Costing:-

Table of Contents
COST ACCOUNTING.........................................................................................................

Definition of Cost Accounting

..........................................................................................................................................

Concepts of Cost Accounting

..........................................................................................................................................

Advantages of Cost Accounting

..........................................................................................................................................

Cost Accounting versus Financial Accounting

..........................................................................................................................................

Classification of Cost
..........................................................................................................................................

Elements of Cost
..........................................................................................................................................

Cost Control and Cost Reduction

..........................................................................................................................................
Tools and Techniques of Cost Reduction
..........................................................................................................................................

5. COSTING TECHNIQUES..............................................................................................
55

Marginal Costing
..........................................................................................................................................
55

Standard Costing
..........................................................................................................................................
57

Variance Analysis
..........................................................................................................................................
58

Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
..........................................................................................................................................
62

Break-Even Chart
..........................................................................................................................................
65

1. OVERVIEW
COST
ACCOUNTING

This chapter covers:

· Concepts of Cost Accounting
· Advantages of Cost Accounting
· Cost versus Financial Accounting
· Classification and Elements of Cost
· Preparation of Cost Sheet
· Cost Control and Cost Reduction

Definition of Cost Accounting

The definition of cost accounting goes as:

Cost accounting is the application of accounting and costing principles,

methods, and techniques in the ascertainment of costs and the analysis of
saving or excess cost incurred as compared with previous experience or with
standards.
…
Wheld
on.

Concepts of Cost Accounting

Following are the main concepts of cost accounting:

Cost
There is a cost involved to purchase or produce anything. Costs may be
different for the same product, depending upon the stages of completion.
The cost changes according to the stage a product is in, for example, raw
material, work in progress, finished goods, etc. The cost of a product cannot
be perfect and it may vary for the same product depending upon different
constraints and situations of production and market.

Expenses
Some costs are actual, such as raw material cost, freight cost, labor cost,
etc. Some expenses are attributable to cost. To earn revenue, some
expenses are incurred like rent, salary, insurance, selling & distribution cost,
etc. Some expenses are variable, some are semi-variable, and some of fixed
nature.

Loss
Expenses are incurred to obtain something and losses are incurred without
any compensation. They add to the cost of product or services without any
value addition to it.

Cost Center
Cost center refers to a particular area of activity and there may be multiple
cost centers in an organization. Every cost center adds some cost to the
product and every cost center is responsible for all its activity and cost. A
cost center may also be called a department or a sub-department. There are
three types of cost centers:

· Personal and Impersonal Cost Centers A group of persons in an organization

responsible as a whole for a group activity is called a personal cost center. In
case of impersonal call center, the activities are done with the help of plant
and machinery.

· Operation and Process Cost Centers The same kind of activity is done in an
operation department. In a process cost center, as the name suggests,
different kinds of processes are involved.

· Product and Service Cost Centers A department where all activities refer to product
is called a product department. When the centers render their services to a
product department for its smooth functioning, they are called service cost
centers.
Profit Center
Profit centers are inclusive of cost centers as well as revenue activities. Profit
centers set targets for cost centers and delegates responsibilities to cost
centers. Profit centers adopt policies to achieve such targets. Profit centers
play a vital role in an organization.

Cost Drivers
Cost of any product depends upon cost drivers. There may be different types
of cost drivers such as number of units or types of products required to
produce. If there is any change in cost driver, the cost of product changes
automatically.

Conversion Cost
The cost required to convert raw material into product is called as conversion
cost. It includes labor, direct expenses, and overhead.

Carrying Costs
Carrying cost represents the cost to maintain inventory, lock up cost of
inventory, store rent, and store operation expenses.

Out of Stock Cost

Sometimes loss is incurred due to shortage of stock such as loss in sale, loss
of goodwill of a business or idle machine. It is called out of stock cost.

Contribution Margin
Contribution margin is the difference between sale price and variable cost.

Ordering Costs
Ordering costs represent the cost to place an order, up to to stage until the
material is included as inventory.

Development Cost
To develop new product, improve existing product, and improved method in
producing a product called development cost.

