IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 29, NO.

2, MARCH 2019 3800305

Future Power Distribution Grids: Integration of

Renewable Energy, Energy Storage, Electric
Vehicles, Superconductor, and Magnetic Bus
Kashem M. Muttaqi , Senior Member, IEEE, Md. Rabiul Islam , Senior Member, IEEE,
and Danny Sutanto , Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract—This paper focuses on a review of the state of the art is required is a transitional path that supports development of
of future power grids, where new and modern technologies will renewable energy resources, while cooperating with the existing
be integrated into the power distribution grid, and will become infrastructure. The most promising approach for remote electri-
the future key players for electricity generation, transmission, and
distribution. The current power grids are undergoing an unprece- fication and/or reduction in dependency on fossil-fuel based grid
dented transformation from the original design, changing the way power is the concept of renewable energy based hybrid electric
how energy has been produced, delivered, and consumed over the energy system [1].
past century. This new energy era includes the integration of renew- Grid Smart micro-grids with renewable energy based dis-
able sources such as wind and solar, supported by the distributed or tributed generation (DG) and electric vehicles (EVs) are
community energy storage, to power distribution grids through in-
novative high-frequency magnetic links and power-electronic con- becoming popular to solve energy crisis and environmental
verters. The use of emission free transportation, such as electric degradation problems [2]. EVs help to keep the environment
vehicles, and energy efficient technologies, such as superconduct- green and serve as distributed energy storage, which can help to
ing generators and storage systems, are also rapidly emerging and minimize load shading as well. It will mitigate the intermittency
will be integrated into the power grids in the foreseeable future. and uncertainty effects of renewables and provide certainty in
However, it is necessary to reconsider the current paradigms of
system analysis and plan with a focus on how to achieve the most reliable power output. However, the battery system has low en-
flexible, efficient, and reliable power grid for the future—-the one ergy density, self-discharge, and leakage; it alone is not good
that enables operation in a domain which is very different than the for long-term energy storage. Therefore, a self-reliant remote
current one to deliver the services to consumers at an affordable power system must contain both short-term and long-term en-
cost. ergy storage systems [3].
Index Terms—Future power grids, renewable energy, energy A superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) serves
storage, electric vehicle, superconductor, magnetic bus. as short-term energy storage due to its high round-trip efficiency,
suitability for charging/discharging, and also to support the in-
stantaneous load spikes and variation, and renewable energy
I. INTRODUCTION
peak and load fluctuation. It is expected that the combination
HERE is a clear need to introduce technologies that will
T assist in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and global
warming. The fossil fuel generation of electricity is a large
of an SMES with the long-term energy storage consisting of
hydrogen fuel cell and battery bank can radically improve the
performance of the distribution grid with a high penetration of
contributor to greenhouse gases, but the current infrastructure renewable energy resources. The operation of a hybrid 500 W
cannot be easily changed, as it is the product of the investment commercial fuel cell and energy storage system with a full bridge
and intellectual effort of the last hundred years. In spite of the dc/dc boost converter to supply a fast changing load has been
availability of renewable energy resources, it is by no means investigated in [4]. Authors in [5] have discussed the operation
clear how the technological barriers to their more widespread of SMES in an electric energy system using hybrid hydrogen
adoption can be overcome, as these may require a radically connected to the power grids.
different infrastructure, human behavior and attitudes. What In general, a step-up transformer and line filter are commonly
used for the medium voltage grid integration of renewable power
Manuscript received August 14, 2018; accepted January 23, 2019. Date of
plants [6]. In order to reduce the size and weight of the energy
publication January 30, 2019; date of current version February 8, 2019. This conversion system, a step-up transformer-less direct grid inte-
work was supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC). (Corresponding gration technology has been proposed in recent years [7]. A
author: Kashem M. Muttaqi.)
The authors are with the School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommu-
high-frequency magnetic linked medium voltage converter was
nications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, proposed for direct grid integration of renewable sources [8].
Australia (e-mail:, [email protected]; [email protected]; rabiulbd@ With the current research and developmental trends, it is obvi-
hotmail.com; [email protected]).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
ous that future distribution will have different types of micro
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. grids including various distributed sources. Fig. 1 shows a basic
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TASC.2019.2895528 block diagram of a future distribution grid.
1051-8223 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
3800305 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCH 2019

Fig. 2. Discharging mode: (a) SoC and value of storage. (b) P and Q injection.

Fig. 1. Block diagram of a future distribution grid.

