Couto et al.

BMC Public Health 2011, 11:800

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/11/800

RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access

Drivers’ and conductors’ views on the causes and

ways of preventing workplace violence in the
road passenger transport sector in Maputo City,
Mozambique
Maria T Couto1,2*, Per Tillgren1,3 and Maja Söderbäck3

Abstract
Background: Workplace violence (WPV) is an occupational health hazard in both low and high income countries.
To design WPV prevention programs, prior knowledge and understanding of conditions in the targeted population
are essential. This study explores and describes the views of drivers and conductors on the causes of WPV and
ways of preventing it in the road passenger transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambique.
Methods: The design was qualitative. Participants were purposefully selected from among transport workers
identified as victims of WPV in an earlier quantitative study, and with six or more years of experience in the
transport sector. Data were collected in semi-structured interviews. Seven open questions covered individual views
on causes of WPV and its prevention, based on the interviewees’ experiences of violence while on duty. Thirty-two
transport professionals were interviewed. The data were analyzed by means of qualitative content analysis.
Results: The triggers and causes of violence included fare evasion, disputes over revenue owing to owners, alcohol
abuse, overcrowded vehicles, and unfair competition for passengers. Failures to meet passenger expectations, e.g.
by-passing parts of a bus route or missing stops, were also important. There was disrespect on the part of
transport workers, e.g. being rude to passengers and jumping of queues at taxi ranks, and there were also
robberies. Proposals for prevention included: training for workers on conflict resolution, and for employers on
passenger-transport administration; and, promoting learning among passengers and workers on how to behave
when traveling collectively. Regarding control and supervision, there were expressed needs for the recording of
mileage, and for the sanctioning of workers who transgress queuing rules at taxi ranks. The police or supervisors
should prevent drunken passengers from getting into vehicles, and drivers should refuse to go to dangerous,
secluded neighborhoods. Finally, there is a need for an institution to judge alleged cases of employees not
handing over demanded revenues to their employer.
Conclusions: The causes of WPV lie in problems regarding money, behavior, environment, organization and crime.
Suggestions for prevention include education, control to avoid critical situations, and a judicial system to assess
malpractices. Further research in the road passenger transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambique and similar
settings is warranted.

* Correspondence: [email protected]
1
Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institute, Norrbacka, 171
76, Stockholm, Sweden
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2011 Couto et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Background that employment in the sector may constitute an occu-

Violence occurs in all occupational sectors [1]. Workplace pational and health hazard [9,26]. It is also reported that
violence (WPV) is defined as “behaviors by an individual WPV is associated with burnout, although social sup-
or individuals, within or outside an organization, that is port appears to buffer the effect of WPV on burnout
intended to physically and/or psychologically harm a [27].
worker/workers and occurs in a work related context” [2]. The present study explores and describes drivers’ and
The transport sector comprises air, rail, maritime and conductors’ views on the causes of WPV in the road
road transport [3]. The road transport sector is divided passenger transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambi-
into cargo transport (also known as freight) and passen- que, and on ways of preventing it.
ger transport [3]. In a European survey, the prevalence of
physical and/or psychological violence over a 12-month Methods
period inflicted upon workers in road and pipeline trans- The study setting
port has been found to be 11.5% [4]. In the USA, workers The study was carried out in Maputo, the capital city of
in the road and ground passenger sector accounted for Mozambique. The city has a population of over a million
1.2% of all occupational homicides [5]. Studies of taxi dri- [10]. When data were collected (December 2009-March
vers in Europe, Australia and the USA have estimated the 2010), road passenger transport was provided in buses,
prevalence of physical and/or psychological violence over minibuses and taxis, owned by one government company
12 months at between 19 and 70% [6-8]. In Africa, a and the members of two private transport associations.
study in Mozambique reported prevalence of physical Each bus and minibus was staffed by a driver and a con-
and/or verbal violence over the previous 12 months ductor, while each taxi employed just one driver. The dri-
among taxi drivers at 48.6%, minibus drivers at 61.8%, vers and conductors are registered at Mozambique’s
bus drivers at 70.8%, and minibus and bus conductors at National Traffic Institute (NTI), which is the government
66.0 and 75.0%, respectively [9]. The present study speci- institution responsible for traffic control and regulation.
fically addresses workers’ views on WPV in the road pas- The total population of registered drivers and conductors
senger transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambique. in the city in 2007 was 2,618, with the following distribu-
Mozambique is a low-income country, located in south- tion: 405 bus drivers, 377 bus conductors, 743 minibus
east Africa, with a population of over 22 million [10]. It drivers, 743 minibus conductors, and 350 taxi drivers.
