Unit 1

• Introduction to CAD/CAM

• Syllabus:
 Definition,
 conventional product cycle, product cycle with CAD/CAM,
 CAD/CAM tools,
 functions of a graphics package,
 brief about CAD hardware and software,
 input /output devices,
 CAD system evaluation criteria,
 efficient use of CAD software.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Definition

• Introduction to CAD/CAM
• CAD/CAM = Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing. It is the technology
concerned with the use of computers to perform design and manufacturing functions.

• CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to perform certain functions in the design process.

• CAM is the use of computer systems to plan, manage and control the operations of manufacturing
plant through either direct or indirect computer interface with the plant’s production resources.

• CAD/CAM> CAD+CAM

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

• The product begins with a need which is identified based on customers' and markets'
demands.

• The product goes through two main processes from the idea conceptualization to the
finished product:

1. The design process.

2. The manufacturing process.

• The main sub-processes that constitute the design process are: (See the last slide)

1. Synthesis.
2. Analysis.
3. Optimization
4. Evaluation

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Product engineering activities

• Product functions
• Analysis
• Product specifications
 Strength
• Conceptual design
Kinematic
• Ergonomics and aesthetics
Dynamic
• Standards
Heat Flow
• Detailed design
 Design for manufacture
• Prototype development
 Design for assembly
• Testing
• Drafting
• Simulation

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Product Manufacturing activities

• Process planning
 process sheets • Production Organization

 route sheets  Bill of materials

• Tools  Material requirement planning

 cutting tools  production planning

 Jigs and fixtures  shop floor control, part simulation

 Dies and moulds • Marketing and distribution

• Manufacturing information generation  packaging,

 CNC part programs  marketing and
distribution
 Robot programs

 inspection (CMM) programs

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Stages in design process

Problem identification & recognition of need

Problem definition and conceptualization

Geometric modelling & spatial analysis

Engineering analysis & optimization

Iterative process

Prototype development

Manufacturing process & development

Manufacturing implementation

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Problem identification and recognition of need

Problem identification & recognition of need

Historical General
information solutions
Requirement Market
specification forces

• Unsatisfied demand for a particular product or conceptually new idea to start fresh demand
• Basic questions related to product: Who, what, where, when, why and how many –to answer use following
1. Historical information: existing information through literature, marketing survey
• Answer questions like current technology, existing solutions (even competitor’s product details)
2. Requirement specification:
• Helps in understanding product from current business practices & manufacturing resources
• Helps in understanding short term & long term potential of new product introduction
3. Market forces: before going ahead with product design, consider this.
4. General solutions: Having identified above things, specify general solution which is broad and not detailed.
• For this one can use past designs, engineering standards, technical reports, handbooks, patents etc.
• This helps in its further evaluation and refinement at a later stage.
Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Problem definition and conceptualization

Problem definition and conceptualization

Evaluations
Preliminary of the
design designs
Preliminary
sketches Brainstorming

• Coming up with all possible ideas for solutions

• Preliminary design: identifying important design elements and difficulties to be faced in design process
• Preliminary sketches: basic solutions identified in earlier stage are to be detailed with necessary sketches
- some notes related to the sketches are added to clarify some ideas that can’t be shown by sketches
• Brainstorming: group solving technique, where design team members spontaneously come up with the ideas
- Ideas are collected during these sessions to process them to identify a final solution
• Evaluation of the designs: A number of concepts have been identified in the previous stage
- Each of the choice is then evaluated in term of feasibility, cost, ergonomics, manufacturing expertise and
resources available

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Geometric modelling & spatial analysis

Comparative
Geometric
evaluation
modelling
Visualization Preliminary
analysis

• Identified solutions are further explored for the final design solution
• Geometric modelling: representing part geometry in graphical form
- Geometric model generated should be clear and comprehensive so that other modules of modelling and
manufacturing system are able to use this information in most optimal way.
- The modelling system should be able to describe part, assemblies, raw materials used and mfg. requirements
- From geometric model it would be possible to obtain manufacturing and inspection plans and command data
for numerically controlled machine tools
• Visualization: one of the important requirements of modelling
- requires shading facilities and ability to give various colors and surface textures to the part
- Thus we can visualize actual part without making any prototype
Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
• Preliminary analysis: simple analysis techniques such as volume, mass, inertia and spatial
analysis, also one can do aesthetic and ergonomic analysis at this stage

• Comparative evaluation:
- based on the data collected at all previous stages, in terms of modelling, basic analysis and
other factors, it would be possible to rate the various options in terms of technical feasibility,
market acceptability and overall economics.
- This will help in finalizing the design, which can be conducted further through analysis.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Engineering analysis and optimization

