CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER

INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

CRIMINOLOGY DEFINED
1. In its Broadest Sense, Criminology is the entire body of knowledge regarding crime and
criminals and the efforts of society to repress and prevent commission of crime. It includes
within its scope:
a. The making of laws
b. breaking of laws
c. reacting towards the breaking of laws.

2. In its Narrowest Sense, Criminology is the scientific study of crimes and criminals. This
scientific study is extended only on three basis lines and they are:
a. Sociology of Law- investigating the nature of criminal law and its administration
b. Etymology of crime- Analysis of the causation of crimes and behaviour of criminals
c. Penology- study of the control of crimes and the rehabilitation of offenders

Criminological Domain
1. Criminal Statistics
2. Criminal Demography
3. Criminal Psychology
4. Criminal Physical Anthropology
5. Criminal Psychiatry or Psychoanalysis
6. Criminal Law, and
7. Police Science or Criminalistics

Triad of Crime (Universal Elements of Crime)

1. Desire (Motive)
2. Capability (Instruments)
3. Opportunity (chance or occasion)

Nature of Crime
1. Crime Mala in Se – acts which by nature are wrongful or sinful, e.g. murder, rape are
wrongful or sinful, e.g. murder, rape, theft, arson, estafa, etc.
2. Crime Mala in Prohibita –are acts made wrongful and punished only by special laws, e.g.
violations of PD 1866, PD 1612,laws, e.g. violations of PD 1866, PD 1612, BP 22, PD
825, etc.

Legal Classification of Crimes

1. Felonies – are acts punished by the RPC
2. Offenses – are acts punished by special laws
3. Infractions of Laws – are acts punished by city/municipal ordinances

Two Main Theories of Crime Causation

1. Classical Theory - That man is essentially a moral creature who is capable of thinking
(rationality) that he fully is capable of thinking (rationality) that he fully knows the
consequences of his acts (full responsibility)
- That people have freewill to choose between normal or criminal conduct and
behaviors
- That crimes are committed for grid or personal need and satisfactions and
crime can be controlled by fear of criminal and sanctions
2. Positivists - That crime is not the product of freewill because criminals were driven to
commit because of conditions in their lives.

Criminological Classification of Crimes

1. As to the result of crimes:
a. Acquisitive crimes – when the offender acquire something as consequence of his
criminal act..
b. Extinctive crime – when the end of a criminal act is destructive.
2. As to the time or period committed:
a. Seasonal crime – those committed only a certain period of the year like violation of tax
b. Situational crime – those committed only when the given situation conducive to its
commission.
3. As to the length of the time committed:
a. Instant crime – those committed in the shortest possible crime.

1
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

b. Episodial crimes – those committed by the series of acts in a lengthy space of time.
4. As to the place of the location of the commission:
a. Static crime – those committed in only one place.
b. Continuing crime – those that can be committed several places
Example; Forcible crime with rape, kidnapping with ransom
5. As to the use of mental faculties;
a. Rational crime – those committed with intension and offender is in full possession of
sanity..
b. Irrational crime – those committed by the person who do not know the nature and
quality of his act on account of the disease of mind.
6. As to the types of offenders:
a. White collar crimes – those committed by person of respectability and of the upper
socio-economic class.in the course of their occupational activities.
Ex. Adulteration of food by the manufacturer.
b. Blue Collars crime – those committed by ordinary professional criminal to maintain
their livelihood.

Criminological Classification of Crimes

1. As to the standard of living of the criminals:
a. Crimes of the upper world-falsification cases- upper class criminal
b. Crimes of the under world – bag snatching –criminals that are under privilege. Ex. Hold-
up and snatching.
2. Acute Criminal – person who violates the Criminal Law because of Impulse of the moment,
passion or anger or spell of extreme jealousy.
3. Chronic Criminal – person who acted in accordance with their deliberated thinking, such as:
a. Neurotic Criminal – person with intra psychic conflict between the social and anti social
components of his/ present personality Ex. A Kleptomaniac
b. Normal Criminals – a criminal photo type resembling a normal individual.
4. According to behavioral system
a. Ordinary Criminal – the lowest form of criminals engage in petty crimes with lack of
organization and mental ability to plan.
b. Organized Criminal – this type of criminal is being flared most. They exist in the street and
in the highest position in the government. Example of highly organized crime is Narcopalitics.