has an infant mortality rate of 118/1,000 births, life There is a male predominance among registered drivers
expectancy at birth of 52 years, a total adult illiteracy rate and conductors.
of 54.4%, and GDP per capita of 454 USD [10]. Workers from the government company only drive and
It is recognized that the interactions between contextual, collect fares, while workers from the private associations
individual, workplace and societal risk factors increase have multiple duties. The conductors collect fares from
workers’ vulnerability and exposure to WPV [1]. In the passengers and are expected to assist the drivers in main-
transport sector, the reported risk factors are: contextual, taining harmony among passengers. In addition, both the
e.g. working in high crime areas [1,7]; individual-related, drivers and conductors help to load passengers’ belong-
e.g. perpetrators of violence using alcohol or drugs, fare ings and perform duties to ensure safety and hygiene in
evasion [11,12]; victim-related, e.g. a failure to meet pas- the vehicles. These duties include cleaning the vehicle,
sengers’ expectations [11,12]; workplace/environmental, checking for mechanical problems, fixing punctures, and
e.g. overcrowded premises, working alone, working with repairing any damage incurred to the vehicle. A driver or
the public, handling money and other valuables [6-8,12]; a conductor may also have a supervisory role, which
and societal, e.g. a violent society [1,13-16]. includes resolving internal problems (between employ-
WPV has consequences for employers, such as increased ees), and external problems (between employees and pas-
absenteeism and financial loss [1,17], and also for workers, sengers). They also have to ensure that the vehicles have
who experience emotional reactions, such as anger, fear, a valid license and undergo a yearly service, and that they
helplessness, sadness, and frustration, which result in poor follow the rules for orderly arrival at pick-up stations
performance and decreased job satisfaction [17-19]. (e.g. taxi ranks, and bus or minibus terminals).
Further, WPV has significant health impacts, including
physical injuries, disabilities, death, psychosomatic com- Study design and participants
plaints, emotional exhaustion, sleeplessness, anxiety, The study had a qualitative design, which made it possi-
depression, post-traumatic stress, and low quality of life ble to obtain an emic perspective i.e. the insiders’ views
[20-26]. [28]. Our interest was in capturing information based
Studies from Mozambique have reported that WPV in on the individuals’ views on and experiences of WPV;
the road passenger transport is a common phenomenon, the victimized individuals were identified in an earlier
occurring wherever workers are on duty, which suggests study [9]. These individuals’ views can be understood as
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resulting from their experiences and how they relate to familiarity with interview content, the entire collective
actual contextual conditions. The earlier study indicated text was carefully read through several times by the two
that the highest percentage of victims of WPV was Portuguese speaking authors (MTC and MS). The next
among drivers and conductors with six or more years of step was to identify units of meaning concerning causes
work experience [9]. Accordingly, eligible participants of WPV and suggestions for prevention. At a third step,
for the present study were the drivers and conductors the meaning units were condensed and coded, and then
who had been previously identified as victims of WPV, grouped into a matrix, based on their similarities, into
and who had six or more years of work experience. For different descriptive categories. Identification of codes
the interviews, 38 workers were purposively selected to and categories was first performed independently by
cover a variety of transport routes, taxi ranks, and bus MTC and MS, and then jointly verified. Then, the cate-
or minibus drivers and conductors from different gories were allocated to themes in accordance with
vehicles. causes of WPV and suggestions for prevention, and
then translated into English. Finally, the three authors
Data collection together critically reviewed the analysis and approved its
A letter was sent to the Chairman of the Commission outcome. Examples of the matrix analysis are shown in
Board of the NTI, requesting support in introducing the tables 1 and 2.
study to the chairmen of the private transport associa-
tions and the chairman of the government company. A Ethical considerations
meeting with the chairmen, deputy chairmen and general The nature and aims of the study were explained to each
secretaries of the transport associations and the man- participant and verbal consent was obtained. The partici-
power director of the government company was arranged pants were assured of confidentiality and informed of their
to obtain permission for the interviews to be conducted. right to withdraw from the interview at any time. Permis-
A semi-structured interview guide was constructed to sion to tape-record the interview was sought from each
explore the views of drivers and conductors on the causes participant prior to the interview, which was conducted at
of WPV and its prevention [28,29]. The questions focused the convenience of the participant inside his vehicle. The
on the workers’ views, based on their experiences of being National Committee of Bioethics for Health in Mozambi-
verbally threatened or abused, assaulted, bitten, slapped, que approved the study’s methods and procedures.