Policy Cost
The cost incurred to implement a new policy in addition to regular policy is
called policy cost.
Idle Facilities Cost and Idle Capacity Cost
If available facilities remain idle and some loss incurred due to it, it is called
idle facilities cost. If capacity is unused due to repair, shut down or any other
reason, it is called capacity cost.

Expired Cost
When the cost is fully consumed and no future monetary value could be
measured, it is called expired cost. Expired cost relates to current cost.
Suppose the expenses incurred in an accounting period do not have any
future value, then it is called an expired cost.

Incremental Revenue
Incremental revenue implies the difference in revenues between two
alternatives. While assessing the profitability of a proposed alternative,
incremental revenues are compared with incremental costs.

Added Value
Added value means value addition to any product. Value addition of the
product may be due to some process on product or to make the product
available or there may be other reasons; but it also includes the profit share
on it.

Urgent Cost
There are some expenses that are to be incurred on an immediate basis.
Delaying such expenses may result in loss to business. These expenses are
called urgent cost. Urgent costs are not be postponed.

Postponable Cost
Without avoiding any expenses, if we are able to defer some expenses to
future, then it is called a postponable cost.

Pre-production Cost
The cost incurred before commencing formal production or at the time of
formation of new establishment or project is called pre-production cost. Some of
these costs are of capital nature and some of these are called deferred revenue
expenditure.

Research Cost
Research costs are incurred to discover a new product or to improve an
existing product, method, or process.
Training Cost
The costs incurred on teaching, training, apprentice of staff or worker inside
or outside the business premise to improve their skills is called training cost.

Advantages of Cost Accounting

The advantages of cost accounting are:

· Disclosure of profitable and unprofitable activities

· Guidance for future production policies
· Periodical determination of profit or losses
· To find out exact cause in decrease or increase in profit
· Control over material and supplies
· Relative efficiency of different workers
· Reliable comparison
· Helpful to government
· Helpful to the consumers
· Classification and sub division of cost
· To find out adequate selling price
· Proper investment in inventories
· Correct valuation of Inventories
· Decision on manufacturing or purchasing from outside
· Reliable check on accounting
· Budgeting
Let us go through them one by one.

Disclosure of profitable and unprofitable activities

Since cost accounting minutely calculates the cost, selling price and
profitability of product, segregation of profitable or unprofitable items or
activities becomes easy.

Guidance for future production policies

On the basis of data provided by costing department about the cost of
various processes and activities as well as profit on it, it helps to plan the
future.
Periodical determination of profit and losses
Cost accounting helps us to determine the periodical profit and loss of a
product.

To find out exact cause of decrease or increase in profit

With the help of cost accounting, any organization can determine the exact
cause of decrease or increase in profit that may be due to higher cost of
product, lower selling price or may be due to unproductive activity or unused
capacity.

Control over material and supplies

Cost accounting teaches us to account for the cost of material and supplies
according to department, process, units of production, or services that
provide us a control over material and supplies.

Relative efficiency of different workers

With the help of cost accounting, we may introduce suitable plan for wages,
incentives, and rewards for workers and employees of an organization.

Reliable comparison
Cost accounting provides us reliable comparison of products and services
within and outside an organization with the products and services available in
the market. It also helps to achieve the lowest cost level of product with
highest efficiency level of operations.

Helpful to government
It helps the government in planning and policy making about import, export,
industry and taxation. It is helpful in assessment of excise, service tax and
income tax, etc. It provides readymade data to government in price fixing,
price control, tariff protection, etc.

Helpful to consumers
Reduction of price due to reduction in cost passes to customer ultimately.
Cost accounting builds confidence in customers about fairness of price.

Classification and subdivision of cost

Cost accounting helps to classify the cost according to department, process,
product, activity, and service against financial accounting which give just
consolidate net profit or loss figure of any organization without any
classification or sub-division of cost.
To find out adequate selling price
In tough marketing conditions or in slump period, the costing helps to determine
selling price of the product at the optimum level, neither too high nor too low.