Engineering analysis & optimization

Design for
Static mfg. &
analysis Kinematic & assembly
dynamic Heat/Flow
analysis analysis

• A thorough analysis of the product is carried out to get as much of information as possible before
final manufacturing
• Static (strength) analysis: it is necessary to obtain stresses and strain in the component when it is
in service
- Analytical methods are feasible for simple shapes and configurations. But, for complex shapes, it
is necessary to use finite element analysis methods
- FEM breaks the model into small elements and applies loading and boundary conditions for each
of the elements
- The FEM software calculates stresses and strains

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
• Kinematic analysis
- In some cases, part will have number of components, some of which will have relative motion
requirements under service.
- Geometric modelling described earlier will not be of much use in this regard.
- Kinematic analysis allows user to optimize product performance by providing a fundamental
understanding of how design will perform in its real-world environment.
- The knowledge of how assembly will behave in motion and how the individual parts move under
extreme conditions, provide insight for creating best possible product design
• Dynamic analysis
- For the equipment operating under high speeds, we extend above system for ‘dynamic’ conditions
- Here, engineers can evaluate designs for vibration requirements by performing time, frequency
and shock response simulations
• Heat/ flow analysis
- Evaluation of the part in terms of heat transfer analysis by evaluating temperature, thermal
stresses
- Evaluate the flow characteristics by employing FEA techniques (CFD)
• Design for manufacture and assembly

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Methodology of design for manufacture and assembly (Boothroyd and Dewhurst)

Design concept

Design for assembly (DFA) Suggestions for simplification of

product structure
Selection of materials & processes for early Suggestions for more economic materials and
cost estimates processes

Best design concept

Design for manufacture (DFM) Detail design for minimum mfg. costs

Prototype

Production

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Design for manufacture and assembly

• One of the analysis method that can be carried out in early stages
• Reduction in component count and assembly cost ; thus improving reliability of the product and reducing
overall cost
• Three principles are applied to all assemblies to develop a low-cost assembly
1. During the operation of the product, does the part move relative to all other parts already assembled?
2. Must the part be of different material than or to be isolated from all other parts already assembled?
3. Must the part be separate from all other parts already assembled, because otherwise necessary assembly
or disassembly of other separate parts would be impossible?
• General guidelines to consider while carrying out manufacturability analysis:
 Use standard processes and methods
 Limit mfg. process those already available and the plant has expertise in.
 Reduce the variety of manufacturing processes used.
 Use standard components in the design
 Use the materials that have better manufacturability
 When a particular process is identified, exploit the special features of the process to get better economies

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Prototype development

Prototype development (Rapid prototyping)

Test and Working

evaluation Design drawings
refinement

• Before manufacturing, it is essential to carry out some physical tests on the part
• Using conventional methods for developing physical model is time consuming and expensive.
• Test and evaluation: Sometimes it is necessary to carry out actual testing in addition to computer
analysis (FEA). The actual prototype developed here can be utilized for this purpose
• Design refinement: Having identified the final solution of the design, this stage helps in fine-tuning
the design. There will not be major changes at this stage, only minor modifications.
• Working drawings: this refers to the final hard copies of the drawings of the components and
assemblies describing dimensional details along with the assembly procedures.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Manufacturing process development

Manufacturing process development

Process Production
planning plant design

Tool design Time and

motion study

Manufacturing Information
information requirement
generation design
Manufacturing
simulation

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
• Process planning: determining exactly how a product will be made to satisfy the
requirements specified at the most economical cost.
- For mass production, this is very important. Here, any small time saved per component
would in the end mean large money saving.
• Tool design: examples are tool design of fixtures, injection mould cavities, mould cores,
mould bases (Pro-E has tool design option)
• Manufacturing information generation: related to “part programs” those can be generated
using the part model data
- CAM softwares are used to develop NC part programs directly from the CAD data
- The computer calculates the mathematics in the part program and the post processor
generates the G code programs.
• Manufacturing simulation: actual simulation of the machining on computer screen saves a
large amount of time and money.
• Information requirement design: examples are bill of materials (BOM), material
requirement planning, production planning, shop floor control and plant simulation
• Time and motion study: done to optimize material handling, mfg. time, tool set-up time,
m/c setup time
• Production plant design
Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Computer assistance for the design cycle

Problem identification & recognition of need

Computer assisted operations
Problem definition and conceptualization

Geometric modelling & spatial analysis Computer aided design (CAD)