hit, pushed, spat at, scratched, pinched, punched or kicked
while on duty. A preliminary pilot interview study was Results
conducted to clarify understandings of seven open-ended The results of the analysis of themes related to the
questions. The drivers and conductors were contacted causes of WPV are presented first, followed by those for
face-to-face by the first author (MTC) at the bus terminals the proposals for prevention.
or taxi ranks. Each interview occurred soon after initial Causes of Workplace Violence
contact was made. Six contacted participants were not The problems that constituted causes of WPV were sub-
interviewed because they did not want their interview to sumed under the following main themes: Money, Beha-
be tape-recorded. The interviews were conducted in Por- vior, Environment, Organization and Crime.
tuguese, the official language of Mozambique, and each
took about 30-45 minutes. Saturation, meaning that new Money
information was no longer emerging, was considered to Managing money while transporting passengers
have been reached after 32 interviews [28]. The 32 trans- Passengers not wanting to pay their fares, not having
port workers interviewed were 8 taxi drivers, 6 bus drivers, enough money or not agreeing with the fare, and also a
6 minibus drivers, 6 bus conductors, and 6 minibus con- lack of change, were regarded as triggers of violence from
ductors. In terms of socio-demographic characteristics, all passengers against workers. A minibus driver said: “When
the transport workers were males aged between 30 and 60; the passenger doesn’t want to pay and the conductor
14 had attended primary school (< 5 years in school), and demands payment, there is a quarrel, with insults and
18 secondary school (10 to 12 years in school), and their threats from both sides” (MMB5). And a taxi driver stated:
occupational tenure in the transport sector ranged “In my opinion, threats and insults at work are due to dis-
between 7 and 16 years. putes over fares. When the driver tells the passenger the
fare, he says no, you are robbing me, and then he starts to
Data analysis threaten you” (MTC/S6).
The interviews were transcribed verbatim from the tape- Managing revenue owing to owners
recorded material by the first author (MTC). Qualitative A triggering circumstance that incited violence from the
content analysis was used to explore the causes of WPV owners of vehicles against the workers was a failure to
and suggestions for its prevention [30]. To establish hand over the revenue demanded by the owners; workers
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Table 1 Examples from the content analysis of causes of workplace violence

Meaning unit Condensation Code Category Theme
1-MMB5. When the passenger doesn’t want to pay and the conductor Does not want to Does not Managing money Money
demands payment, there is a quarrel, with insults and threats from both sides pay, insults, threats want to while transporting
pay passengers
2-MMB6. There are passengers who come onto the vehicle drunk ... these Drunken Drunken Alcohol abuse Behavior
passengers provoke lots of problems, they insult, shove the conductor. When I passengers, verbal passengers
stop for him to leave the vehicle, other passengers get angry because I’m abuse, shoving
causing a delay, so they insult the driver and the conductor

either embezzled the money, although sometimes they violence between co-workers, particularly from conduc-
asked for a salary payment on a fixed date. A taxi driver tors against drivers.
said: “There are several reasons for violence from the own- Disdain, disrespect and disagreement
ers of vehicles against the drivers; there are drivers who Participants from all occupational groups regarded dis-
are not honest with their boss; they take all the money, or dain for their activities as a cause of violence from pas-
spoil the car, and the boss then insults or beats them” sengers against workers. A minibus driver put it as
(MTC/S2). follows: “In my view, passengers are pretty contemptuous
Further, drivers of buses or minibuses thought that of the work of chapa drivers” (MMB1).
accusing the conductor of embezzling money was a trig- Disdain was also a source of conflict between co-work-
ger of violence between co-workers. One bus driver said: ers. One conductor said: “There are drivers and conductors
“... I say to the conductor we had lots of passengers, and who show no respect for each other, rather than working
the money doesn’t match, you took the money. Then, there together. They talk about how you’re dressed, or about your
is a quarrel, up to the point that the driver assaults the shoes, in a way that gets you annoyed and feel insulted”
conductor, or the conductor the driver. This is what (CMB6).
causes fights, between co-workers, between drivers and Rudeness due to disrespect was a trigger of violence
conductors” (MA4). from passengers against workers, between co-workers,
and also from owners of vehicles against workers (and
Behavior vice-versa). One minibus conductor said: “Sometimes,
Alcohol abuse conductors or drivers are rude to passengers, who then
Drivers and conductors commonly expressed the view get angry and threatening” (CMB4). Another reflected:
that alcohol abuse caused a lot of violence from passen- “There is violence between conductors and drivers
gers against workers. An example comes from one mini- because both are rude to each other; they lose their tem-
bus driver: “There are passengers who come onto the pers and end up threatening each other” (CMB2).
