Mechanical Waves

(Physics for Engineer)

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• Waves and Its Classifications
• Types of Mechanical Waves
• Characteristics of Some Mechanical Waves
Wave is a disturbance or Waves

oscillation that travels through

Properties Characteristics
matter or space, accompanied
by transfer of energy. Mechanical Electromagnetic Matter Gravitational

Particle’s motion Propagation Medium Form/Shape

Transverse Sound Pure Mixed

Ocean Pulse Music Noise

Longitudinal

Seismic Periodic Standing

Combined

Fourier
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Particle’s Properties vs. Wave’s Properties
 No size or dimension  Size depends on its amplitude
 Localized and discrete  Has pattern and spreads out
 Does not super impose  May super impose
 All energies are allowed  Has quantization of energy
 Described by position  Described by phase, frequency
 Governing Equation: and wavelength
Newton’s Second Law of Motion  Governing Equations:
𝑑2 𝑟 Wave Equation (depends on
𝐹 𝑟, 𝑡 = 𝑚 2 mode of energy transfer)
𝑑𝑡 4
Classification of waves based on the method of
transferring energy
Wave Description Equation Applications
 Requires source of disturbance,
Mechanical medium for its propagation, and Linear Mechanical
Waves physical mechanisms through which Wave Equation
elements can influence each other.
 Produced by accelerated charges.
 Do not require any material medium Maxwell’s EM Wave
EM Waves
for propagation. Equation
 Transverse in nature.
Schrödinger’s
 All microscopic particles, whether
Matter Wave and
Matter Waves massless (i.e. photons) or having mass
Dirac’s Relativistic
(i.e. electrons) have wave properties.
Wave Equations
Gravitational  Result of vibration or movement in Einstein’s General
Waves gravitational field Relativity Equation
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Mechanical waves based on
the particle’s motion
Description Illustration
Longitudinal
The particle’s oscillation
(Compressional)
parallel to the wave’s
Waves
propagation.
(e.g. sound wave)
Transverse Waves The particle’s oscillation
(e.g. wave in perpendicular to the
string) wave’s propagation.
Surface waves have both
Surface Waves
transverse and
(e.g. water wave)
longitudinal properties.
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Superposition Principle

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Types of linear wave based on its form, profile or shape
Linear Wave – wave which obeys superposition principle
Wave Description Generated Wave
It is a single disturbance that moves
Wave
through a medium from one point to
pulse another point
Periodic The disturbance oscillates periodically with
wave a fixed frequency and wavelength
It is the superposition of two waves of the
Standing
same frequency, wavelength, and
wave amplitude travel in opposite directions
Fourier It is composed of superimposed sinusoidal
wave waves
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Parts of a Transverse Wave
direction of
propagation Cycle

or crest

equilibrium – the undisturbed state of the medium

crest – the highest point on a wave
trough – the valley between two waves (lowest point) 9
Parts of a Longitudinal Wave

direction of
propagation A A

compression – a region with increased pressure and density

rarefaction – a region with decreased pressure and density

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Linear Mechanical Wave Function
Wave function – the mathematical description of a wave’s position of any
particle in the medium at any time.
Given: 𝑦 𝑥, 0 • velocity of the particle v
𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 • acceleration of the particle a
• shape (profile) of the wave

Governing equation:
𝜕2𝑦 1 𝜕2𝑦 (1 Dimensional Linear Wave Equation)
2
= 2 2
𝜕𝑥 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
Ansatz: 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 (Sinusoidal Wave Function)
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Characteristics of Transverse Waves
Quantity Symbol Definition
Wavelength 𝜆 Distance between two successive in-phase particles of the medium
Amplitude 𝐴 Distance of the crest (or trough) from equilibrium state of the wave.
Frequency 𝑓 Number of crest that pass a fixed point per second. (SI unit: hertz)
Period 𝑇 = 1/𝑓 The time (in second) it takes a wave to travel a wavelength.
Angular Frequency 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 The rate of change of the phase of sinusoidal waveform.
Wave number 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆 The spatial frequency of a wave, either in cycles per unit distance or
radians per unit distance.
Phase 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 Position and direction of a particle in the wave
Epoch 𝜙 The initial phase or phase constant.
Propagation speed 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 Distance traveled by wave crest in one cycle divided by the period
Phase speed 𝜔 Rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘
Group speed 𝜕𝜔 Rate at which the overall shape of the waves’ amplitude spreads
𝑣𝑔 =
𝜕𝑘 through space. 12
Sample Problem
A certain wave is described by
𝑥 𝑡
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = (6.50𝑚𝑚) cos 2𝜋( − )
28.0𝑐𝑚 0.0360 𝑠
Determine the wave
(a) its amplitude; (b) its period; (c) its frequency; (d) its wavelength;
(e) its speed; (f) its wave number; and (g) its angular frequency.