Proper investment in inventory

Shifting of dead stock items or slow moving items into fast moving items
may help company to invest in more proper and profitable inventory. It also
helps us to maintain inventory at the most optimum level in terms of
investments as well as variety of the stock.

Correct valuation of inventory

Cost accounting is an accurate and adequate valuation technique that helps
an organization in valuation of inventory in more reliable and exact way. On
the other hand, valuation of inventory merely depends on physical stock
taking and valuation thereof, which is not a proper and scientific method to
follow.

Decision on manufacturing or purchasing from outside

Costing data helps management to decide whether in-house production of any
product will be profitable, or it is feasible to purchase the product from outside.
In turn, it is helpful for management to avoid any heavy loss due to wrong
decision.

Reliable check on accounting

Cost accounting is more reliable and accurate system of accounting. It is
helpful to check results of financial accounting with the help of periodic
reconciliation of cost accounts with financial accounts.

Budgeting
In cost accounting, various budgets are prepared and these budgets are very
important tools of costing. Budgets show the cost, revenue, profit, production
capacity, and efficiency of plant and machinery, as well as the efficiency of
workers. Since the budget is planned in scientific and systemic way, it helps
to keep a positive check over misdirecting the activities of an organization.

Cost Accounting versus Financial

Accounting
Both cost accounting and financial accounting help the management
formulate and control organization policies. Financial management gives an
overall picture of profit or loss and costing provides detailed product-wise
analysis.

No doubt, the purpose of both is same; but still there is a lot of difference in
financial accounting and cost accounting. For example, if a company is
dealing in 10 types of products, financial accounting provides information of
all the products in totality under different categories of expense heads such
as cost of material, cost of labor, freight charges, direct expenses, and
indirect expenses. In contrast, cost accounting gives details of each overhead
product-wise, such as much material, labor, direct and indirect expenses are
consumed in each unit. With the help of costing, we get product-wise cost,
selling price, and profitability.

The following table broadly covers the most important differences between
financial accounting and cost accounting.

Point of
nFaiclAoutg CostAcunig
Differences

eRcodingafstr oCstacnugied
partofinclug. caluteoshfprd
Wemakfincl ansdolphefucitrg
Meaning astemnohugr const.Iaugi,we
transcio.Whepl usdytabovrilec,
ofinaclstem,w fixedsco,tm-
anlyzhetprobfid ovheadrsncplit.
finacolpst
company.

Purpose uPrposefthinacl oTcaultesfhni

astemnoihw ofpducrhtnebasi
coretfinalps whiceanktur
thegoanriz. deocisn.

sEtimaonecrdgf nIcostauig,webk
finacsltro actulrnsiod
Recording used.Itibaoncl comparehitw
transcioly. estimaon.Hcg
basedhontmif
costawelnh
recdoingfatul
transcio.
oCrectnsfai oCstacnugidehw
Contrlig ismportanwhukg thepurosfcnlv
careofstnl. costwhieplnfg
toklseiandcrg
andbugyetcorl.

ePriodpftng
Period finaclousgt eRportingudcs
thendofiaclyr. acountigsdeprh
equrimntofag
oras-ndwhequi
sba.i

Reporting nIfiacloutg, nIcostaugi,me

costeardbly. eportingfcsd-
unsitwe.

Costacunigpvder
ixaFtonf xFoaintfselgcpr csuienfotrma,wh
nSegliPrc notaebvcjifl shiuelpnfdrmtg
acountig. nsegliprc.

Relative eRvlatifcnyo uVaebloinrmft

Efficiency workes,plantd eficnysopvdrbt
mnachyeirotb acount.
demtinru.

Valuation of aVoluntibs‘cr osCtacunigwyl

Inveytor markectpiwhsv considerthpf
les’ nveitors.

oPcers ouJrnaletis,dg osCtfaleprduc),(

acounts,rilbed aditongfmr
finacelstm ednrmtoaifslgcp
oftheprduc

aCslifcton
Costcanbelifdhwgtrus:
· Byunaret
· Bydegroftacbilhpu
· Bycoantrbli
· Byaretionlpshwcugd
· Byasoctinhweprdu
· Byfunctios
· Bychangeivtourml
· Bytime
· Acdoingrtpla
· Formangelisdc

ByNaetur
Insthypie,marlbodv thsc,wianuberfd-votmsi,clnuabepkgrdsct.