vehicle drunk ... these passengers provoke lots of problems, Disrespect for traffic rules, by breaching priority
they insult, shove the conductor. When I stop for him to arrangements, was viewed by many workers as a trigger
leave the vehicle, other passengers get angry because I’m of violence, particularly between the drivers of buses
causing a delay, so they insult the driver and the conduc- and minibuses. One bus driver said: “Breaking the prior-
tor” (MMB6). ity rules often causes quarrels and sometime even fights
Alcohol abuse by workers incited violence from the between drivers at the bus terminal” (MA5). Specifically,
owners of vehicles against them, and there was also taxi drivers mentioned that disrespect for taxi-rank rules

Table 2 Examples from the content analysis of suggestions to prevent workplace violence
Meaning unit Condensation Code Category Theme
1-MA5. To prevent insults and threats from Education for passengers, drivers and Education for passengers Practical Education
passengers, there must be education for conductors, mass media distribution; write a and workers (radio, education
passengers, and for drivers and conductors. pamphlet with information on how to magazines, TV); spread
There are lots of mass media, TV, radio, behave in a chapa information;
magazines; or a pamphlet could be written to write a pamphlet.
spread information about how to behave in a
chapa1)
2-MA1. To prevent fights between colleagues Vehicle control at bus terminals; At the bus terminals, Departure Control
we should have somebody to control our cars. supervisors vehicles must depart one at of vehicles
The supervisors must be good at checking our must be a time; supervisors must be
cars at the bus terminals, e.g. by ensuring that efficient efficient.
two cars don’t go out at the same time.
Chapa1) = bus or minibus.
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was a trigger of violence. One driver expressed it as fol- insulted by his boss“ (CMB4). And a taxi driver said: “The
lows: “Threats and shoving arise from disrespect for the owner of the vehicle threatens the driver if he doesn’t look
queue at the taxi rank; on some days, one driver has no after the car, or if it gets scratched due to careless driving”
customers while another takes them all. That causes a (MT7).
lot of trouble” (MT7). Damage to passengers’ belongings incited violence
Disagreement between co-workers on the same vehicle from passengers against workers. A minibus conductor
was also a trigger of violence. This was described by one said: “The passenger got violent because his trousers were
of the interviewed minibus drivers: “Violence between torn on the seat that the conductor offered him, and the
conductors and driver does happen, e.g. when my con- two of them lost their tempers while trying to resolve the
ductor is rude to a passenger, and gets angry and insult- matter” (CMB2).
ing when I reprimand him” (MMB1).
Failure to meet passengers’ expectations and interference Organization
By-passing a bus stop, thereby shortening the transport Fighting for passengers, rotas and multiple duties
route, not stopping at a bus stop, and transport delays, Drivers of buses or minibuses blocking each other’s way
especially when passengers are in a hurry, were viewed so as to get passengers first was a trigger of violence
as triggers of violence from passengers against workers. between co-workers. An example of this was given by a
One bus conductor said: “When a bus stop is missed, bus driver: “A struggle starts because a driver won’t give
the conductor is shoved, or the driver insulted or threa- way so he can take the first passengers. When we return
tened” (CA6). Another worker explained: “Because of to the bus terminal there is a fight, with threatening beha-
many traffic-police stops or traffic jams, the bus takes vior and assault” (MA1).
longer to reach the terminal, so the passengers react as Violence also occurred between conductors when one
well” (MA1). conductor took a passenger who was first called by
Drivers sometimes viewed conflict mediation between another. A minibus conductor stated: “The struggle to get
passengers and co-workers as a form of interference and passengers happens mostly at bus stops; when a conductor
trigger of violence from passengers against workers. One takes a passenger who was first called by another, there
minibus driver said: “For example, a passenger assaults or are threats, insults and shoving” (CM2).
insults the conductor, and when the driver intervenes, he One taxi driver stated that some drivers being given
too is insulted or assaulted by that passenger” (MMB1). more days on the duty rota was a trigger of violence
between co-workers. He explained: “... but the duty rota
Environment doesn’t follow any rules; there are drivers who get more
Overcrowding, breakdown and damage days, which is what provokes the fighting” (MT4).