Big Three in Criminology

1. Cesare Lombroso –Founder of the Classical School with the theory of the “Born
Criminal”
2. Enrico Ferri –Founder of the positivist school which focused more on social and
economic influences on the criminal and crime rates. He was a student of Cesare
Lombroso.
3. Rafaelle Garafalo – (1851-1934) was an Italian jurist and a student of Cesare Lombroso.
He rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that crime can be
understood only if it is studied by scientific methods. He attempted to formulate a
sociological definition of crime that would designate those acts which can be repressed
by punishment. These constituted "Natural Crime" and were considered offenses
violating the two basic altruistic sentiments common to all people, namely, probity and
pity. Crime is an immoral act that is injurious to society. This was more of a
psychological orientation than Lombroso's physical-type anthropology.

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. The sociology of law – concerned itself the role of social forces in the shaping of criminal law
in society.
2. Criminal etiology – scientific analysis of the causes of crime. It focuses on the causes of
criminal behavior.
3. Penology – concern with the control of crime, study of punishment. Concerns also with the
isolation custody, reformation and re integration in the society of persons labeled as criminals by
the authorities.
4. Crime Statistics – measures and studies regarding amount and trend of crime. Analysis of
volume of crime in a given time and use as data to support the study of crime and criminals.

FACTORS THAT ENHANCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

1. Criminal Demography –study of the relationship between criminality and population.

2
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

2. Criminal Epidiomology –study of the relationship between environment and criminality.

3. Criminal Ecology –study of criminality in relation to spatial distribution in a community.
4. Criminal physical anthropology –study of criminality in relation to physical constitution of men.
5. Criminal psychology –study of human behavior in relation to criminality. \
6. Criminal psychiatry –study of human mind in relation to criminality.
7. Victimology –study of the role of the victim in the commission of crime.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT AND EXISTENCE OF CRIMES AND CRIMINALITY

1. Geography Factors
a. North and south pole – according to Quetelet “thermic law of delinquency
b. Approach to the Equator- according to Montesquieu Spirit Approach to the Equator of Laws.
c. Season of the year- crimes against person during summer than in rainy days while crime
against property are on the rise during wet season..
d. Soil formation – crimes against property dominates the highland, crimes against persons
dominate the low land area.
e. Month of the year
f. Temperature
g. Humidity atmospheric pressure
h. Wind Velocity

The Biological Factors

a. Physiognomy – relationship between the facial features.
Physiognomy • greek word physis “nature” and gnomon “judge/interpreter”. Also known
called as Anthroposcopy; the art of determining character or personal characteristics from the
form or features
b. Phrenology or Craniology – study of external formation of the skull that indicates the
conformation of the brain and the development of its various parts in relation to the behavior of
the criminal.
Craniology was the science of character divination, faculty psychology, theory of brain and
what the 19th century phrenologists called “The only True Science of Mind” Phrenology came
from the theories of the idiosyncratic Viennese physician Franz Joseph Gall
c. Somatotype Theory – has something to do with the body type or physique of man. Their
temperament is also associated with their body built.
d. Heredity – as the causes of crime.
Study of Kalikak Family Tree (By Henry Goddard) - about Martin Kalikak who was a soldier
during the revolutionary war in America had an illicit affair with a feeble-minded girl. About 489
descendants traced from their family tree 143 were feeble-minded. 46 were normal - after the
war Kalikak married an ideal person from a good family and out of their marriage had produced
4967 descendants only 1 became normal 2 became alcoholic 1 became criminal and 1
convicted of religious offense.
Study of Juke Family Tree (By Richard Dugdale) -The Juke Family was consisted of 6 girls
some of whom were illegitimate. One of them, Ada Juke was also known as “Margaret” became
the “mother of all criminals”. Dugdale traced her 1, 200 descendants for 75 years from its origin
and found 280 as paupers, 140 criminals, 7 murderers, 50 prostitutes, 440 afflicted with sexual
diseases and 30 were persecuted for bastardy.
Study of Sir Jonathan Edward Family Tree - Jonathan Edward was a famous preacher
during the colonial period. When his family was traced, one of the descendants was found to be
criminal and many became successful and famous, some became president and magistrate,
writers, preachers and teachers.
e. Kretschmer by classifying types of physique and the type of crimes they are prone to commit:
1. Pyknic type: Those who are stout and with round bodies. They tend to commit deception,
fraud and violence.
2. Athletic type Those who are muscular and slender. Their crimes are pretty thievery and
fraud.
3. Asthenic type: Those who are skinny and slender. Their crimes are pretty thievery and
fraud.
4. Dysplastic or mixed type: Those who are less clear evident having any predominant type.
Their offenses are against decency and morality.
f. Study of William Sheldon (Varieties of Delinquency Youth)
1. Endomorph – a person who is round, fat and fleshy with short tempering limbs and small
bones. Sometimes called Viscerotonic Temperaments. Viscerotonic Temperaments - who is a
person characterized by the tendency to relax comfortable loves luxury an essentially extrovert.