ByDegorafTcbilthPdu
eDcirtandxpsmyofcteundri.Dxpsmayctlbeouripd.hLansmctfgierxpandsl,tofbuigce.mrdxpns

ByConlabtri
Insthacilofwy,pe :

· Cornlabte:Thscdymgntlikaerbodcxps.

· Uncotrlabe:Thyifudmngtorapel.Thyicudntofbg,sarhedicxpn.

ByReolanstihpwAcugPdr
aCcsloifntemrudhbypsanefit.Tclxdurvpenitacslfdur.Rvxpenatocuigrd.Cplexntshabfiyodcugperx.Fastmncoyfpilexduramtncofseudrvxpitcagoy.

ByAsociantwhePdur
Theartwocgisundlf:

· oPdurstc ienfablyproduct.Ismael,iborndctvhs.Upale,ourwndvseiythamforpbnclse.Aitayrfdowhnsepucatl.TCofrdsentcgoalu.

· mTeirod/PbastcnSglxpuAmiverdth,boapsexntuidr.Foam,lfbgseitopyarldn.Pbfitcosaredph,utnim/rocs.

ByFuoncsti
Undesrthcaigoy,vbfuntaswl:
·ProductinCst Itrepsnhaolmucfgirpdnt
cost.

· ComerciastlnIudp xhoefbsiandmyu-vtosrinc,adelgbouts.

ByChangeiActvorVlum
Undesrthcaigoy,vfxedriablnsm-co:t

· FixedcostInmalyr p.esiunchagdrvtoflmepinkacyr,suet.Thopniflcardg uto.Thespnicrafdtesopnuicarhfdtes.Ti,coprunvlytahepoducni.Frxm,lfytsR250peronhadumbfitsc hon025,estfrpuiwlbR1n.Icaethrodis05,unhetcofrpiwlbRs0.5unt

· aVoebristcl dy hwunit.Iecasrod gthuvmelfprocni.Dadtlbhremoscnxapfvbilt.Ieshrcopunimatesvfrodcnui.

· Semai-vbrlcostApfnhemaixdtbnclporsve,digthu.ForxampflencytibhosR5,0fr1unaitdexcomp,[email protected],fxdlyrosR50hnetacdposumifntexc10.Thor,stpeuniacvlhgordteumfpcni,[email protected]

eDcirntodIMals
Thematsridlyconbuphteasidlbfn opurcteadimls.Fxp,rnbokwdifuetlascnr,hioedctmas.lTyrknwghi-vuetms.Oolrc pingematusdhocrfyipetaldnrcm.Foxp,aishenrfut

eDcirtLabo
Anywagespoidtrkufcwhmaydietlo-rnspfvducti,eornma spfitl,orducaneys viofrwmatnlshedgcirbo.Waptnecsidomuneragtyfciblshvonaute.

Ohveadrs
Indirectxpsalovh,wnucidemrtabl.Ohvsifed:

· oPdurctinmafgvehs
· Adnmaistverxp

· SelingExps
· sDtribounexp
· Resarchndovpmltx

ePparontifCsShm
Acosthepiardknwumbeosfctrapilungd.ComfsritplaAhugcerdsptquimnofheag,rtibncopedashulmrifcotpenadshurotpeialngwcs dhtofprengi.Daclsmtuoedrfpinh.T,coatlfsendimhoubleagrnvti.