The workers on buses and minibuses expressed the view Also, conductors with multiple duties were recipients of
that an overcrowded vehicle was a trigger of violence from violence from owners of the vehicles. A minibus conduc-
passengers against workers. One example comes from a tor said: “There is violence due to lack of car inspection
bus driver: “The passengers start to argue when the bus is and control. Car control includes car cleaning, changing
overcrowded, but the conductor continues to let more pas- oil, checking whether the drivers are driving carefully,
sengers on. If somebody steps on or shoves another one, the changing tires, and checking mechanical problems. The
passenger gets furious, and insults the conductor and the conductor’s job is to collect money from passengers, but
driver” (MA3). Insisting that passengers stand back also when he is not able to do all these other things, he starts
triggers violence. A minibus conductor expressed this as fighting with the boss” (MMB2).
follows: “What incites passengers to threaten, to shove, to
insult a conductor is when the bus is already overcrowded Crime
and more passengers are allowed to get on ... I ask a pas- Taxi drivers pointed to robbery as a cause of violence.
senger to stand back but he doesn’t want to, and if I insist, This was described by one of the drivers as follows: “I
then there is a dispute“ (CMB5). take people who ask to be taken to secluded neighbor-
Vehicle breakdowns and accidents were triggers of vio- hoods where there isn’t much traffic, but where there are
lence from owners of the vehicles against their workers. rarely any police. On arrival, the taxi driver gets threa-
A minibus conductor explained: “The bosses get furious, tened by two or three men, and he can’t do anything
and threatening or insulting when the car breaks down, or about it; they beat him up and take all his money and
when there is an accident, even when it’s not the fault of other possessions“ (MTC/S1). There is a lack of security
the driver or conductor” (MMB3). This also happens for taxi drivers, which causes violence. Another said:
when the vehicle is not looked after, e.g. dirty or “We carry all sorts of passengers, sick people, bandits,
scratched. An example comes from a minibus conductor: criminals; we don’t know who they are, and then we get
“If the car isn’t cleaned or washed, the conductor is hurt” (MT3).
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Suggestions for WPV Prevention and also to use the media to show how to behave on pub-
Suggestions for prevention were subsumed under four lic transport. One example was given by a bus driver: “To
main themes: Education, Control, Conflict Avoidance prevent insults and threats from passengers, there must be
and Institutional Judgment. Table 3 shows the sugges- education for passengers, and for drivers and conductors.
tions for WPV preventive interventions made by the There are lots of mass media, TV, radio, magazines; or a
participants. pamphlet could be written to spread information about
how to behave in a chapa” (MA5).
Education Another suggestion was that the owners of vehicles
It was suggested that formal, practical and moral educa- should stay in a vehicle for some time, getting to know
tion might prevent WPV resulting from money, organiza- what the job of transport worker is like. A bus conduc-
tional and behavioral problems. Proposals for formal tor said: “There are days with no activity or with traffic
education of workers and owners of vehicles included get- jams; the boss should be in a car for a week or so, then
ting workers to attend training courses organized by the he would get to know what chapa work is like” (CA5).
transport associations, and the owners of vehicles going There were also proposals for the moral education of
on courses about the administration and management of passengers and workers that included learning how to
passenger transport. A minibus driver said: “I think it has behave well in the transport sector and how to respect
to do with education, because if drivers and conductors are the rules. For example, in the case of passengers, the
properly trained, they can resolve the conflicts. Training is transport associations should sensitize the community in
essential” (MMBS/2). general by spreading documents about how to behave
Several suggestions for the practical education of pas- while traveling. One bus driver made the following pro-
sengers, workers and owners of vehicles emerged from posal: “To prevent insults, assault and threats from pas-
the interviews. It was proposed that the transport asso- sengers, the community in general should be made to
ciations or owners of the vehicles should have a duty to know that when people are traveling collectively, they
inform the community when fares were about to rise, must respect other passengers, and also the conductor and

Table 3 Suggestions for workplace violence prevention

Education Control Conflict Avoidance Institutional
Judgment
Formal education Conflicts with passengers A) Managing specific situations Create an institution to
Train employees in conflict regarding money Due to money problems, e.g. embezzlement of adjudicate between
resolution, and employers in Inspectors to be more efficient in revenue owing to owners, increase the salaries of employers and workers
passenger transport controlling fare evasion conductors, and pay the salaries on a fixed day
administration Employers to control workers’ each month
Practical education activities by registering mileage Due to environmental problems, e.g. vehicle
Employers to get to know the when handing over the vehicle breakdown because of careless driving, the drivers
job of transport workers by Have supervisors in the transport should pay for the spare vehicle parts.
staying in the vehicle for some sector. Stop shortcutting of transport routes
time Organizational problems between Traffic police and inspectors to be more efficient in
Passengers to be informed when co-worker dealing with vehicle overcrowding
fares are raised by using the Supervisors to be more efficient Due to organizational problems, e.g. the straggle to
media or pamphlets. in controlling the departure of get passengers, have timetables for buses/minibuses
Moral education, vehicles from bus terminals and organized bus terminals
Promote moral considerations Avoid multiple duties for workers
with regard to traveling Workers on buses/minibuses who do not respect
collectively queuing rules should incur penalties from
supervisors and fines by the police for priority
breaches
B) Managing specific behaviors
Workers should be banned for some days, and
expelled if their bad behavior continues.