3
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

2. Ectomorph – a person is thin, small, and bony mass, relatively great surface area.
Cerebrotonic temperaments
3. Mesomorph – a person whose big bone and muscular and tends to have a large trunk,
heavy chest and large wrist and hands Somatonic Temperaments.

Sociological causes of Crimes

a. Lack of parental guidance
b. Broken homes and Family
c. Injuring Status of Neighborhood
d. Bad association with criminal groups
e. Lack of recreational facilities for proper use of leisure time
f. Lack of employment/poverty

Sociological Theory - the most widely accepted theory of criminal behavior is sociological
approach. 1. Differential Association Theory by Edwin H. Sutherland that criminal behavior is
learned.
2. Law of Imitations by Gabriel Tarde explained that crime is a result of imitation, simulations
and idolatry
3. Theory of Anomie by Emile Durkheim explain that crime is a normal part of society (as in birth
and death). He stressed that crime is produced when there is breakdown in social values and
order.

Characteristics of a normal home

1. Physically complete where both natural parent are present.
2. There is social and religious similarity in the group
3. It must be economically stable to maintain normal health
4. Both parents must have the same cultural backgrounds
5. There must be physical and psychological normality
6. There must be functional adequacy

Basic needs of Children

1. Security 2. Recognition 3. Status 4.Companionship
Kinds of disorganized or broken homes
a. Home with criminal pattern
b. Home in which there are unsatisfactory relations because of domination, favoritism, non –
soliciture, neglect, jealousy, step parent and interfering relatives.
c. Home socially or normally maladjusted because of difference of race, religion or an immoral
situation
d. Home in which one parent has physical or mental disability.
e. Home under economic pressures unemployment.

Theories on Sociological Causes of Crimes.

1. Differential Identification Theory by Daniel Glasser
2. Imitation – Suggestion Theory by Gabriel Tarde
3. Differential Social Organization Theory
4. Conflict of Culture Theory by Thorsten Sellin
5. Containment Theory by Reckless

Criminogenic Factors Causes of Crimes.

a. Failure of the School in character development of the children and the youth
1.. Primary functions of the school
2. Relationship between school and delinquency or crimes.
3. The teaching of religion may sometimes be misdirected from its purpose and objective
4. The mass communication media develop an artificial environment of crimes and delinquency
and influence the public to violate the law
5. Political causes may likewise bring out on artificial set of crime

SIGMUD FREUD (The Ego and The ld., 1927)

1. Id” - Instinct of social drives.
2. “Ego” – this forms part of man’s physical organization between his sensory stimuli on one
hand and his motor activity on the other. The ego operates on the basis of.expediency.

4
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

3. “Super-ego” conscience of man. The super-ego tries to control the ego and maybe
represented by the voice of God.

General Index of Criminality

This criminosynthesis explains the reason why a person may commit a crime or inhibit
himself from doing so under the following conditions:
1. Need Frustration – the person before committing the crime is likely to feel unhappy,
unsatisfied, resentful or angry about something in particular or about in general.
2. Internal Inhibition – it refers to all types of internal forces which may prevent a person from
committing a crime.
3. External Inhibition – refers to all types of external forces which may prevent an individual from
committing crime.
4. Contact with Reality – This refers to the extent to which person can learn from his past
experiences, especially his past mistakes, as well as to the extent to which he can evaluate
accurately the present situation and foresee the consequence of his parent action in relation to
his future.
5. Situational Crime Potential – this refers to the cultural opportunity to commit the crime, that is
to the easiest or possibilities to commit a crime offered by a given place, situation person or
environment.
6. Potential Satisfaction – This refers to the balance of gain and loss that a person may
experience if he commits a given crime.