Format:

COSTHERAMNF
Total Units………..
OnpegiStockfRawmlr … …
Ad: Purchase … …
… …
Les: oCnslgSickt … …
Costfmaelrinud … …
Ad: eDcirtLabwog/s … …
PrimeCost … …
Ad: Worksvehad … …
WorksCt … …
Ad: Adnmstraioveh … …
CostfPdurcin … …
Ad: Selingasdtrbouhv … …
TotalCsrefS … …

CostnrladReuci
Letushgorcnladi :

Costnrl
Conceptualy,ighsd rovnefmatcwhixldrsueonftmaiybdchresultaoinfmc esty.
.SlavindReyos

Acountigpdvresba-lmfothwnr,egmplyhsoftcanwe gvrm,odsitnacue.

nFacilousgtbed pncaoisbedlgntr.Ppaoifbudes nlgctroiaepuhknclfotiag.Cmprsnbudewhcaltofpvrimngedatolwkpmrfnces.

CostnrlTeqchui
Costcanbelirgymphowftds:
· MatelrioCn
· LaborCntl
· OhveadrsConlt
· aSndtrcosgi
· BudgeytaCornl
· CapitlExenduro
· oPduryctivanAgRs

RequmirsnfotSclC
Thefolwingrqumtsabodplenucsftr:
· Aplandsetofw-irbalxcuvesnti.

· eCalnrditofskpmc exuthosak.

· xAedfirspobnlty,cavwergdntul.

· oPmprtcleinfad hprtmenogzaisdlyfrmtneqouiahdgmsntuebolkcrdiafempntlo.

· gHhislotfdanb,pemrchltangokerivsp.

· RedwaforgpmncsPuihetro.

CostReducni
Coestdurcinb ahvemtofrlndp ucihostfgdmanercvi wthoupangersybilftdonmuheyqalifprct.
….TheinstuofMagmAc,Lnd

Thearyontwlsmxzipfaorgnt:ehicslpofunt,rdechai.Bbovsmyrenultgaidpof.Aswenty,mhbuisarcfogpetvkmiunwhrcasplemyutoif.Incrasglepbiyohftrdsucwempanyilgostdwearhiuontcpglfraymsdiouc.Thte,rnlyscitfowadehun;prvsialdmet.Coucnhbsrlfaytempodcniwral,hgeovmnctpsi.d raly,eountfcsdhbpriqalyotuc.

Reductionfshlbwgmaer:

· Volumefpdcrtinshbaoxeurldc.

· hWouitcanglevfpdr shounbciaept.

CostReducniPrgam
Folwingesathr fcduopgm:

· Coestdurcinpagmhlboqrentfcmpay.

· Coestdurcinpagm vhytnoberadsim vcty.Sueofansrdipgmylncoutsverf.

· Coestdurcinpagmhlb et.

· Examplesrotfcdunighbepmatloy.Sucshifprgmdeno-atlysdeprmnofagizt.

· Eompyelshdubrwafticonesdupagrmfivnoetsdlhpagrm.

eFldsiCovrunthRcPgam
Anumberoldsfichtp un.Teyardiscblow
Dgesni
Manucfrigtoypdswhenfruct.Amiopvedsgnflructawhimeodsgnpurct,veiomndfausglhtyrecofpduinlwgrmst:
MaterilCos
Designofpducrthla sibyofcepwrmatlu,xiopdcnesqaty.
aLborCst
Designofpducrtmay ,seofr-alvicnmut,.

Organizto
Eompyelshdubnacgrftiohem.Tsdublncprfoati;hesuldbncmatogpweynrlvofmaget;hdursbplaionfethwdruoncsifagzt.

aFocrytLundEqipme
Thesoruldbapytnizofmael,rpwdchnsxuitzaoflbvemydrcsnputifl.

Andmrisoat
Angozaritshuldmkefconaistvrexp,hmcolds.Apanyuevtrchosfnwlgixpe,butcoy:

· Telphonxs
· aTverlingxps
· Saylbrednucgistf
· Reductionsfayr
· PostagendTrml

Marketing
Folwingeasrcbvduhtoinpargm:

· Adsvemrtin
· Warehous
· SalesPromnti
· sDtribounExpe
· Resarch&DovpmlntPg

AnycostauhldkepfwgintmocusredifthMankgm:

· Checktsdribuonymfagzhetvrlicnyofsmadwethlyoinrkg.

· nFdihoutefcysaplmr

· nFdioutfhecsarmlnditbuosyefargzdwhtscneovpmlyfkarsuticn.