If passengers lose their temper or get abusive,
workers should not react, but remain calm and
silent.
When a drunken passenger wants to get into a
vehicle, the police or supervisor must be called to
intervene
Fine the perpetrator in cases of violence between
co-workers
C) Identifying passengers
Avoid passengers who are drunk, and avoid taking
passengers to secluded neighborhoods
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the driver ... The transport associations can use docu- Other environmental problems, such as overcrowded
ments to sensitize citizens about traveling behavior“ vehicles and shortcutting transport routes, might be
(MA4). In the case of workers, there should be weekly or avoided by getting the traffic police and inspectors to be
monthly meetings with counselors to learn how to more efficient. A bus driver said: “The vehicles must be
behave at work. One bus driver explained this suggestion: in good condition and not overcrowded, and the routes
“... A weekly or monthly meeting for drivers to talk about must be respected. To achieve this, the police and inspec-
how to do the work might give us an organization; now tors must be more efficient” (MAS6).
we’re disorganized; we need a counseling center to get to Regarding organizational problems, e.g. the struggle
know how we should behave at work” (MA3). between transport workers to get passengers, sugges-
tions for preventing WPV included having timetables
Control for buses and minibuses, and properly organized bus
A suggestion for preventing WPV due to money and terminals with defined ways in and out for the vehicles.
organizational problems was to improve control. In par- A bus conductor said: “When the chapa has a timetable,
ticular, with regard to money conflicts with passengers, it puts an end to the fight to fill up the car” (CA1). And,
inspectors should be more efficient in controlling fare as a minibus conductor put it: “A sizeable terminal, well
evasion. One example was given by a minibus driver: organized, with ways in and out of the car queue ...
“An inspector knows how to handle a passenger who would stop violence due to the getting of passengers”
does not want to pay” (MMB5). (CMB2).
And the owners of vehicles or transport associations It was claimed that WPV due to organizational pro-
should control workers’ activities by registering mileage blems, such as workers having multiple duties, could be
when handing over the vehicle, having supervisors, and prevented by vehicle owners employing more workers.
finding out if there are issues involving the heads of taxi A minibus conductor said: “... one driver and one con-
ranks. A taxi driver suggested: “To prevent violence ductor can’t perform all the duties, clean the car, collect
between boss and driver, the boss must tell his driver what the money and repair the tires ... the bosses must employ
he wants and check on his daily activities, like recording more workers” (CMB1).
the mileage when he hands over the car” (MTC/S6). To prevent WPV because of crime against taxi drivers,
Regarding organizational problems between co-workers, one proposal was that the drivers should carry firearms.
a suggestion was that supervisors should be more efficient One taxi driver said: “We must ... even have a gun, so
in controlling the departure of vehicles at bus terminals. the bandits who pretend to be passengers and afterwards
The view of one bus driver was: “To prevent fights between threaten, beat and steal from you, will know that a taxi
colleagues we should have somebody to control our cars. driver has a gun .... Then, they will be afraid to touch or
The supervisors must be good at checking our cars at the provoke you; they will know you might have a shotgun”
bus terminals, e.g. by ensuring that two cars don’t go out at (MT3).
the same time.” (MA1). Finally, to prevent WPV due to behavior problems,
such as not following the rules of the taxi rank, it was
Conflict Avoidance suggested that some workers should be banned from the
Managing specific situations rank for some days, and, if their bad behavior continued,
To prevent WPV due to money problems, such as the then expelled. One taxi driver said: “If a colleague doesn’t
embezzlement of revenue due to the owners, suggestions follow the queuing rules, he should stay off the rank for
included increasing the salaries of conductors and paying some days as punishment” (MTC/6). Also, the workers
workers on a fixed day in the month. A bus conductor on buses and minibuses suggested surveillance of and
said: “The bosses must improve the salary of the conduc- penalties on drivers, applied by supervisors, who did not
tors; we earn 2000 MTs (about 63 USD) a month, the dri- respect the queue, and fines by the police for breaches of
vers 3000 MTs (about 94 USD). Increasing our salary priority rules. A bus driver suggested: “If necessary, sur-
would prevent the withholding of revenue money“ (CA1). veillance with a penalty should be applied to the ones
For preventing WPV due to environmental problems, who don’t follow the queue at bus terminals, and the
such as a breakdown due to careless driving, one sugges- police must impose fines when there are breaches of prior-
tion was to apply sanctions to workers, e.g. by making ity. Surveillance must work; otherwise, there will always
drivers pay for spare car parts. One of the bus conductors be problems” (MA5).
