MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO METROLOGY

SUMA.B.T
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT
SJB IT
INTRODUCTION

METROLOGY IS A SCIENCE OF MEASUREMENT.

METROLOGY MAY BE DIVIDED DEPENDING UPON THE QUANTITY UNDER CONSIDERATION INTO:

METROLOGY OF LENGTH, METROLOGY OF TIME ETC.

DEPENDING UPON THE FIELD OF APPLICATION IT IS DIVIDED INTO INDUSTRIAL METROLOGY, MEDICAL

METROLOGY ETC.

ENGINEERING METROLOGY IS RESTRICTED TO THE MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH, ANGLES AND OTHER

QUANTITIES WHICH ARE EXPRESSED IN LINEAR OR ANGULAR TERMS.

INTRODUCTION

DEFINATIONS

▸ Metrology- Metrology is the name given to the Science of

pure Measurements. For engineering purpose ,it is
restricted to Measurements of length and angles and
quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms

▸ Measurement- Measurement is a process of comparing

quantitatively an unknown magnitude with puredefined
standard
OBJECTIVE OF METROLOGY

▸ 1. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, to ensure that components designed is

within the process and measuring instrument capabilities available in the plant.

▸ 2. To determine the process capabilities and ensure that these are better than the relevant
component tolerance.

▸ 3. To determine the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that these are adequate for
their respective measurements.

▸ 4. To minimize the cost of inspection by effective and efficient use of available facilities and to
reduce the cost of rejects and rework through application of Statistical Quality Control Techniques

▸ 5. Standardization of measuring methods. This is achieved by laying down inspection methods for
any product right at the time when production technology is prepared.

▸ 6. Maintenance of the accuracies of measurement. This is achieved by periodical calibration of the

metrological instruments used in the plant.

▸ 7. Arbitration and solution of problems arising on the shop floor regarding methods of
measurement.

▸ 8. Preparation of designs for all gauges and special inspection fixtures.

CONCEPT OF METROLOGY

Metrology is mainly concerned with

‣ Establishing the units of measurements,reproducing these

units in the form of standards and ensuring the uniformity
of measurement

‣ Developing methods of measurements

‣ Analysing the accuracy of methods of

measurement.researching into the cause of measuring
errors and eliminating these
NEED OF INSPECTION

▸ 1. To ensure that the part, material or a component conforms to the

established standard.

▸ 2. To meet the interchangeability of manufacture.

▸ 3. To maintain customer relation by ensuring that no faulty product reaches

the customers.

▸ 4. Provide the means of finding out shortcomings in manufacture. The results

of inspection are not only recorded but forwarded to the manufacturing
department for taking necessary steps, so as to produce acceptable parts
and reduce scrap.

▸ 5. It also helps to purchase good quality of raw materials, tools, equipment

which governs the quality of the finished products.

▸ 6. It also helps to co-ordinate the functions of quality control, production,

purchasing and other departments of the organization.

▸ 7. To take decision on the defective parts i.e., to judge the possibility of

making some of these parts acceptable after minor repairs
PRINCIPAL OF MEASUREMENT
PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT

“WHEN YOU CAN MEASURE WHAT YOU ARE

SPEAKING ABOUT AND EXPRESS IT IN NUMBERS,YOU
KNOW SOMETHING ABOUT IT,BUT WHEN YOU
CANNOT MEASURE IT, WHEN YOU CANNOT EXPRESS
IT IN NUMBERS,YOUR KNOWLEDGE IS MEARGE AND
UNSATISFACTORY MAY BE THE BEGINNING OF
KNOWLEDGE ,BUT YOU HAVE SCARCELY IN YOUR
THOUGHT ADVANCE TO A STAGE OF SCIENCE “

Lord Kelvin
PROCESS OF MEASUREMENT

▸ The sequence of operations necessary for the execution of

measurement is called process of measurement

▸ There are three imp elements of measurement

1. Measurand-Measurand is the physical quantity of
property like length,angle, diameter,thickness etc,to be
measured.

2. Reference- It is the physical quantity or property to which

quantitative comparisons are made

3. Comparator- It is the means of comparing measurable

with some reference
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

▸ These are the methods of comparison used in measurement process. In precision measurement
various methods of measurement are adopted depending upon the accuracy required and the
amount of permissible error.