· Acostaunhld BCyoifcsmetnrwhuabvdiotrecgs.Fxampl:

ABCNLYSIOFUTMER
Category uNmbersofDcpaiht VolumefSaCvrd
Custom…eAr About10% 60o%8t
Custom…eBr About20% 02o%3t
Customer… About70% 5%to10
eArftopnmhgisaly,zcfounthesmwravigofelum.Acnrdt,hsoipgamyubenrclfhtoagBdC.

nFaiclMgemt
eAontishuldbgvfware:

· hIfetisranyov-m.

· Howmuchenialstfprvd?

· hIfetorgaznismxu hfetacplioyd.

· hIfetisranyov-m,dubelsanirytzxfeshouldbnima.Sw-vgroeintshuldbmvaorenfistuplhwkgacore-nvstiylfmpabeorusin.

PersonalMgmt
Coestdurcinpagmb fwerlsuandimpovgbtr.Icefnishomabldgvterkwincosmyptaueinfcodrgm.
MaterilCon
Coestdurcinpagmhlbyseiconadmurflt.EcoOieQyan()qhusdoble.IvyntrkpwPoechindamrtl,ovwehusndpriacfmtl,evriydshoubn.

rPoductin
Usingefctvorlma,bdncheirtosupgamybn.

TolsandeqchuifCtR
Thefolwingtsadcqur eo:t
· BudgeytaCornl
· aSndtrCosgi
· mSpilfcatondVyreRu
· aPnlgidCotrfFce
· CostBenfiyAal

· ValueAnsyi
· ContribuyAasl
· JobEuvatinldMerRg
· ImopverntigDs
· MatelrioCn
· LaborCntl
· OhveadrContl
· MarketRsch
COSTINGEQHU

Thisecapnrtudlovgqscha:
· MnargilCost
· aSndtrCosgi
· VarinceyAsl
· CostVlumePrfiAnay
· eBakrEvnCht

MnargilCost
Mnargislcohte wnquatiyprodcesmb.Th,itcofprdnugema.Fxplt,usoe:

Variblecostpun =Rs25

xFedicost =Rs01,

Costf10,uni =25×01,Rs

TotalCs0f1,uni = Fixed Cost + Variable Cost

=1,0+25

=Rs03,5

Totalcsf10,uni 0=1,+25

=Rs03,52

MnargilCost =3,502–

=Rs25

NoedrfgMainlCst
Letuswhymnargilcoqd:

· Variblecostpunm ;yraeodcnsiputhgalof.
· Toxtaedlficsrmnuhgptvelofdcrinasyhwteocrinpdu.Imasthfxeocinrmtals.
· xFedipnsuclfromtha ginsecqudprovhtamsenicrvlofpdut.

FeuarstofgMinlC
Featusrofmngilc w:

· Mnargilcostuedkwhmpfavbricosltnued p.

· eBakr-vnysligtmdpoarfnlcsi.

· Contribufeachpd msontikwhepfaryblducomnt.

· Aditonfvarblecsp utiqoaelngrc.

· Mnargilcosthebfvu kinodprctawges.

· xFedicostrvmfnbuailecostghdrpun.

· Costareclifdnhbxvescoyt.Slmi-fdpranvehtsxcoraibl.

AscenrtamiofPudgMlC
‘Cobnutri’safdheqlgpricoutsmanl.Cbiyedcrasfow:

oCntribu = nSegliPrc–MaCost
Contribu = FixedEpns+oPftr
Contribux–FedEps = Profit

IncomeStaudrMgilCs
oInamectS
hFoertaynd31-024

tiPacursl Amount aTolt

Sales 025,
Les:bVarilCot
oCstdfgmanuecr 012,
bVarielnSgExps 03,
bVaridlenmsttiopEx 50,
510,
_
Contributi 590,

Les:FixdCot
ixeFdAtimnostraEp 07,
FixendSpglEs 01,3 02,
_ _
07,5

AdvantgesofMirlC
Theadvntgsofmrilc w:
· Eaosytperndimlu .

· Mnargilcostuefp ;hlodnrmteifaby vopductnsale.