Mental Disturbance as Causes of Crimes

The following are cases of mental disturbances which are sometimes the causes of criminality
and the development of criminal behavior
1. Mental Deficiency – a condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind existing
before the age of 18, disease or injury
2. Schizophrenia – this is sometimes called dementia praecox which is a form of psychosis
characterized by thinking disturbance and regression to a more relatively unimpaired and
intellectual functions are well preserved
3. Compulsive Neurosis – this is uncontrollable or irresistible impulse to do something.
4. Epilepsy – this is a condition characterized by convulsive seizures and a tendency to mental
mental deterioration.
5. Alcoholism – this is a form vice causing mental disturbance. It is a condition wherein a person
is under the influence of intoxicating liquor or alcohol.
6. Drug Addiction – this is another form of vice which causes strong mental disturbance. It is the
state of periodic or chronic intoxication produced by the repeated consumption of natural or
synthetic drugs

History of Criminology:
I. During the Middle Ages (1200-1600)
-superstition and fear of satanic possession dominated thinking (witches and
demons).
-penalties were harsh including whipping, branding, maiming and outright
execution.

II. Classical Criminology (18th Century)

-utilitarianism emphasized that behavior must be useful, purposeful and
reasonable. Crimes and punishment should be balanced and fair. Penal
sanctions rather than public executions.
A. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794)
-pleasure and pain, crimes must provide some pleasure to the criminal. To stop
crime, one must apply pain in an appropriate way or amount to counterbalance
the pleasure obtained from doing the crime.
-“Let the punishment fit the crime”.

III. Positivist Criminology (Late 19th Century)

A. August Comte (1798-1857)
-founder of Sociology (scientific study of society).
-societies pass through stages that can be grouped on the basis of how people
try to understand the world in which they live.

5
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

B. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

-Darwin’s Theory is a conclusion that man was traced to have originated from the
animal of the anthropoid group-the ape.

C. Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909)

-Italian doctor who developed the Positivist School of Criminology.
-Father of Empirical Criminology.
-theory of “born criminal” which states that criminals are nearer to their apelike
ancestors. They are differentiated by various atavistic stigmata (physical features
of creatures at an earlier stage of development before they became fully human).
a. Insane criminals-not criminal from birth. They become criminals as a result of
some change in their brains which interferes with their ability to distinguish
between right and wrong.
b. Criminoloids-includes habitual criminals, criminal by passion and other
diverse types.

D. Enrico Ferri (1856-1929)

-criminals should be held morally responsible for their crimes because they must
have made a rational decision to commit criminal acts. They did not choose to
commit crimes but driven them by conditions in their lives.
-society needed protection against criminal acts and that it was the purpose of
the criminal law and penal policy.

E. Raffaele Garofalo (1852-1934)

-traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to their
psychological equivalents “moral anomalies” (natural crimes are found in all
human societies).
-natural crimes those that offend the basic sentiments of probity (respect for the
property of others) and piety (avoidance against infliction of suffering on others).

F. Charles B. Goring (1870-1919)

-poor physical condition plus a defective state of mind were determining factors
in the criminal personality.
-studied craniology (brain) and phrenology (skull)

G. Franz Joseph Gall, Johann Kaspar Spurzheim and Charles Caldwell

-advanced the science of phrenology

H. Giambattista dela Porta (1535-1615)

-studied human Physiognomy (study of facial features and their relation to human
behavior).
I. Johann Kasper Lavater
-further studied physiognomy

IV. Somatotype School (1st Half of 20th Century)

-relationship of body built to behavior.

A. Ernest Kretschmer (1888-1964)

-identified three physical types of physiques or persons’ built:
a. Asthenic-lean, slightly built with narrow shoulder
b. Athletic-medium to tall, strong, muscular and skinny
c. Pyknic-medium height, rounded figure, massive neck and broad
B. William Sheldon
-formulated his own group of somatotypes:
a. Ectomorph
b. Mesomorph
c. Endomorph

V. Inherited Criminality
A. Richard Dugdale-studied the Juke Family whom he traced the descendants of Ada
Juke “Mother of Criminals”.

6
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

B. Henry Goddard-studied the family tree of Martin Kallikak.

VI. Pioneers in Criminal Psychology
A. Isaac Ray (1808-1881)
-acknowledged as first America’s forensic psychiatrist.
-from his book “The Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity”, defended the concept of “moral
insanity”.

B. Adolphe Quetelet and Andre Michel Guerry

-work in the relation of crime statistics to such factors as poverty, age, sex, race and
climate.

C. Gabriel Tarde
-formulated his theory in terms of Laws of Imitation (individuals emulate behavior
patterns in much the same way that they copy styles of dress).

D. Emile Durkheim
-studied the social structure of the society.
-“anomie” is defined as the breakdown of social disorder as a result of a loss of
standards and values.