▸ The methods of measurement can be classified as:

▸ 1. Direct method

▸ 2. Indirect method
▸ 3. Absolute/Fundamental method

▸ 4. Comparative method

▸ 5. Transposition method

▸ 1. Direct method of measurement.

▸ 6. Coincidence method

▸ 7. Deflection method

▸ 8. Complementary method
▸ 9. Contact method

▸ 10. Contactless method etc.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

1. Direct method of measurement.

This is a simple method of measurement, in which the value of the quantity to be

measured is obtained directly without any calculations. For example, measurements by
using scales, vernier calipers, micrometers, bevel protector etc. This method is most
widely used in production. This method is not very accurate because it depends on
human insensitiveness in making judgment.

2. Indirect method of measurement.

In indirect method the value of quantity to be measured is obtained by measuring

other quantities which are functionally related to the required value. E.g. angle
measurement by sine bar, measurement of screw pitch diameter by three wire method
etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

▸ Generally,measuring instruments are classified as

On the basis of function

▸ Length measuring instruments

▸ Angle measuring instruments

▸ Surface measuring instruments

▸ Geometrical form checking instruments

On the basis of accuracy

▸ Most accurate instruments

▸ Moderate accurate instruments

▸ Below moderate accurate instruments

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

▸ On the basis of precision

▸ Precision measuring instruments

▸ Non precision measuring instruments

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

COMMON MEASURING INSTRUMENTS LISTED ACCORDING TO USE

1. Linear measurement

A. Direct Reading

‣ Rule

‣ Depth gauge

‣ Vernier caliber

‣ Micrometer

‣ Measuring machine

B. Instruments for transferring measurement

‣ Callipers and dividers

CLASSIFICATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

2. Angular Measurement. 4.All purpose special measurement

Pneumatic ,Electric,Electronics,Laser

‣ Protractor

‣ Sine bar

‣ Combination set

‣ Angle gauge blocks

‣ Dividing head

3.plane surface measurement

‣ Level

‣ Combination set

‣ Surface gauge

‣ Optical flat
SELECTION OF INSTRUMENTS

The important characteristics to be considered in selection of

an measuring instruments are

▸ It’s measuring range,accuracy and precision

▸ The precision of instruments is important feature since it

should give repeatable readings which is possible with
precise instruments

▸ Resolution or sensitivity ie; Discrimination or Relation bw

the movement of pointer and corresponding change in
the measured quantity is also imp aspects
PRECISION AND ACCURACY

PRECISION

▸ The terms precision and accuracy are used in connection with the performance
of the instrument. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process.

▸ It refers to the group of measurements for the same characteristics taken under
identical conditions. It indicates to what extent the identically performed
measurements agree with each other. If the instrument is not precise it will give
different (widely varying) results for the same dimension when measured again
and again. The set of observations will scatter about the mean. The scatter of
these measurements is designated as 0, the standard deviation. It is used as an
index of precision. The less the scattering more precise is the instrument. Thus,
lower, the value of 0, the more precise is the instrument.
PRECISION AND ACCURACY

Accuracy

▸ Accuracy is the degree to which the measured value of the

quality characteristic agrees with the true value. The
difference between the true value and the measured value
is known as error of measurement.

▸ It is practically difficult to measure exactly the true value

and therefore a set of observations is made whose mean
value is taken as the true value of the quality measured.
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
PRECISION AND ACCURACY
ACCURACY AND PRECISION ARE:

■ Accuracy is how close an individual value is to

the true or accepted value
■ Precision is the consistency of a series of
measurements
EXPRESS ACCURACY

% error = True value – measured value X 100%

True value
MEASURING SYSTEM

▸ A measuring system is made of five basic elements

1. Standard

2. Workpiece

3. Instrument

4. Person

5. Environment
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

▸ It is never possible to measure the true value of a

dimension, there is always some error. The error in
measurement is the difference between the measured
value and the true value of the measured dimension.

