Missing Data

Sample Problem
Triangulation
Triangulation- a method for extending horizontal control for topographic and similar
surveys which require observation of triangular figure whose angles are measured and whose
sides are determined by trigonometric computations.
Four common geometric figures used in triangulation:
1. Chain of single and independent triangles.
2. Chain of quadrilaterals formed with overlapping traingles.
3. Chain of polygons or central-point figures.
4. Chain of polygons each with an extra diagonal.
Approximately method of adjusting the angles and sides of triangulation system.
1. Station adjustment
2. adjustment
Two methods of adjustment of Quadralatiral
1. Angle Condition Equations
2. Side Condition Equations

Triangulation Systems
A system consisting of triangulation stations connected by a chain of triangles. The complete fig
is called triangulation system or triangulation figure. The most common type of figures used in a
triangulation system are

 Triangles
 Quadrilaterals
 Polygons
Geometric conditions to be fulfilled by above figures in triangulation system are:

 The sum of interior angles should be (2n-4)x90o, where n = no.of sides of the figure
 If all the angles are measured at a station, their sum should be 360o.
 The length of sides calculated through more than one routes should agree.
It is impossible to fulfil all the geometric conditions, owing to the errors, until the field
measurements have been adjusted.
Triangles
1. A chain of triangles is very rapid and economical when a narrow strip of terrain is to be
surveyed.

2. Angles less than 30o or more than 120o are not permitted

3. For well-conditioned triangles, angles should not be less than 30o or more than 120o.

Advantages of triangles:

 This is simple and rapid

 Economical method
Disadvantages:

 Since it is used to survey a long narrow strip, a no.of base lines must be introduced
frequently to reduce the accumulation of errors. Therefore, a single chain of triangles is
never permitted in high order triangulation.
 Least accurate method.
Quadrilaterals

1. These afford an excellent system since the various combinations of sides and angles can
be used to compute the lengths of required sides, and checks can be made frequently
2. The best quadrilateral is square. A quadrilateral with both diagonals having no station at
their intersection is usually employed.
3. This is best suited for hilly areas.
Advantages

 Most accurate system as the number of checks are more.

Polygons
1. When areas that are very wide in proportion to their lengths are to be surveyed then
pentagonal or hexagonal figures may be economical.

2. These may or may not have a central station.

Advantages

 This is also more accurate as the desired number of checks are more
Sample Problem
Traverse
Traversing is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an
angle measuring instrument and tape or chain respectively.

Types of Surveying
There are two types of traverse surveying. They are:

1. Closed traverse: When the lines form a circuit which ends at the starting point, it is
known as a closed traverse. 
2. Open traverse: When the lines form a circuit ends elsewhere except starting point, it is
said to be an open traverse.

The closed traverse is suitable for locating the boundaries of lakes, woods, etc and for a survey
of large areas. the open traverse is suitable for surveying a long narrow strip of land as required
for a road of the canal or the coastline.

Methods of Traversing
There are several methods of traversing, depending on the instruments used in determining the
relative directions of the traverse lines. The following are the principal methods:

1. Chain traversing
2. Chain and compass traversing
3. Transit type traversing a)By fast needle method b)By measurement of angles between the
lines
4. Plane table traversing

 Brief descriptions of these traverse surveying methods are given below.

Chain Traversing
The method in which the whole work is done with chain and tape is called chain traversing. No
angle measurement is used and the directions of the lines are fixed entirely by linear
measurements Angles fixed by linear or tie measurements are known as chain angles. The
method is unsuitable for accurate work and is generally used if an angle measuring instruments
such as a compass, sextant or theodolite is available.
Chain and Compass Traversing
In chain and compass traversing, the magnetic bearings of the survey lines are measured by a
compass and the lengths of the lines are measured either with a chain or with a tape. The
direction of the magnetic meridian is established at each traverse station independently. The
method is also known as a tree or loose needle method.
Traversing by Fast Needle Method
The method in which the magnetic bearings of traverse lines are measured by a theodolite fitted
with s compass is called traversing by fast needle method. The direction of the magnetic
meridian is not established at each station but instead, the magnetic bearings of the lines are
measured with a reference so that direction of the magnetic meridian established at the first
station. There are three methods of observing the bearings of lines by fast needle method.

1. Direct method with transiting,

2. Direct method without transiting,
3. Back bearing method.

Traversing By Direct Observation Of Angles

In this method, the angles between the lines are directly measured by a theodolite and the
magnetic bearing of other lines can be calculated in this method. The angles measured at
different stations may be either

1. Included Angles and

2. Deflection Angles

Traversing by Included Angle

An included angle at a station is either of the two angles formed n\by two survey lines meeting
there and these angles should be measured clockwise. The method consists simply in measuring
each angle directly from a back sight on the preceding station. The angled may also be measured
by repetition. The angles measured from the back station may be interior or exterior depending
on the direction of progress.

In Fig(a) the direction of progress is counter-clockwise and so the angles measured clockwise are
the interior angle. In Fig(a) the direction of progress is clockwise and so the angles measured
clockwise are the exterior angle.
Traverse by Deflection Angles
A deflection angle is an angle in which a survey line makes with the prolongation of the
preceding line. It is designated as right (R) or left (L) as it is measured clockwise or anti-
clockwise from the prolongation of the previous line. This type of traversing is more suitable for
the survey of roads, railways, pipe-lines, etc where the survey lines make small deflection angles.

Errors in Traversing
The errors involved in closed traversing are two kinds:

1. Linear Error and

2. Angular Error

The most satisfactory method of checking the linear measurements consists in chaining each
survey line a second time, preferably in the reverse direction on different dates and by different
parties. The following are checks for the angular work:
A. Travers by included angles:
o The sum of measured interior angles should be equal to (2N-4), where N=number
of sides of the traverse.
o If the exterior angles are measured, their sum should be equal to (2N=4)p/2
B. Travers by deflection angles: The algebraic sum of the deflection angles should be
equal to 360°, taking the right hand and deflection angles as a positive and left-hand
angle as negative.
C. Traversing by direct observation of bearings: The force bearing of the last line should
be equal to its back bearing ±180° measured from the initial station.

Checks in Open Traverse

No direct checks of angular measurement are available. So indirect checks can be made. As
illustrated in Fig(a) the addition to the observation of bearing of AB at station A, bearing of AD
can also be measured., if possible. Similarly, at D, the bearing of DA can be measured and check
applied. If the two bearings differ by 180°, the work may be accepted as correct.

Another method, which furnishes a check when work is plotted is shown as in Fig (b) and
consists of reading the bearing to any prominent point P from each of the consecutive stations.
The check-in plotting consists in laying off the lines AP, BP, CP, etc and noting whether the
lines pass through one point.

Plotting a Traverse Survey

There are two principal methods of traverse survey:

1. Angles and distance method: This method is of three types.

a. By protractor
b. By the tangent of the angle
c. By the chord of the angle.
2. Co-ordinate method.
Sample Problem