said: “The boss must establish whether the breakdown of Managing specific behaviors
the car was due to careless driving on the part of the dri- Other suggestions for preventing WPV due to behavior
ver, and then apply sanctions, e.g. make the driver pay for problems were to avoid or manage specific behaviors.
the spare parts if he is responsible. This must be agreed For example, when a passenger starts to abuse or lose
when the driver starts employment” (CMB2). his temper, workers should not react, but remain calm
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and silent instead. When drunken passengers want to between the findings of the present study and those of
get into a vehicle, a supervisor or the police should be others with regard to workplace risk factors and organi-
called to intervene. Finally, fines were proposed for zational problems. One problem was the struggle faced
transport workers who incite violence. One minibus dri- by transport workers in Mozambique to get passengers.
ver said: “Drunken passengers who want to get on the In a study of railway workers and air crew in the UK, a
bus must be prevented by supervisors or the police” substantial problem lay in disputes over baggage [11]. An
(MMB6). Regarding violence from a co-worker, the pro- explanation for such a difference is related to the differ-
posal was for fining the perpetrator. A minibus conduc- ent work conditions that apply in a low-income country
tor said: “I suggest fining anyone who starts to incite like Mozambique, and in a country like the UK with wel-
violence” (CMB2). fare provisions and high income. In Mozambique, the
Identifying specific passengers unemployment rate in 2010 was 18.6% [31]. The monthly
To prevent WPV due to behavior problems, one sugges- salaries of drivers and conductors were equivalent to 94
tion was to identify potentially troublesome passengers, USD and 63 USD, respectively. In Maputo City, public
e.g. the ones who are drunk, and avoid carrying them. A transport is largely provided by the buses and minibuses
taxi driver put it as follows: “If it appears to me that of private associations. Passenger transport is a money-
someone is drunk, I try to avoid letting him into the car making business for the owners of the vehicles and the
... I try to avoid the problem by saying that the car isn’t associations involved. Also, the transport workers are
equipped to do the trip he wants” (MTC/S1). dependent on employment by the vehicle owners for
Another suggestion for preventing crime-related WPV their own survival and that of their families. Thus, drivers
was not to go to secluded neighborhoods, saying that and conductors are engaged in a highly competitive
the vehicle does not meet the conditions for the trip. struggle for passengers.
One taxi driver explained: “... if passengers appear ... two Other findings concerning the main triggers and causes
or three men who want to go to a remote neighborhood, of violence in the present study were: revenue demanded
I avoid carrying them. I do it by saying that the car does by vehicle owners not being handed over, money being
not meet the conditions to perform the trip they want” embezzled, breaching of queuing rules at taxi ranks, and
(MTC/S1). taking short cuts on prescribed transport routes. These
findings also seem to reflect problems related to low
Institutionalized judgment income. No such comparable findings have been reported
In addition to other suggestions for preventing WPV in earlier studies conducted in high-income countries in
from owners of vehicles or associations against workers Europe, in the USA, and in Australia [6-8,11,12].
because of money problem, it was suggested that there Further, the workers provided some insights into ways
should be an institution to judge vehicle owners and of preventing WPV in their own occupational settings.
workers when demanded revenue was not handed over. Their suggestions for the prevention of WPV are com-
A driver of a minibus proposed: “To stop vehicle owners parable to those found in earlier studies, which include
from slapping and delivering insults when we don’t hand having police and supervisors control fare evasion, inter-
over the amount of daily revenue they expect, we must vention by the police to stop drunken passengers getting
have a place to which the vehicle owner, driver and con- into vehicles, and the provision of education [3,12,32].
ductor can refer, and a judgment made over who is But, the findings of the present study also reveal a lack of
right; the one who is wrong should incur a penalty” comparability with earlier studies, which may be under-
(MMB6). stood in terms of the different work conditions and con-
textual conditions that apply in a low-income society. For
Discussion example, the buses and minibuses of the private associa-
The present study provides important knowledge about tions in Maputo did not have timetables, organized bus
workers’ views on causes of WPV in the road passenger terminals or pre-paid fares.
transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambique. The main And there were further divergences from earlier studies
causes and triggers described have similarities with find- with regard to the kinds of education suggested by the
ings reported in earlier studies. They include individual interviewees. The workers in the present study proposed
risk factors on the part of perpetrators (alcohol abuse, practical education for employers (owners of vehicles),
fare evasion) [11], individual risk factors on the part of e.g. by being in the vehicles sometimes to understand
victims (failure to meet passengers’ expectations) [11,12]; what the jobs of drivers and conductors involve. Moral
and workplace-specific risk factors (environmental, e.g. education was proposed in order to teach both passen-
overcrowded vehicles; task situation, e.g. managing gers and workers how to behave properly during personal
money) [6-8,11]; societal risk factors (e.g. crime, espe- transportation. In earlier studies [1,3,12,32], neither prac-
cially robbery) [13-16]. However, differences were found tical nor moral education was proposed as a means for
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reducing violence from passengers against workers and Methodological strengths and limitations
among co-workers. The behaviors concerned, which This study was planned, analyzed and finalized by the
involve honesty, responsibility and respect for others, lie three co-authors, each with a different professional
within the moral domain [33-35]. The idea that passen- background, which has strengthened the study design.