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Characteristics of a Sinusoidal Wave
Transverse Wave Longitudinal Wave

• Wave speed on a string • Speed of sound wave

• Wave intensity • Sound intensity
• Wave function of standing wave • Doppler Effect
on a string • Shock wave
– Normal modes and harmonics
– Mersenne’s Laws of String
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Speed of Mechanical Waves
General Form:
Restoring force returning the system to equilibrium
𝑣=
Inertia resisting the return to equilibrium

Wave Medium Speed Equation Symbol

Transverse string 𝑣 = 𝑇/𝜇 𝑇 = tension in the string
𝜇 = linear mass density of string
solid rod 𝑣 = 𝑌/𝜌 𝑌 = Young′s modulus
Sound fluid 𝑣 = 𝐵/𝜌 𝐵 = Bulk′s modulus
𝜌 = volume mass density of string
gas 𝑣 = 331 m/s 1 + 𝑇𝐶 /273 𝑇𝐶 = temperature in degree Celsius

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Wave Intensity
Intensity, I – the time average rate at which energy
is transported by the wave, per unit area, across a
surface perpendicular to propagation’s direction:
power 𝑃
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝐼1 = =
surface area 4𝜋𝑟12
SI Unit: watts per square meter (W/m2)

Inverse-square law for intensity:

𝐼1 𝐼2
2 = 2
𝑟1 𝑟2
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Standing Wave
Node – point in a standing wave that always
undergoes complete destructive interference
and therefore is stationary
Antinode – point in a standing wave, halfway
between two nodes, at which the largest
amplitude occurs

𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 − 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡

Simplifying,
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴SW sin(𝑘𝑥) sin(𝜔𝑡)

where: 𝐴SW = 2𝐴 17
Normal Modes of a String
The length of the string fixed at both end:
𝜆
𝐿 = 𝑛2 where: 𝑛= 1, 2, 3, …

Fundamental Frequency or 2nd Harmonic or Standing wave’s wavelength:

1st Harmonic (n=1) 1st Overtone (n=2) 2𝐿
𝜆𝑛 = 𝑛 where: 𝑛= 1, 2, 3, …

Standing wave frequency or Harmonics:

3rd Harmonic or 4th Harmonic or
2nd Overtone (n=3) 3rd Overtone (n=4) 𝑣
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛 2𝐿 = 𝑛𝑓1 where: 𝑛= 1, 2, 3, …

where: 𝑓1 = fundamental frequency

5th Harmonic or 6th Harmonic or
𝑓2 , 𝑓3 , ... = overtones
4th Overtone (n=5) 5th Overtone (n=6)
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Mersenne’s Law of String Instruments
For string instruments the
frequency of vibration of a
particular string is given by:

𝑛 𝑇
𝑓𝑛 =
2𝐿 𝜇
Laws of Strings
Law of Lengths – for a vibrating string, its frequency 1 𝑓1 𝐿2
is inversely proportional to its length. 𝑓∝ =
𝐿 𝑓2 𝐿1
Law of Diameters – for a vibrating string, its
1 𝑓1 𝐷2
frequency is inversely proportional to its 𝑓∝ =
diameter. 𝐷 𝑓2 𝐷1

Law of Densities – for a vibrating string, its 1 𝑓1 𝜇2

frequency is inversely proportional to the 𝑓∝ =
𝜇 𝑓2 𝜇1
square root of its linear density
Law of Tensions – for a vibrating string, its frequency 𝑓1 𝑇1
𝑓∝ 𝑇 =
is directly proportional to the square root 𝑓2 𝑇2
of the tension. 20
Sample Problem
Find the fundamental frequency and the next three frequencies
that could cause Standing-wave patterns are formed on a 30-m
string and has a mass per length of 9.00  10–3 kg/m, and is
stretched to a tension of 20.0 N. Determine the following:
(a) Fundamental frequency;
(b) First overtone; and
(c) Propagation speed.

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Sound
The physical sensation that stimulates the ear.

Source Medium for Sound Receiver

Propagation
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Sound Waves
Loudness – depends on the pressure fluctuation
Pitch – depends on the frequency of the sound
Timbre (tone color) – quality of sound (related to the
number and relative amplitude of overtones)

Importance of Frequency:
• Sensitivity of ear
• Sound insulation of a wall
• Attenuation of silencer

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References
1. Young, H., Freedman, R. and Ford, A. (2016) University Physics with
Modern Physics, 14e, Pearson
2. Hewitt, P. (2013) Conceptual Physics, 12e, Addison-Wesley
3. Giancoli, D. (2013) Physics: Principles with Application, Addison-Wesley

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