· sItuielnfdcomakgbxsipre,otdcnamkbuysi.

· eBakrvnysildVPo/tuecfqhmanrgliost.

· Evalutionfderpmsbhuganlicot.

· Byavnoidgrbtclxfes,pvidontrabcl.

· xFediovrhacyst.

· Undermaglicostu,vfydneamrglicost.Th,pbyarwfdilogcxehvsmnautpriodex.

· nSceifxdostarblhpi,eoctn rlvabis.

aSndtrCosig
aPnledscotikyfrv whnotpidebsycarl.Thnotigsyemwadvplrchbksofetialngym.Schrostdealwiucnrs,toaevfidcnl.r

aSndtrcosegiluwhbtfprodcanieulsxhtjrdco,ansigyemphtronfdavi.

PosinRetladSrCg
· aSndtrcosgiuelp-m ftndrsciwokg.

· Insthopicer,adquyfmntbolrie,adscunthfrkmeodpicsanlyz.

· aSndtrcosgiphelvy.

· oAnglhwfixatescpr,vdoluntifkawrpegs.
· Matel,ribondhvsc e.

· Actualosimedr.

aSndtrCos
Format:

StandCors
No….
oP…durct DateofsttingdS…r.
ElemntofCs uanQtityor eRat StandCors
Hours Rs.
1. ireDctMal
MaterilA 400 units 5.00 ,02
MaterilB 100 units 4.00 40

500 units ,402

eLs:Normal5% 25units Scrap Value 40
NormpalOut 475 units 2,0
2. DirectLabou 100 hrs 20 20
3. hOveadrs:

VarinceAlys
Whentuaclosdifrm t,ecavni.Ifhusloteadrchuolpsfigtneadr,clvofbnie.hOtary,culosginhedtarpofwl,iscedvran.

Eachelmntofsdqurivayl.Vncesfdow:
· eDcirtMalVn
· eDcirtLaboVn
· OhveadrVinc
· SalesVncri

eDcirtMalVn
Matelrivncsbhofwgeri:
· MatelriCosVnc
· MatelriPcVn
· MatelriUsgVnc
· MatelrixVnc
· MatelridYVnc

MaterilCosVnc

aSndtrcosefmilupt–Aacosefmrild

Or

Matelripcvn+usgoqyatirce

Or

Matelripcvn+mxeMaritlydvnc

eMartlPicVn

cAtualsge(SndrQiyP–Ucte)
ActualUsge =ActualQniyofmer(s)d
aSndtrUciPe =StandcPreiofmlpu
ActualUniPer =Actualperiofm n

MaterilUsgoQunyVc

MatelriusgoQynvc:
aSndtrpiceu(Qy–Atalni)

MaterilxVnc

MatelrimxvncsduhofewbtanrumixoldhectrfMaixm.

Matelrixvncsudfewbthanrpicsodmxetarfcul.i

Ifthesrnoidcbwahetugliofmxn,:
aSndtruicos(Qy–Aalnt)Or

aSndtrCosfxM–i ctAual

Sometisduhragfcpyloemit,sndrvh;:
aSndtruicos(Rev Qy–Aatlun)iOr

aSndtrcosevfiMx–adCtoAculmi

Iftheuacglwiomxdrsetanwighoxfm,:
Totalweighufcmx
Totalweighfrvsdnmx n×Sdtacorvsiefmx

MateridlYVnc

Whentsadrculmixofe,thn

eYldiaVncr=StRA×u(Ye–ladri)

nSdtaRre=
nSdtacorsfmix

Netsandroup(i.G−S)l

eDcirtLaboVn
eDcirtlabovnsgzdfw:

· LaborCstVince
· LaboerRtfPyVinc
· TotalLbrEeficnyV
· LaborEficenyV
· LaboerIdmTliVnc

· LaboxrMVinceGgCmpsta
· LabodrYieVlncEfySuae
· SubstionVarce

LaborCstVncei

aSndtrCosfLb–uAcl

LaborRtefpyVnci
ActuamlTeikSn×(drR–t)

