1/31/2018 Bruner - Learning Theory in Education | Simply Psychology

Bruner
Saul McLeod (saul-mcleod.html) published 2008, updated 2012

The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience "generic
coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions" (Bruner,
1957, p. 234). Thus, children, as they grow, must acquire a way of representing the "recurrent regularities"
in their environment.

So, to Bruner, important outcomes of learning include not just the concepts,
categories, and problem-solving procedures invented previously by the culture,
but also the ability to "invent" these things for oneself.

Cognitive growth involves an interaction between basic human capabilities and

"culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities."

These culturally invented technologies include not just

obvious things such as computers and television, but
also more abstract notions such as the way a culture
categorizes phenomena, and language itself. Bruner
would likely agree with Vygotsky (vygotsky.html) that
language serves to mediate between environmental
stimuli and the individual's response.

The aim of education should be to create autonomous

learners (i.e., learning to learn).

In his research on the cognitive development of children (1966), Jerome Bruner proposed three modes of
representation:

Enactive representation (action-based)

Iconic representation (image-based)
Symbolic representation (language-based)

Bruner's Three Modes of Representation

Modes of representation are the way in which information or knowledge are stored and encoded in
memory.
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Rather than neat age related stages (like Piaget (piaget.html)), the modes of representation are integrated
and only loosely sequential as they "translate" into each other.

Enactive (0 - 1 years)
This appears first. It involves encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For
example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a
rattle.

The child represents past events through motor responses, i.e., an infant will “shake a rattle” which has just
been removed or dropped, as if the movements themselves are expected to produce the accustomed sound.
And this is not just limited to children.

Many adults can perform a variety of motor tasks (typing, sewing a shirt, operating a lawn mower) that they
would find difficult to describe in iconic (picture) or symbolic (word) form.

Iconic (1 - 6 years)
This is where information is stored visually in the form of images (a mental picture in the mind’s eye). For
some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a
new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany verbal information.

Symbolic (7 years onwards)

This develops last. This is where information is stored in the form of a code
or symbol, such as language. This is the most adaptable form of
representation, for actions & images have a fixed relation to that which they
represent. Dog is a symbolic representation of a single class.

Symbols are flexible in that they can be manipulated, ordered, classified etc.,
so the user isn’t constrained by actions or images. In the symbolic stage,
knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other
symbol systems.

Bruner's constructivist theory suggests it is effective when faced with new material to follow a progression
from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation; this holds true even for adult learners. A true
instructional designer, Bruner's work also suggests that a learner even of a very young age is capable of
learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately, in sharp contrast to the beliefs of
Piaget and other stage theorists.

The Importance of Language

Language is important for the increased ability to deal with abstract concepts. Bruner argues that language
can code stimuli and free an individual from the constraints of dealing only with appearances, to provide a
more complex yet flexible cognition.
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The use of words can aid the development of the concepts they represent and can remove the constraints of
the “here & now” concept. Bruner views the infant as an intelligent & active problem solver from birth, with
intellectual abilities basically similar to those of the mature adult.

Educational Implications
For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's
thinking and problem solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically,
education should also develop symbolic thinking in children.

In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that
students are active learners who construct their own knowledge.

Bruner (1960) opposed Piaget's (piaget.html) notion of readiness. He argued that schools waste time trying
to match the complexity of subject material to a child's cognitive stage of development. This means students
are held back by teachers as certain topics are deemed too difficult to understand and must be taught when
the teacher believes the child has reached the appropriate state of cognitive maturity.

Bruner (1960) adopts a different view and believes a child (of any age) is capable of understanding
complex information: 'We begin with the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively in some
intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development.' (p. 33)

Bruner (1960) explained how this was possible through the concept of the spiral curriculum. This
involved information being structured so that complex ideas can be taught at a simplified level first,
and then re-visited at more complex levels later on. Therefore, subjects would be taught at levels of
gradually increasing difficultly (hence the spiral analogy). Ideally, teaching his way should lead to
children being able to solve problems by themselves.

Bruner (1961) proposes that learners’ construct their own knowledge and do this by organizing and
categorizing information using a coding system. Bruner believed that the most effective way to
develop a coding system is to discover it rather than being told it by the teacher. The concept of discovery
learning implies that students construct their own knowledge for themselves (also known as a constructivist
approach).

The role of the teacher should not be to teach information by rote learning, but instead to facilitate the
learning process. This means that a good teacher will design lessons that help students discover the
relationship between bits of information. To do this a teacher must give students the information they need,
but without organizing for them. The use of the spiral curriculum can aid the process of discovery learning.

Bruner and Vygotsky

Both Bruner and Vygotsky emphasize a child's environment, especially the social environment, more than
Piaget did. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting the child's learning.