▸ Error in measurement =Measured value - True value.

▸ The error in measurement may be expressed or evaluated

either as an absolute error or as a relative error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

ABSOLUTE ERROR
▸ Absolute Error True absolute error. It is the algebraic
difference between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity measured.

▸ Apparent absolute error. If the series of measurement are

made then the algebraic difference between one of the
results of measurement and the arithmetical mean is
known as apparent absolute error.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

RELATIVE ERROR
▸ Relative Error It is the quotient of the absolute error and the
value of comparison used for calculation of that absolute error.
This value of comparison may be the true value, the conventional
true value or the arithmetic mean for series of measurement.

▸ The accuracy of measurement, and hence the error depends

upon so many factors, such as:
▸ - Calibration standard
▸ - Work piece
▸ - Instrument
▸ Person
▸ - Environment etc. as already described.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

▸ During measurement several types of error may arise, these are

▸ 1. Static errors which includes

▸ - Reading errors
▸ - Characteristic errors
▸ - Environmental errors.
▸ 2. Instrument loading errors.
▸ 3. Dynamic errors.

▸ Static errors These errors result from the physical nature of the
various components of measuring system. There are three basic
sources of static errors. The static error divided by the
measurement range (difference between the upper and lower
limits of measurement) gives the measurement precision.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

▸ Dynamic Errors Dynamic error is the error caused by time variations in the
measurand. It results from the inability of the system to respond faithfully
to a time varying measurement. It is caused by inertia, damping, friction or
other physical constraints in the sensing or readout or display system.

▸ For statistical study and the study of accumulation of errors, these errors
can be broadly classified into two categories

▸ 1. Systematic or controllable errors, and

▸ 2. Random errors.
COMPARISON BW SYSTEMATIC ERRORS AND RRANDOM ERRORS
GENERALISED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM OR SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

PHYSICAL SENSOR TRANSDUCER MANIPULATOR

SYSTEM

Modified signal
CONTROLLER
Input signal

( measurand )
INDICATOR

RECORDER

Data presentation
SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

▸ A measuring system is based on few fundamental units,Ex

length,mass,time ,temp etc.All physical quantities can be
expressed in terms of these fundamental units.the
following system of measurements are in use in different
countries

F.P.S system-Foot -pound- Second

Length - yard

Mass,weight or Force- pound

Time- second

Temp- Degree Fahrenheit

SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

Metric System- Decimal measuring system

Length - Meter

Mass- KG

Weight- Kofler

Temp- Degree centigrade

S.I units -International system of units

This system is extension and refinement of the metric system.

It is more convenient and superior to other system.

It provides only one basic unit for each physical quantity

SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

SI UNITS- BASIC UNITS

SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

DERIVED SI UNITS
MATERIAL STANDARD

DEFINITION OF STANDARD
▸ A standard is defined as “ Something that is set up and established
by an authority as rule for the measure of
quantity,weight,extent,value or quality”

Role of standards

‣ The role of standards is to achieve ,uniform,consistent and

Repeatabile measurement and support the system which make
such measurement possible throughout the world

▸
STANDARDS

STANDARDS OF LENGTH

▸ The first accurate standard was made in England and

known as Imperial standard yard

▸ This was followed by international prototype meter made

in France

▸ Since these two standards of length were made of alloys

they are called Material length standards
MATERIAL STANDARDS

INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE METER

▸ Straight line distance at 0deg bw the engraved lines of

pure platinum- iridium and having a tree a cross section .