Engineering analysis & optimization Finite element analysis (FEA), CFD, Kinematic
analysis, Dynamic analysis, DFMA

Prototype development Rapid prototyping

Manufacturing process & development Computer aided manufacturing (CAM)

Manufacturing implementation CNC/Robots/ASRS/CIM/ERP

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
CAD/CAM product cycle

. Explain each
process in short.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM by Groover and Zimmers
Advantages of CAD

• Faster and more accurate than conventional methods

• Complicated drafting tasks are made easy
• Unlike traditional methods, we can manipulate various dimensions, attributes and distances
• Models can be copied within seconds, no need to repeat the design or drawing
• Dimensions, mass, volume, surface areas can be easily obtained directly from the models
• Designer’s task of improving a given product considering future requirements is made easy as
modification of model is very easy
• Standard part library can created which can be used for various assemblies
• BOM (Bill of materials) can be generated automatically
• Solid model data can be used further for FEA, CAM, NC codes and rapid prototyping.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Advantages of CAM

• Greater design freedom: any design changes can be easily incorporated without any
production delay since inputs from CAD model are directly taken
• Increased productivity: Productivity of the plant is increased because total manufacturing
activity is organised through the computer
• Shorter lead time:
• Improved reliability : because of better mfg. methods, products manufactured are highly
reliable
• Reduced maintenance : because of integrated monitoring facilities in CAM, maintenance is
reduced as compared to conventional mfg. methods
• Reduced scrap and rework: As the CNC programs are directly made from CAD files , the scrap
level is almost minimum and no rework is necessary
• Better management control: since all activities are computerized, control becomes easy

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Functions of a graphics package

1. Generation of graphic elements:

2. Transformations
3. Display control and windowing functions
4. Segmenting functions
5. User input functions

• Generation of graphic elements:

 Graphic element= basic image entity such as point, line segment, circle
 User can construct the application model out of a collection of elements available
 “Primitive” = three dimensional graphic element such as sphere, cube or cylinder
 Primitives are used as building blocks to construct 3D object

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM computer aided design and manufacturing (pearson) by M.Groover and E. Zimmers
Functions of a graphics package

• Transformations:
 are used to change the image on the display screen and to reposition
 Transformations are applied to the graphics elements to construct application model
 Includes scaling, translation and rotation

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM computer aided design and manufacturing (pearson)by M.Groover and E. Zimmers
Functions of a graphics package

• Display control and windowing functions

 Ability to view the image from desired angle and magnification
 Referred as windowing sometimes because graphics screen is like a window used to observe
the graphics model
 Another aspect is of display control is “hidden line removal”
 Graphics package is sophisticate enough to remove hidden lines from the model easily

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM computer aided design and manufacturing (pearson)by M.Groover and E. Zimmers
Functions of a graphics package

• Segmenting functions:
 Segment= particular portion of the image which user wants to modify
 These functions allows the user to selectively replace, delete or modify portions of the image
 Segment may be a single element or a group of elements

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM computer aided design and manufacturing (pearson) by M.Groover and E. Zimmers
Functions of a graphics package

• User input functions

 Permit the operator to enter the commands or data to the system

 User input functions should be well designed because they have significant effect on how
“friendly” the system is to the user
 Should be written to maximize the benefits of interactive feature
 Software designers should simplify the user interface so that designer with little or no
programming experience can function effectively on the system

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM computer aided design and manufacturing (pearson)by M.Groover and E. Zimmers
CAD/CAM system evaluation criteria

1. System consideration
2. Geometric modeling capabilities
3. Design documentation
4. Applications

• System consideration: includes Hardware, Software, Maintenance, Vendor support and service
 Hardware: two popular hardware configurations are disked and diskless workstations. In disked
configuration, each workstation has enough local disk space and memory to be stand-alone. In diskless
configuration, each workstation is connected to a central computer (server), which has enough large disk
and memory to store files and application programs.
 Software: Three important factors here are: operating system, user interface and quality of
documentation. Standard OS is recommended than the nonstandard one. User interface should be
designed such that both experienced and non-experienced users should be comfortable. Use of
documentation should be easy and online help should be available.
 Maintenance: This consist of repair of hardware components and software updates. (cost= 5 to 10% of
initial cost and it is recurring). This should be considered during initial capital cost.
 Vendor support and service: includes training, field services and technical support. Timely response from
vendors to technical question’s is important during start-up time when no in-house expertise is available.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
CAD/CAM system evaluation criteria

• Geometric modelling capabilities:

 Representation techniques: Geometric modeling is heart of any CAD/CAM system. Most CAD/CAM
system provides all modeling types (solid, wireframe and surface). Integration between these
representation and application they support is an essential issue.
 Coordinate systems : To provide flexibility to the designers, various types of coordinate systems must be
available. Ability to input cartesian, polar & cylindrical coordinates should be provided. Ability to create
variety of planes must be provided.
 Modeling entities: Ease to generate, verify and edit various modeling entities must be evaluated.
 Geometric editing and manipulations: Editing and manipulation function should exist to support the
representations. E.g. rotation, mirror, offset, scaling etc
 Graphics standards support: Model database needs to be transferred from one system to another.
Therefore both systems must support exchange formats. This is necessary when number of softwares
are used in one organization or the design models are shipped to outside vendors for tooling, NC code
generation etc.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
CAD/CAM system evaluation criteria

• Design documentation: Generation of drawings from 3D model, generation of

dimensions, annotations etc. must be easy.

• Applications:
 Assemblies: Generating assembly from part models must be easy. And generating
assembly drawings with BOM must be user friendly
 Design applications: Packages are available for FEA, mould flow analysis, mechanism
analysis & simulation. Capabilities and representation techniques of these softwares
must be evaluated.
 Manufacturing applications: These applications are NC part programming, tool path
generation & verification, CAPP, robot simulation etc. It should be ensured weather CAD
& CAM applications are truly integrated or not.
 Programming languages supported: It is important to know which programming
languages are supported and also their syntax of graphic commands. This is useful for
customizing the software.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
CAD tools

Computer graphics • The concepts of geometric modeling and

computer graphics must be applied to
serve the design process
• CAD tools can be defined as design tools
which are supported by computer
graphics, computer hardware and
CAD modeling software through the various
tools phases of design to achieve the design
goal efficiently and effectively
Design tools Geometric
modeling

Venn Diagram

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

CAD tools

Hardware
(control unit; display terminals;
I/O devices

Design tools + Computer = CAD tools

Software (graphics;
modeling; applications
programs

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

CAM tools

Networking
concepts

• Intersection of 3 sets
• CAM tools can be defined as
manufacturing tools which are supported
by CAD software, CAD database, computer
CAM hardware & networking tools to achieve
tools the production goals efficiently and
CAD effectively
Mfg tools

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

CAD/CAM tools

Mfg tools Design tools

CAD/CAM
Geometric
tools
Networking modeling

Computer
graphics
concepts . Explain in brief

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Input and output devices

• input devices

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Light pen: Light pens are not used to write on the screen, but only to detect the presence of
light on the screen with the help of light-detecting resistor. Their use in graphic applications is to
identify objects or locations on the display screen for possible graphics handling.
4. Joystick
5. Digitizer: is widely used input medium by the CAD designer. It is used to convert the physical
locations into coordinating values so that accurate transfer of data can be achieved. A digitizer
consists of rectangular smooth surface as a draughting board. Underneath this surface is a
position sensing mechanism. The designer interacts through the handheld locator (or puck)
which contains a number of buttons. The designer can move the puck to the desired position
and then pressing one of the buttons to initiate a certain action. A digitizer is an absolute
measuring device.
6. Tablet
7. Scanner

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Light pen Digitizer

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Output devices- CRT display

• Heated cathode emit electrons which forms a beam and focused on the display screen by focusing
device.
• Screen contains a phosphor coated surface. Surface gets illuminated when speeding electron hits it
displaying a point.
• Changing beam current changes intensity of the spot created on the screen
• Two types of image drawing techniques: 1. Raster scan 2. Random scan, vector scan or stroke writing

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Display screen scanning techniques

• Random scan, vector scan, stroke writing:

• Electron gun directly draws vectors on the screen to generate the image (by glowing the phosphor in case of
CRT)
• The phosphor created by electron gun is short lived. So there are two methods to achieve static image.
• 1. Direct view storage tube: electron beam continuously emit electrons to maintain image on screen. Here
partial erasing of image is not possible
• 2. Direct refresh tube or vector refresh tube: phosphor glow is continuously refreshed (about 60 Hz-no flicker)
Here image (or parts of image) can be erased or modify

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Raster scan

• The display screen is divided horizontally and vertically into a matrix of small elements called picture
elements or “pixels”. A pixel is a smallest addressable area on a screen.
• N x M resolution defines a screen with N rows and M columns. Each row defines a scanning line.
• The electron beam generates a single dot at the center of the square. The distance between these
dots is called “dot pitch” which indicates fineness of the screen (0.25 mm = sharper display image)
• The display is generated by identifying which pixel need to be bright and full screen display is
obtained by scanning the screen horizontally line by line (from top to bottom)
• A “rasterization” process is needed in order to display either a shaded area or graphics entities.
• The color and intensity of these areas or entities are controlled by the image display system.
Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
Output devices- LCD display

• Liquid crystals exist between solid and liquid state

• As a solid they are aligned in same direction, as a liquid they are free to move.