gers in Maputo City are violent because of the moral Accuracy, credibility, transferability, dependability and
issues that arise while using public transport needs to be conformability are the commonly employed criteria for
questioned. It seems more credible that there are some assessing trustworthiness in qualitative research [29].
conditional considerations that outweigh passengers’ and Regarding dependability and conformability, while con-
workers’ moral virtues. The interviewees’ suggestions for ducting the interviews, the first author’s priority was to
moral education do not fully address the question of maintain a neutral stance, despite prior understanding
which conditions influence their moral stances. It is a of work conditions in Maputo, by trying not to make
limitation of the present study that the open-ended ques- any judgments about the information provided or by
tionnaire employed did not permit follow up of this suggesting solutions to problems. The views expressed
issue. However, the interviewees’ proposals for using TV, by drivers and conductors are based on their individual
radio, magazines or targeted pamphlets to spread infor- experiences as victims of WPV in the road passenger
mation on good behavior while traveling collectively may transport sector. To improve accuracy, the information
lead to the promotion of awareness in the community from the drivers and conductors was nuanced by two
about moral issues. Portuguese-speaking researchers before the constructed
Other proposals for preventing WPV, suggested in the themes were translated into English. Credibility was also
present study, that were not found in earlier studies improved by the validation of the second author. The
included: having an institutional arrangement to judge transferability of the findings in this study to other road
employers and workers when demanded revenue is not passenger settings is restricted to other low-income
handed over; drivers having to pay for spare vehicle countries with similar transport conditions.
parts when breakdowns are confirmed to have been due Reasons were not given why six potential participants
to careless driving; and, imposing fines on workers who among the drivers and conductors did not want to be
incite violence. However, implementing the proposal interviewed when they heard that their views were to be
that taxi drivers should carry a firearm as a way of pre- tape-recorded. One explanation might be that they
venting crime in adverse situations would probably found the revealing of causes of violence too sensitive,
increase rather than reduce the risk of violence [36,37]. or they might even have been perpetrators themselves.
The non-participation of the six workers might have
Implications for prevention and research diminished information on the views of drivers and con-
Intervention programs usually rest on prior understand- ductors on causes and means of prevention of WPV in
ing of the context and knowledge of the conditions in the sector. However, the results are unlikely to have
the targeted population [38]. Interventions to prevent been affected, since the views expressed by the 32 work-
WPV in the transport sector should target not only ers are comparable with those found in previous studies
workers and employers but also members of the com- [7-9,11-16].
munity. This can be achieved by providing formal edu-
cation, e.g. training workers in conflict management, Conclusions
and employers in passenger transport administration, The causes of WPV in the road passenger transport sec-
and - at community level - improving work conditions tor in Maputo City, Mozambique included problems
at the terminals [1,3,39-41]. regarding money, behavior, environment, organization
In Maputo City, Mozambique, before preparing a pre- and crime. In order to prevent WPV in the sector, inter-
ventive intervention, additional groups need to be ventions should target workers and employers, and also
approached, such as owners of vehicles and associations, members of the community. Moral, practical and formal
members of the community, supervisors, and the traffic kinds of education were proposed. Educational programs
police. The proposed strategies have to be discussed. may give rise to some positive changes in the behaviors
Studies of WPV in the transport sector are generally of passengers and workers, including knowing how to
scarce, and few have been conducted in low-income behave when traveling on public transport and following
countries. Further research into the causes of WPV and the rules. Educational programs can provide training to
its prevention in the road passenger transport sectors in workers, e.g. in how to resolve conflicts between co-
Maputo, and also in similar settings, is warranted. It workers and with passengers, and to employers about
would increase knowledge about WPV, and might help the administration and management of passenger trans-
to initiate appropriate preventive interventions. port. In addition to education, there were proposals for
Couto et al. BMC Public Health 2011, 11:800 Page 10 of 11
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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:
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doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-800
Cite this article as: Couto et al.: Drivers’ and conductors’ views on the
causes and ways of preventing workplace violence in the road
passenger transport sector in Maputo City, Mozambique. BMC Public
Health 2011 11:800.

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