Branches of Social Structure Theory:

1. Social Disorganization Theory-a society of large number of single-parent
household, large percentage of out-of-school-youth, unemployment problems,
breakdown of commercialized values, etc.
2. Strain Theory-individual’s frustrations and disappointments over his inability to
reach a goal, pushed a person to a life of crime.
3. Cultural Deviance Theory-emanate from strain theory combined with social
disorganization theory.

Cultural Deviance Theories:

-refers to those studies that looks at crime as one resulting from cultural values that
permit behaviors that will violate the law.

Three Major Cultural Deviance Theories:

1. Social Disorganization Theory-focuses in the development of high-crime areas in
which there is a disintegration of conventional values caused by rapid
industrialization, increased immigration and urbanization.
2. Differential Association Theory-crime as a result of contact with anti-social values,
attitudes and criminal behavior patterns.
3. Culture Conflict Theory-different groups learn different conduct norms that may
class with conventional middle-class rules.

Three Cultural Standard Behavior:

1. Deviance-any behavior that members of a social group define as violating their
norms.
2. Social Disorganization-breakdown of effective social bonds, family and
neighborhood associations and social controls in neighborhoods and communities.
3. Cultural Transmission-hand-downs of delinquency as a socially learned behavior,
transmitted from one generation to the next in disorganized urban areas.

Psychological Factors
A. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
-originated the psychodynamic or psychoanalytic (human mind performs three separate
functions).

Psychodynamic theory also says that the human personality has a three-part structure:
1. Id-pleasure principle
2. Ego-reality principle
3. Super Ego-conscience and ego ideal

7
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

VII. Additional Personalities in relation to Mind and Community

A. Aichorn (1925)-author of the book “Wayward Youth”. Delinquency in the first few
years.
B. Abrahamsen (1945)-author of Crime and the Human Mind. Explain the causes of
crime by his formula:
Criminal Behavior=Criminalistics Tendencies+ Crime Inducing Situation divided by
Person’s Mental or Emotional Resistance to Temptation
C. Cyrill Burt-author of the book Young Delinquent. He explain the theory of General
Emotionality
D. Healy-author of Individual Delinquency claimed that crime is an expression of mental
contents of human individual.
E. Bromberg-author of Crime and the Mind. Claimed that criminality is the result of
criminal emotional immaturity.
F. Daniel Classer-claimed that person pursued criminal behavior through real or
imaginary person.
G. Thorstein Sellin-claimed that multiplicity of conflicting cultural as a principal source
of criminality.
H. Edwin Sutherland-author of White Collar Crime.
I. Freda Adler - Known for developing the liberation theory of female criminality
J. Robert Agnew - Developed General Strain Theory
K. Ronald Akers - Social learning theorist
L. Elijah Anderson - Developed the "code of the streets" theory
M. Albert Bandura - Social learning theorist
N. Cesare Beccaria - Known as the father of criminology, and wrote the essay, "On
Crimes and Punishment"
O. Howard Becker - Developed Social Reaction theory, better known as labeling theory
P. Jeremy Bentham - A philosopher from the Classical School of Criminology
Q. William Chambliss - Conflict Theorist
R. Ronald V. Clarke - Rational Choice theorist
S. Richard Cloward - Revised Merton's theory of anomie
T. Albert Cohen - Published Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gangs
U. R.L. Dugdale - Conducted studies on heredity, especially on the Jukes family
V. Michel Foucault - Conflict Theorist
W. John Hagan - Developed Power-Control Theory and published Structural
Criminology
X. Travis Hirschi - Developed Social Control Theory and wrote the book General Theory
of Crime with Michael Gottfredson
Y. Earnest A. Hooten - Positivist who conducted extensive research based on
Lombroso's earlier work
Z. Edwin Lemert - Developed a labeling theory known as societal reaction theory
AA. Cesare Lombroso - Known as the father of modern criminology, developed work
on atavism
BB. Karl Marx - Conflict Theorist
CC. David Matza - Focused his work on Juvenile Delinquency
DD. Robert K. Merton - Sociologist who developed a theory of anomie
EE.Oscar Newman - Developed the theory of Defensible Space from Social Control
theory
FF. Richard Quinney - Philosopher who wrote greatly about crime
GG. Jeffrey Reiman - Developed the Pyrrhic Defeat Theory
HH. Georg Rusche - Developed a theory on Punishment and Social Structure
II. Stanton Samenow - Conducted work on criminal personality
JJ. Edwin Schur - Developed theories on crime and deviance
KK. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay - Developed Social Disorganization theory
LL. Jerome Skolnick - Examined the subculture of police
MM. Edwin Sutherland - Developed Differential Association theory and conducted
extensive research in white collar crime
NN. Frank Tannenbaum - Developed a labeling theory also known as the
Dramatization of Evil
OO. Gabriel Tarde - Developed the theory of Imitation of Deviance
PP.Alexis de Tocqueville - Developed theories of democracy, penology and crime during
the 19th century
QQ. Marvin Wolfgang - Developed the black subculture of violence theory