▸ The graduations are on the upper surface of web which

coincides with the neutral Axix of the section
MATERIAL STANDARD

IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD

▸ An imperial standard yard is bronze bar of 1 inch square

section and 38 inch long

▸ A round recess,one inch away from

The two ends is cut at both ends

Upto the centre of the bar

MATERIAL STANDARD

DISADVANTAGES OF MATERIAL STANDARD

▸ The material standards are influenced by effects of variation of
environmental conditions like temperature, pressure, humidity and ageing
etc., and it thus changes in length.

▸ These standards are required to be preserved or stored under security to

prevent their damage or destruction.

▸ The replica of these standards was not available for use somewhere else.

▸ These are not easily reproducible.

▸ Conversion factor was to be used for changing over to metric working.

▸ Considerable difficulty is experienced while comparing and verifying the

sizes of gauges.
SUBDIVISION OF STANDARDS

▸ The imperial standard yard and international prototype

meter,as master standards and cannot be used for
ordinary purpose.

▸ Thus depending upon the importance of accuracy

required,the standards are sub -divided into 4 grades

1. Primary standards

2. Secondary standards

3. Tertiary standards

4. Working standard
MATERIAL STANDARD

▸ A length may be measured as the distance between two

lines or as the distance between two parallel faces. So, the
instruments for direct measurement of linear dimensions
fall into two categories.

▸ Line standard

▸ End standard
MATERIAL STANDARD

LINE STANDARD
▸ When the length is measured as the distance between
centers of two engraved lines, it is called line standard.
Both material standards yard and meter are line standards.
The most common example of line measurements is the
rule with divisions shown as lines marked on it.
LINE STANDARD

CHARACTERISTICS OF LINE STANDARDS

1.Scales can be accurately engraved but the engraved lines themselves possess
thickness and it is not possible to take measurements with high accuracy.

2. A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.

3. The scale markings are not subjected to wear. However, the leading ends are
subjected to wear and this may lead to undersize measurements.

4. A scale does not possess a "built in" datum. Therefore it is not possible to align the
scale with the axis of measurement.

5. Scales are subjected to parallax error.

6. Also, the assistance of magnifying glass or microscope is required if sufficient

accuracy is to be achieved.
MATERIAL STANDARD

END STANDARD
▸ When length is expressed as the distance between two flat
parallel faces, it is known as end standard. Examples:
Measurement by slip gauges, end bars, ends of
micrometer anvils,vernier calipers etc. The end faces are
hardened, lapped flat and parallel to a very high degree of
accuracy.
MATERIAL STANDARD

CHARACTERISTICS OF END STANDARD

▸ 1. These standards are highly accurate and used for measurement of close
tolerances in precision engineering as well as in standard laboratories, tool rooms,
inspection departments etc.

▸ 2. They require more time for measurements and measure only one dimension at a
time.

▸ 3. They are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.

▸ 4. Group of slips can be "wrung" together to build up a given size; faulty wringing
and careless use may lead to inaccurate results.

▸ 5. End standards have built in datum since their measuring faces are f l at and
parallel and can be positively locked on datum surface.

▸ 6. They are not subjected to parallax effect as their use depends on feel.
DIFFERENCE BW LINE AND END STANDARDS
MATERIAL STANDARD

DIFFERENCE BW LINE AND END STANDARDS

WAVELENGTH STANDARDS

LIGHT WAVE ( OPTICAL ) LENGTH STANDARD

▸ Because of problems of variation in length of material

standards,the possibility of using light as basic unit to
define primary standard has been considered.

▸ The 11th general conference on weights and measures

held in Paris 1960 Defines The meter is equal to
1650763.73 wavelengths of the range radiation of
krypton-86 isotope in vacuum maintained at 68k
WAVE LENGTH STANDARD

ADVANTAGES OF USING WAVELENGTH STANDARD AS BASIC UNIT TO DEFINE PRIMARY

STANDARDS
▸ Length does not change

▸ It can be reproduced easily if destroyed

▸ This primary unit can be accessible to any physical

laboratories

▸ It can be used for making comparative measurement with

much higher accuracy than with the material standard

▸ Wavelength standard can be reproduced Consistently at

any time and at any place
CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS AND TRACEBILITY