It is now obvious that superconducting cables may re-

duce the power transmission losses effectively as the electrical
resistance of the dc superconducting cable is more than 100
times lower than from the traditional dc cable resulting in al- Fig. 3. Charging mode: (a) SoC and value of storage. (b) P and Q absorption.
most zero electrical losses [9]. However, the refrigeration tech-
nology is the critical issue especially in the long length cable
be employed in the future power grids. Also new research and
systems. Several attempts can be found in the literature to de-
development in these areas have been discussed.
velop high temperature superconducting (HTS) cables [10]. The
magnesium diboride (MgB2 ) HTS cable is a promising alterna-
II. A NEW CONCEPT TO UTILIZE THE ENERGY STORAGE IN A
tive, which can operate with a temperature between 15–25 K
FUTURE ELECTRICITY GRID
(liquid hydrogen or gaseous helium can be used as the cool-
ing medium for MgB2 wires) [11]. Compared with the liquid Usually, a limited amount of energy is available in a storage
helium, the gaseous helium is cheaper which may significantly system, and therefore the value of the storage should increase
reduce the running cost of a long length HTS cable. A liquid exponentially as the energy is dissipated or when the state of
nitrogen cooling medium in the range 70 to 80 K is used for the charge (SoC) is getting smaller and smaller. This is to ensure
thermal shield insulation. The sub-cooled liquid nitrogen has that there will be a sufficient energy available at the later period
been used to cool the 10 kA HTS dc cable in Henan province, when the demand may become higher. Fig. 2(a) shows the state
China [12]. The cost of MgB2 cable is much lower than that of of charge and the value of storage during one discharge-cycle,
any other HTS cables as the magnesium and boron are abun- where the value of storage increases rapidly once the state of
dant in nature. The MgB2 cables were designed with multi- charge decreases. Fig. 2(b) shows the corresponding active and
ple MgB2 strands, which are helically wound around a copper reactive power injection from the storage unit which depend on
core [11]. the value of storage. When the value of storage is low, more
The recent development of the superconducting wind gener- active power and less reactive power can be supplied from the
ator has significantly reduced the size and weight of the wind storage, whereas when it is high, less active power can be in-
turbine nacelle and also reduced the installation cost of off- jected and therefore more reactive power should be injected
shore wind farms. A 12 MW superconducting generator for from the storage to mitigate the PV impacts. This is because
the wind turbine was developed with NbTi/Cu cable-based LTS reactive power can act as an indirect source of support to mit-
coils cooled with the forced flow supercritical helium at 4 K igate the renewable energy (RE) impacts when active power is
[13]. Currently, the MgB2 HTS wires are commercially avail- not available to fully meet the requirements. In such a case, the
able, which lead to a new direction to develop low cost, compact storage can be operated as a source to supply active or reactive
and lightweight large rating generator having both rotor and power or both. If the storage is full, it is preferable to supply ac-
stator windings with HTS materials [14]. A cryogenic vessel tive power as much as possible, however when it is approaching
structure has been proposed for cooling HTS field coils [15]. In towards an empty state, it is preferable to reduce the supply of
recent years, extensive research has been carried out toward the active power and increase the supply of the reactive power. In a
performance improvement of the HTS generator both (i) in the similar way, Fig. 3(a) shows the state of charge and the value of
electrical and mechanical design [16], (ii) in increasing the op- storage during one charge-cycle, where the value of the storage
erating temperature [17], (iii) in developing totally or partially decreases quickly once the state of charge increases. Fig. 3(b)
superconducting generator [18]. The analysis of the technical shows the corresponding active and reactive power absorption
performance and the life cycle assessment have also been ana- by the storage system which depend on the value of storage.
lyzed and explored in [19]. When the value of storage is high, more active power and less
In this paper, a review has been conducted on the current reactive power should be absorbed by the storage, whereas when
trends and recent development in renewable energy, energy stor- it is low, less active power can be absorbed, and therefore more
age, electric vehicles, superconductor and magnetic bus that will reactive power should be absorbed by the storage to mitigate
MUTTAQI et al.: FUTURE POWER DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 3800305

distribution. The above system can be upgraded with two-way

communication to communicate with smart meters and system
controllers. It is expected that the combination of an SMES
with the long-term energy storage such as battery banks can
radically improve the performance of the distribution grid with
a high penetration of renewable energy resources.