8
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

RR. James Q. Wilson - Wrote many important books dealing with criminology during
the 20th Century, including the infamous article with George Kelling, "Broken
Windows."
VIII. Howell (2003) uses the following "Continuum of Troublesome and Criminal
Groups" as a way of identifying different types of gangs.
Troublesome Youth Groups: Children and adolescents who
hang out together in shopping malls and other places and
may be involved in minor forms of delinquency.
Delinquent groups: Small clusters of friends who band
together to commit delinquent acts such as burglaries.
Youth subculture groups: Groups with special interests,
such as “goths,” “straight edgers,” and “anarchists,” that are
not gangs.
Taggers: Graffiti vandals. Taggers are often called gang
members, but they typically do nothing more than engage in
graffiti contests.
School-based gangs: Groups of adolescents that may
function as gangs only at school.
Street-based gangs: Semi structured groups of adolescents
and young adults who engage in delinquent and criminal
behavior.
Drug gangs: Loosely organized groups of drug-trafficking
operations that generally are led by both young and older
adults but sometimes include adolescents.
Adult criminal organizations: Small groups of adults that
engage in lucrative criminal activity primarily for economic
reasons.

IX. Learning Theories of Crime

A. Associationism (developed by Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, and Hume) is the oldest
learning theory. It is based on the idea that the mind organizes sensory experiences
in some way, and is called cognitive psychology today.
B. Behaviorism (developed by Pavlov and Skinner) is the second oldest learning
theory. It is based on the idea that the mind requires a physical response by the body
in order to organize sensory associations.
There are two types of learning in behavioral psychology: classical
conditioning (where stimuli produce a given response without prior training); and
operant conditioning (where rewards and punishments are used to reinforce given
responses).
C. Imitation (sometimes called contagion) is the oldest social learning theory, and
derives from the work of Tarde (1843-1904), a sociologist who said crime begins as
fashion and later becomes a custom. The Social learning theory that has had the
most impact on criminology is associated with the work of Bandura (1969), a
psychologist who formulated the principles of "stimulus control" (stimulus-to-stimulus
reinforcement rather than stimulus-behavior reinforcement), outlined the stages of
"modeling" (attend, retain, rehearse, perform), and pioneered the field of "vicarious
learning" (media influences, for example).

SUTHERLAND'S DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

Sutherland (1883-1950) is called the father of American criminology. In 1924, he wrote a
book called Criminology. When Sutherland died in 1950, Donald Cressey continued to
popularize the theory. It's called Differential Association (DA) theory, and Sutherland
devised it because his study of white collar crime (a field he pioneered) and professional
theft led him to believe that there were social learning processes that could turn anyone
into a criminal, anytime, anywhere.

AKERS' DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY

According to Akers (1985), people are first indoctrinated into deviant behavior by
differential association with deviant peers. Then, through differential reinforcement, they
learn how to reap rewards and avoid punishment by reference to the actual or
anticipated consequences of given behaviors. These consequences are the social and

9
CRIMINOLOGY BOARD EXAMINATION REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY

nonsocial reinforcements that provide a support system for those with criminal careers or
persistent criminality. Structural conditions affect a person's differential reinforcements.

JEFFERY'S DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Not to be overlooked, Jeffery's (1965) theory of differential reinforcement is based on the
ideas of conditioning history, deprivation, satiation, the proceeds of crime being
reinforcing in themselves, and the absence of punishment. This last variable (absence of
punishment, or not getting caught) makes the theory tend to resemble a social control
theory of crime (Conger 1976).

MATZA'S NEUTRALIZATION THEORY

Neutralization theory (Sykes & Matza 1957) holds that people learn the values, attitudes,
and techniques of criminal behavior through subterranean values, which exist side by
side with conventional values. Few people are "all good" or "all bad." Matza argues that
most criminals are not involved in crime all the time. They drift from one behavior to
another, sometimes deviant, sometimes conventional.

Prepared by:

Prof. Aidalyn Bustamante-Barrido, MBA, PhDPAc

Criminology Board Exam Reviewer
College Dean
PPSC Professor
Police Officer

10