due to the nature of coarse aggregate. Since most of the normal
in-place density tests do not work on normal weight or lightweight coarse
aggregate, test method were developed to determine the density from various
compaction efforts. Two different size steel boxes were placed in the fill area
and lightweight aggregate placed over the entire area and compacted. The
boxes were 1 cubic foot and 3 cubic feet in size, and three of each size box
was used in the testing. After the compaction the boxes were dug out of the
fill by hand and weighted. The results of the testing indicated that the in-place
density was lower than the project maximum density and greater than the
65% relative density required by the project specifications. The testing also
showed that the in-place testing generated compacted densities very similar
to the modified D698 proctor test.
Emergency Bridge Repair
Blackburn Road Over Neabsco Creek
Location: Woodbridge, VA
Owner: Virginia Department of Transportation
Designer: Parsons Binckerhoff
Geotechnical Engineer: Burgess and Niple
Contractor: Lane Construction of Chantilly, VA

The remnants of Tropical Storm LEE and other heavy

rain in late 2011 caused scour at the bridge abutments
which resulted in cracking and the subsequent failure
of one abutment. The Bridge was closed in January
2012 and Lane Construction of Chantilly VA completed
the repairs and the bridge reopened in August of 2012.
The Bridge abutments are on drilled shafts, as part of
the repair the new bridge has a deeper foundation and a larger waterway
opening which increased the load on the
drilled shafts. The designers decided to
use lightweight aggregate behind the
abutments to decrease the lateral earth
pressure on the abutment walls and hence
decrease the lateral loads on the drilled
shafts.

¾ inch lightweight aggregate was used on

the project for the repair. The lightweight
aggregate had an average damp loose unit
weight of about 50 pcf. The initial specification released by VDOT for the project
specified pumice or expanded clay with a ½ inch gradation. After discussions
with the DOT, designer and contractor the decision was made to allow the use of
expanded slate lightweight aggregate
having a ¾ inch gradation.

The specification required the use of a D6

LGP or lighter equipment to place the
aggregate. A D6 LGP typically weighs
between 18 and 20 tons. The specification
allowed the use of a “light” steel drum roller
with no amplitude to perform any additional
required compaction. The specifications
did not require a minimum in- place density
for the materials, but typically placing with
an 18 ton loader will compact the material to a density in excess of the 65%
relative density typically required in specifications.
Rapid Embankment Construction of US 17 Bypass
Interchange over Soft Compressible Soils
Location: Myrtle Beach, SC
Owner: Horry County
Designers: STV Group, Inc.
Geotechnical Engineer of Record: Ed
Tavera, PE, Owner and Founder of
GeoStellar Engineering, LLC
Contractors: Balfour Beatty

Geotechnical Engineer of Record Ed

Tavera, P.E., faced many challenges
in the design of the US 17
Interchange known as Backgate. The project had a tight time schedule of 3.5
years and the geotechnical challenges of the site included:
• 30’ to 60’ ‐ Soft to Firm Clay
• 5’ to 10’ Loose Sands
• Intermediate Medium Sands (253+00 to
256+00)
• Pee Dee Hard Clay Formation
Elevation ‐70’msl
• Poor Site Subgrade (Bridging Required)
• Excessive Settlement – (Total & Differential)
• Short &Long‐Term Embankment Instability
• Seismic Slope Instability (Liquefaction)

The bridge was locally funded using a one cent capital project sales tax in Horry
County. The local funding led to higher expectations for project completion. The
heavy traffic volumes in the area also necessitated accelerated construction.

The Fantasy Harbour Bridge project located about 2 miles north of the site on
similar soils utilized staged vertical construction. The embankment construction
fill sequence for the Fantasy Harbour project was:
– 15 feet; anticipated settlement 21 inches; waiting period ~6months
– Additional 10 feet; anticipated incremental settlement 22 inches, total
settlement 43 inches; waiting period ~6months
– Final Grade achieved; anticipated incremental settlement 24 inches, total
settlement 67 inches; inches; final waiting period ~ 6months

For the US 17 Bypass project,

settlement estimates were up
to 75 inches utilizing normal
weight fills materials. A staged
vertical construction approach
similar to that on Fantasy
Bent 2
Harbour would not allow for completion in the allotted time. Because of the need
to eliminate the long settlement waiting periods, the geotechnical engineer
envisioned an approach using lightweight aggregate fill to reduce the magnitude
of settlement in conjunction with:
• Prefabricated Vertical Drain (PVD) / Granular Surcharges to Increase Rate
of Settlement and Facilitate Rapid Construction
• Deep Soil Mixing to Improve Seismic Slope Stability and Bridge Abutment
Foundation Performance
• Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Walls with 2-Stage and 3-Stage Wall
Construction and Vertical Slip Joints

The lightweight aggregate fill reduced the

predicted settlement at Bent 2 from about 75
inches down to about 20 inches. It reduced the
predicted settlement at Bent 1 from about 27
inches down to about 12 inches.

The unique geotechnical design approach for the

project is speeding construction. The estimated
completion of the project is fall 2014.

Acknowledgements: The information in the above section was received from Ed

Tavera, P.E., Owner and Founder of GeoStellar Engineering LLC. For more
detailed information on the project: www.geostellareng.com
CATS South Boulevard Project
Location: Charlotte, NC
Owner: City of Charlotte
Structural Engineer: King Guinn and Associates.
Geotechnical Engineer: F&R
Contractors: Crowder Construction Company

A new parking deck at Interstate 485 and South Boulevard in Charlotte, NC

provides parking for local commuters to access the south end of the present
Charlotte Area Transit System (CATS) light rail line. This three story parking deck
is adjacent to a local elementary school. In order to keep the embankment level
with the school yard, it was necessary to backfill behind the parking deck. To
backfill against a wall of this height with ordinary soil would result in high
pressures on the wall.
King Guinn and Associates of
Charlotte designed a solution.
By using STALITE
Geotechnical backfill material
the pressures on the wall
were greatly reduced.
Because STALITE lightweight
aggregate is inert, it will never
degrade or lose its strength. It
is also self-draining, which
keeps the moisture from
accumulating behind the wall
and causing more pressure to
build against the wall.
Crowder Construction Co., who was the contractor on the project, placed the
approximately 13,000 tons of STALITE with relative ease and required minimum
effort to consolidate it.

The top few feet of the backfill area

was filled with topsoil and seeded with
grass giving the potential to serve as
art of the playground for the school
next door.