TotalLbreEficnyV
aSndtre×(mi–Acul)

LaborcEienfyV

aSndtreR(imfocuplt–Aaewrkd)

LaboreIdmTliVnc

eIdlTimaVncr=Abo exSdtRa
TotalLbrCsVncie= ofPayvr+TtlbeEicnVaoLrfcynie=aboEVrc+LdleImTian

LaborxMVinceGgCmpsta

Ifuacltompsnibreqda:

LMV=aSndtrCosf mpi(Actualekn)
–StandCrosfAculmpi(taekwodr)

Ifstandcormpilbevutshragofnypcielbutamsqoheltndair:

LMV=aSndtrCosfRevi mpnt(urAcalTek)
–StandCrosfAculmpi(taTekWodr)

Ifuacltndsimreob :
Totalimefcubprsn
=otalTimnedsfbrpco×oStd.scfmpin−aul

IncasethSdriv aefnctholAudSarime:
Totalimef
actublomprnsi
=od×Sst.cf(revimpn−aul)Tof
revdisb.tolampcn

LaboreYldiVnc

dS.LtaborCspeuni×(AclYItd–S.sunexipcomfrAatlwkdnuci)

SubsotinVarce

(ActuaslhxrSde.RofWk)–(ActuaslhxrSde.wo)
Cosut-VmelPfiryAna
Cost-VlumePrfi()AnayokwseB–rEvnil.ybugozatkwsrmxiep.WfholCVPansy,teimgudhcoa-rnlfpitevdouc.

CVPaynsilcoerhdwtvf aelsquthocndiaebrk-vpot.hIdws,uyealvcotnpfirdesu.CVPaynilhgteorspwbc,aluvendthopfi.r

Asuompnti
LetushgorampinfCVPysl:

· Variblescomtnvxdfaricsteyvlopdun.

· Salesuvomdntcfhgipreou.Wanshmtligprco.

· Aetalvofsh,umrindblcetaos.

· cEienfyadopurtvmshgleofavum.

· Thesalx-mitvofrncamuli-pdtso.

· Therlvanoctfwis deuvolmny.

· Thevolumfsaiqt prdoucn.

MnargilCostEqu

Eqouanstifrelmc w:

Sales =aVebricolstx+FdEpn±PLf/

Or

Sales–VribCot=FxdEpn±Pf/Ls

Or

Sales–VribCot=nu

sItniecyaorudhfwlgcnsep,tiraoudlnkwthemacirobnsut,vmeladpfi:

· Contribu
· oPfitruVmelRa/(CnbSs)
· eBakr-EvnPoit
· MnargoiefSty

Cbonutri
Contribu=Sales–Mg
WehavlrdyscuiontbgMaCpve.

oPfit-ruVmelRa
oPfitr/Vlume()ascdwhytingprofbleasundtbhliroewSasCntu.Iiofhmprasc,ultedn:
P bConutri

V oR=ati Sales
= dFpEixens+ProftSal
= Salesb−VriCot
= Chnagopeiftsrbu Sl

TheP/VRatiosrdcnlwp.fHghetaP/Vior,m ndvc-es.

eBakr-EvnPoit
Whenotalcsfxugibqhoetals,cdbrk-vnp.iCotueqsahlxdfcnpi.Hromulatebk-vnp:i

otalTFixedpEns
Bn.EPu(its) =
SelingPrcpUt−MaCos

otalTFixedpEns=bCurU

eBakr-vnpoitbsdl:
dFCoixest
=
P/VRatio

Calcutionpfrsevwhdoitna:

=
dFpEixens+DrPoft

SelingPrcpUt−MaCos
= FixedpE+nDsroPft
ContribupeU

CoanstPrducxMAiphIoe,trascnfhpduoltis.

VariblePoducxtMAphIns e,frcopduitbasgn .

MnargoiefSty
ExcesofaltBPiknwmrgy.Theof,

Mnargoiefsty=AculS–BEP

Mnargoiefstymbculdhwpofngirma:
oPfitr
gMinarofSety=VPoR/ati
oPfitr
=
bConutripeU