IV. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming increasingly popular
day-by-day. With the variability of load demand at the network
Fig. 4. Arrangement of an integrated PV-SMES. connection point, the net power available for EV charging may
also vary throughout the day. The power consumed in the charg-
ing operation depends on the charging rate, the battery voltage,
and the present SoC of the battery and the battery capacity. Due
the photovoltaic (PV) impacts. For example, if PV generation to the dependency on these storage parameters and the available
is more than the demand, the storage can be operated as a charging power, the amount of power consumed for charging
load drawing active or reactive power or both. If the storage operation requires a detailed study for assessing the viability of
is empty, it is preferable to absorb active power as much as EV technology to replace the existing engine based vehicles. A
possible, however when it is approaching towards a full state, detailed modeling of EV battery storage is necessary to capture
it is preferable to reduce the absorption of active power and the realistic EV battery behavior. A suitable strategy needs to be
increase the absorption of the reactive power. developed for control of charging and discharging operations of
EV storage units. The EV storage devices are usually charged
III. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN POWER CONDITIONING directly from the low voltage electricity networks.
SYSTEMS WITH SMES FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY APPLICATION By having this ability, a real-time EV management algorithm
can be developed to determine accurately the range available to
SMES has the ability to go from full charge to full discharge
the drivers to the nearest charging stations. This can be achieved
very quickly, which would make it extremely useful for integra-
by calculating and predicting the time-dependent geographical
tion with renewables to mitigate its adverse impacts. A suitable
distribution of the charging stations. A real-time warning system
core needs to be designed to allow SMES to have high stored
can be developed to warn the drivers if the distance is less
energy [21]. A suitable application of this new technology is
than a certain safety margin, with the capability of updating the
to mitigate the renewable energy impacts. In the past, it was
warning based on traffic conditions in the roads. Once the EVs
not possible because of the high-cost of superconducting coil
are connected to the charging stations, a real-time EV charging
for SMES [21]; however the cost is now reducing due to new
strategy based on the SoC can be used to ensure fast charging
development of HTS technology.
time and the ability to estimate the duration of charging. The
Since the solar energy resource is intermittent in nature and
information such as SoC, location of the charging stations, the
continually fluctuates, sometimes with high ramp-rate, it is nec-
time and place of connection to the grid and charging pattern
essary to have energy storage with fast response capacity. How-
can be stored for use by the distributors in the future to infer the
ever, it is well known that some energy storage systems which
potential impacts of EVs on their networks.
are based on chemical reaction are relatively slow to respond to
Based on the storage model developed, the closest locations
fast fluctuations, in particular fuel cells with electrolyzers and
of vehicles for charging before the energy is exhausted can be
battery energy storage systems. On the contrary, the SMES is
determined and the amount of charging required can be esti-
well known for its rapid response. The SMES can be used as
mated in advance to help the distributors to know the demand
a fast acting buffer storage due to its fast response capability,
that can be expected. A real-time pricing model can be devel-
which can smooth the fluctuations in solar power output.
oped based on the information gathered to ensure the power
A power conditioning strategy can be designed using an
demand from the EVs will not be detrimental to the network
SMES as discussed in [20] for application to PV power
capacity. Using the information collected at different charging
smoothening. To control the charging and discharging of the
locations, the distributors can plan the expansion of the networks
SMES, an advanced control loop for power conditioning system
to ensure that enough capacity is available to meet the EV rising
needs to be carefully designed and implemented to achieve this.
demand. Also, a load forecasting model can be developed using
Fig. 4 shows the proposed configuration of a distributed SMES
a suitable model available in literature [22]–[24] to predict the
integrated with the PV system where SMES can be used as a
patterns of future load and source distribution for EV purposes.
source or sink or both to provide active and/or reactive power
to overcome the PV impacts. The integrated SMES-PV unit
can be acting as a constant generator operating at its optimum V. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN SUPERCONDUCTING
WIND GENERATORS
operating point during normal conditions. With this configura-
tion, the capacity of the rooftop PV installations in the feeder Using superconductors for the field and/or armature wind-
can be increased without detrimental effects on the low voltage ing is the only available technology that could satisfy the
3800305 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, VOL. 29, NO. 2, MARCH 2019