• They are close to liquid state than solid, hence sensitive to temperature.

• By applying current in varying degrees, they can allow or disallow the passage of light.

• Liquid crystals are in “nematic” phase (greek “nemato”=threadlike)

• They occupy small space and take less power consumption.

• LCD monitors are backlit by fluorescent bulbs or LEDs.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Raster scan display

• The frame buffer contains the complete dot by dot image of the display.
• From the frame buffer, the information is accessed by the sweeper, which in turn controls the display device.
• In earlier device, part of main computer stored the frame buffer
• The main processor controls the graphic processor
• For monochrome screen of 1024*1024 resolution frame buffer capacity will be 128 kilobytes (one bit for
each pixel)

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Line drawing algorithms

• There are standard algorithms such as DDA (Digital Differential Analyser) and Bresenham’s method
which are used to draw a line by generating pixel’s approximate to the line.
• Similar algorithm’s exist to draw arcs, text and surfaces. This is why it is possible to create images
quickly on raster displays.
• DDA Algorithm:

m= y2-y1/x2-x1

Case 1: m<1
Xn=X0+1 Yn= Y0 +m
plot (Xn, round [Yn ] )

Case 2: m ≥1
Yn=Y0+1 Xn= X0 +(1/m)
plot (round(Xn), Yn )

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

• Example of Line drawing by DDA Algorithm:

• To show how line is drawn between point (0,1) and (4,3)

1. First find slope m= 0.5
2. Here slope is less than 1
3. So use equations (finding points) for this particular case

Xn=X0+1 Yn= Y0 +m Compute the results using equations…..check

plot (Xn, round [Yn ] ) your results with diagram below

Plotted Plotted Xn round [Yn ]

Xn Yn
0 1 0 1
1 2 0+1 1+0.5=2
2 2 1+1 1.5+0.5=2
3 3 2+1 2+0.5=3
4 3 3+1 2.5+0.5=3
• Practice example: Plot line between (2,3)
and (12,8)
Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering
Staircase effect and anti-alising lines

• The rasterization algorithms generates pixel points by rounding off to the nearest integer. Hence
inclined lines have jagged effect known as “staircase effect” -(fig.1, left side)
• The effect is more pronounced in the case of line with small angles.
• One way to improve the appearance is to increase the screen resolution. (fig.2, middle)
• Another way to decrease this effect is anti-alising based on sampling theory. Here, the intensity of
the pixel is made proportional to the area of the pixel covered by line thickness. (fig. 3, right side)

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Reference: CAD/CAM principles and applications by P.N.Rao
• Concept of anti-alising line

. Yellow line indicates line thickness.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Bresenham’s algorithm

• DDA algorithm is improvement over direct use of line equations because it eliminate use

of complicated calculations.

• But, it still requires calculations of floating points for each pixel position.

• Hence computation time will be large for complex geometries with lines.

• Bresenham’s algorithm is improvement over DDA as it eliminates need of calculating

floating points except initial computations.

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

CAD Hardware

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

• CPU: The main functions performed in CPU are arithmetic and logic operations.
- : CPU communicates with the external world through input/output devices (I/O devices)
• Input device: through this user would be able to communicate with the CPU, either to give certain
data or to control the operation of CPU.
• Output device: is a means through which the CPU gives the results of the computations.
• Memory unit: is a area where necessary data or program (sequence of instructions) is stored.
• Controller: decodes the instructions from main memory for actual action. It also gives decoded
information to arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).
• ALU: performs all arithmetic operations (+, -, x, / ) and logic operations (AND, OR etc)
• Internal registers: The results from ALU are stored here. Depending on the type of CPU, these are
8bit, 16 bit, 32 bit or 64 bit long. Bit is the length of word that can be stored (greater the length,
faster the execution)
• Data is a name given to any information that is written or retrived by the microprocessor from
memory. Data can be a part of the program or results of computations.
• Types of memory: ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, RAM (read in brief)

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering

Shigley’s design model

Symbiosis Institute of Technology (SIT) Department of Mechanical Engineering