Bruner, like Vygotsky, emphasized the social nature of learning, citing that other people should help a child
develop skills through the process of scaffolding. The term scaffolding first appeared in the literature when
Wood, Bruner and Ross described how tutors' interacted with preschooler to help them solve a block
reconstruction problem (Wood et al., 1976).
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The concept of scaffolding is very similar to Vygotsky's (vygotsky.html) notion of the

zone of proximal development (Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html), and it's not
uncommon for the terms to be used interchangeably. Scaffolding involves helpful,
structured interaction between an adult and a child with the aim of helping the child
achieve a specific goal.

'[Scaffolding] refers to the steps taken to reduce the degrees of freedom in carrying out
donesia. Mulai Investasi some task so that the child can concentrate on the difficult skill she is in the process of
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acquiring' (Bruner, 1978, p. 19).

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Bruner and Piaget
Obviously, there are similarities between Piaget (piaget.html) and Bruner, but an
important difference is that Bruner’s modes are not related in terms of which presuppose the one that
precedes it. While sometimes one mode may dominate in usage, they coexist.

Bruner states that what determines the level of intellectual development is the extent
to which the child has been given appropriate instruction together with practice or
experience. So - the right way of presentation and the right explanation will enable a
child to grasp a concept usually only understood by an adult. His theory stresses the
role of education and the adult.

Although Bruner proposes stages of cognitive development, he doesn’t see them as

sik Ke Manila representing different separate modes of thought at different points of development
uran ke Manila? (like Piaget). Instead, he sees a gradual development of cognitive skills and
ni techniques into more integrated “adult” cognitive techniques.

Bruner views symbolic representation as crucial for cognitive development, and

since language is our primary means of symbolizing the world, he attaches great importance to language in
determining cognitive development.

BRUNER AGREES WITH PIAGET BRUNER DISAGREES WITH PIAGET

Children are PRE-ADAPTED to Development is a CONTINUOUS PROCESS – not a series of

learning stages

Children have a NATURAL The development of LANGUAGE is a cause not a consequence

CURIOSITY of cognitive development

Children’s COGNITIVE You can SPEED-UP cognitive development. You don’t have to
STRUCTURES develop over time wait for the child to be ready

Children are ACTIVE participants in The involvement of ADULTS and MORE

the learning process KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference

Cognitive development entails the The involvement of ADULTS and MORE

acquisition of SYMBOLS KNOWLEDGEABLE PEERS makes a big difference

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Referred Academic Journal

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References
Bruner, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of education. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1961). The act of discovery. Harvard Educational Review, 31, 21-32.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction, Cambridge, Mass.: Belkapp Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1973). The relevance of education. New York: Norton.

Bruner, J. S. (1978). The role of dialogue in language acquisition. In A. Sinclair, R., J. Jarvelle, and W. J.M.
Levelt (eds.) The Child's Concept of Language. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child
Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89-100.

How to reference this article:

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Bruner. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/bruner.html

Comments (39)
Sort by: Date Rating Last Activity

Floyd Maponda +18

really useful an article. how about providing the Educational implications of this theory.why is the knowledge of this theory relevant to teacher
education?

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tbjd +13
I wish had read this useful article before I submitted my assignment, it would have help explain my position so much better. will be using for the
second stage. many thanks

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idk +3

205
This artical is very useful as it explains the different stagesof cognitive development a child needs to go through in his point of view and how it
relates to education these days. Also showing the difference between Piaget's theory as he related it and split the stages into sections.
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laina shangano +7
this article really helped me alot in unlocking some of the quections for my assignment, most especially when it comes to the Bruners three
modes,...thanks alot

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nash nana -1
this article is really helpful and of good use. it has got relevant information.i suggest that those doing teaching, should have knowledge on these
modes of representation. this article is simply lovely

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john -5
this is a very important information which i think broaden my perspectives to the theories of bruner regarding to education

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mekfranklyn -2
really nice article,I learned a lot.sure it ll help me more for my upcoming assignment.thanks guys!

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morrisone randy -6
i wish to have the educational applicability of Bruner's cognitive theory

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shelton pukeni +1
gret information and helpful data.i liked the table showing similarities and differences btwn bruner and piaget.excellent .

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margaret +1
Very useful for me as an introduction to all the theories these phychologists have come up with. Working with babies from 10mths and children up to
the age of 7, I can agree and disagree; form an opinion and debate these theories, using my own experiences, evaluations/studies of children in my
care, against all that has been researched, written about and discussed at length. Can't wait to write it all up!!

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Vygotsky Maslow's Jean Piaget Cognitive

Hierarchy of Psychology
Needs

Bandura - Social Kolb - Learning Theories of Kohlberg

Learning Theory Styles Personality

Further Information

Lev Vygotsky (vygotsky.html)

Zone of Proximal Development (Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html)

Cognitive Approach (cognitive.html)

Jean Piaget (piaget.html)

Jerome Bruner: The lesson of the story

(http://www.guardian.co.uk/education/2007/mar/27/academicexperts.highereducationprofile)

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