technical requirements for some megawatt range wind turbines. now ready to integrate multiple renewable energy sources, EVs,
The generators with both field and armature superconductor and energy storage with intelligent energy management system
windings are known as fully superconductor (FSC) generator. [30]. In general, a common dc bus or link is used to integrate
Fully superconducting direct drive (FSDD) generators are very multiple sources.
promising option for wind turbines with high output power to There are a number of key challenges with the traditional
weight ratio. The absence of gearbox decreases overall wind dc bus based grid integration technology such as galvanic iso-
turbine cost and weight and facilitates maintenance and in- lation and common mode. In literature, the high-frequency
creases reliable operation of wind turbine. The output power transformer based isolated dc-dc converters are proposed to
to weight ratio of an 8 MW FSDD is about 2 times of a con- solve these problems. Moreover, the use of low voltage two-
ventional geared with double fed induction generator (DFIG) level grid connected converter requires additional heavy and
wind turbine. Presently, there are several companies which are bulky devices, such as step-up transformer and line filter [31].
exploring large superconducting (SC) generators for offshore These additional devices not only increase the system loss and
wind systems [25]. These include American Superconductor cost but also increase the volume and weight. To solve these
(AMSC-10 MW), Converteam (8 MW) now owned by GE, enormous challenges a common magnetic bus is proposed in
China-TECO Westinghouse (5 MW), China Sinovel (5 MW), [32] to replace the common dc bus. In the proposed topology,
Advanced Magnet Lab (AML-10 MW), and GE (10–15 MW) a high-frequency common magnetic bus interconnects multi-
[26]–[28]. ple renewable sources, storage units, EVs, loads and grid di-
A survey of recent research in the field of FSC wind turbines rectly without using any step-up transformer and line filter
shows that the most of the research investigation are on design- circuit.
ing or performance analyzing the SC generator as a rotating A number of literature reported the advantages of advanced
machine. While according to the American National Renew- soft magnetic material such as amorphous and nanocrystalline
able Energy Laboratory, the wind turbines larger than 10 MW, to replace the commonly used materials such as ferrite, sili-
SC generators are superior to the permanent magnet generators; con steel and permalloy for the development of high-frequency
their suitable topology is under study. Almost all of the design transformer [33]. Amorphous magnetic material has very high
aspects of the MW class wind turbines including the comparison magnetic saturation, high permeability, high electrical resistiv-
between fully versus partially superconducting concept, direct ity, low specific core loss and good stability, which makes it
drive versus gearbox drive, rotating armature versus rotating suitable for use to design a high-power density and efficient
field, radical versus axial flux, air core versus iron core concept high-frequency magnetic bus [34]. Recently a few vendors have
in addition to superconducting support system, cryogenic cool- been developing the amorphous core material, e.g., Metglas
ing system, excitation system and superconductor wire types are and WENERGY and deliver as ribbon of thickness between
under study and can be considered to be still very new areas for 15–35 µm. However, core development technology with the
research. One of the most important ongoing researches for the amorphous ribbon is not mature yet, and it requires special pro-
MW class FSC wind turbines is their performance during fault cess due to its thinner flexible structure. A fundamental idea
conditions. This is a critical problem which should be analyzed for the development of amorphous core was presented in [35].
and have to be addressed by the SC generator designers before However, extensive research is needed for further design opti-
their practical applications. mization of high-frequency magnetic bus as the design of the
The operation of FSC wind turbine during fault conditions high-frequency magnetic bus highly affects the performance of
from the electrical machine point of view has to be thoroughly the whole system.
investigated. Also, some important issues in the application of
fault ride- through (FRT) in FSDD wind turbines, such as per-
missible voltage rise of the dc link voltage, the maximum tolera- VII. CONCLUSION
ble current of full-scale back-to-back converter and the limiting This paper has reviewed the state of the art of future power
values for mechanical stresses on the shaft need to be understood distribution grids containing renewables, energy storage, elec-
for its full utilization. tric vehicles, superconducting devices and magnetic bus. A new
concept of charging and discharging energy storage based on
its current SoC has been described. A power conditioning sys-
VI. RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN MAGNETIC BUS FOR
tem based on an SMES has been demonstrated to be capable
APPLICATIONS TO FUTURE GRIDS of smoothing out the power output of renewable energy. The
Fossil fuels based electricity generation causes nearly 41% use and the benefit of the electric vehicles have been discussed.
of the world CO2 gas emission. The internal combustion engine Recent developments of superconducting wind generators have
based vehicles causes about 23% of the global CO2 gas emis- been reviewed. Finally, the application of a magnetic bus in fu-
sion [29]. Renewable energy based DG and EVs are becoming ture grids has been presented. Beside the comprehensive review
popular to solve these enormous challenges. EVs help to keep on state of the art of the technologies towards future grids, fu-
the environment green and serve as distributed energy storage, ture research directions are also presented in this paper, which
which minimizes load shading and excits the growth of renew- may give a possible route for the further development of the
able generation. Therefore, the smart micro-grid technology is technologies.
MUTTAQI et al.: FUTURE POWER DISTRIBUTION GRIDS 3800305

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