Chapter 7

Engr228
Circuit Analysis

Dr Curtis Nelson

Chapter 7 Objectives

• Be able to determine the natural response of both RL and

RC circuits;
• Be able to determine the step response of both RL and RC
circuits.

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 1

Review: DC Characteristics of an Inductor

i(t) i(t)

1Ω 1Ω
1V L 1V

diL (t )
vL (t ) = L
dt

When iL(t) is constant, diL(t) = 0 thus, vL(t) = 0.

In other words, the inductor can be replaced with a short circuit.

Review: DC Characteristics of a Capacitor

i(t) i(t)

1Ω 1Ω
1V 1V
C

dvC (t )
iC (t ) = C
dt

When vC(t) is constant, dvC(t) = 0 thus, iC(t) = 0.

In other words, the capacitor can be replaced with an open circuit.

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 2

Types of First-order Responses

• Transient Response, natural response, homogeneous

solution (e.g. oscillation, temporary position change)
– Fades to zero over time.
• Forced Response, steady-state response, particular solution
(e.g. permanent position change)
– Follows the input;
– Independent of time passed.

Mechanical Analogue

I am holding a ball with a rope attached. What is the movement

of the ball if I move my hand to another point?

Two movements:

1. Oscillation

2. Forced position change

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 3

Mechanical Analogue

Forced response Natural response

Source Free RL Circuits

i(t)
- +
Inductor L has energy stored
R L
so initial current is I0
+ -

Similar to a pendulum that is

at a height h (potential energy
is nonzero).

height

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 4

Source Free RL Circuits
i(t)
- +
R L
+ -

di (t )
Ri (t ) + L =0
dt
di (t ) R
+ i (t ) = 0
dt L

There are 2 ways to solve this first-order differential equation.

Solving Source Free RL Circuits

Method 1
Assume solution is of the form i(t ) = Ae st
where A and s are the constants that need to solved for.
di (t ) R
Substitute i(t ) = Ae st into the equation: + i(t ) = 0
dt L
R st
Ase st + Ae = 0
L
R
(s + ) Ae st = 0
L
R
s=-
L
R
- t
i (t ) = Ae L

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 5

Solving Source Free RL Circuits - continued

Initial condition: i(0) = I 0

R
- t
from i (t ) = Ae L

I 0 = Ae 0
I0 = A
R
- t
Therefore i (t ) = I 0 e L

Solving Source Free RL Circuits

Method 2: Direct integration
t
di (t ) R i (t ) R
+ i (t ) = 0 ln i (t ) I =- t
dt L
0
L 0
di (t ) R R
= - i (t ) ln i (t ) - ln I 0 = - (t - 0)
dt L L
R
di (t ) R - t
= - dt i (t ) = I 0 e L
i (t ) L
i (t ) t
di (t ) R
ò
I0
= ò - dt
i (t ) 0 L

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 6

Time Constant

The ratio L/R is called the time constant and is denoted

by the symbol τ (tau).
L
t= Units: seconds
R

One time constant is defined as the amount of time

required for the output to go from its initial value I0 to
36.8% of its initial value.
R t
- t -
i(t ) = I 0e L
= I 0e t

e -1 = 0.368

Time Constant Graph

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 7

1st Order Response Observations

• The voltage on a capacitor or the current through an inductor is

the same prior to and after a switch at t = 0 seconds because
these quantities cannot change instantaneously.
• Resistor voltage (or current) prior to the switch v(0-) can be
different from the voltage (or current) after the switch v(0+).
• All voltages and all currents in an RC or RL circuit follow the
same natural response e-t/τ.

General RL Circuits

The time constant of a single inductor circuit will be τ = L/Req

where Req is the resistance seen by the inductor.

Example: Req=R3+R4+R1R2 / (R1+R2)

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 8

Example First-order RL Circuit

Find the voltage v(t) at t = 200 ms.

v(t) = -12.99 volts at t = 200 ms

Textbook Problem 7.2 – Nilsson 10th

The switch is opened at t = 0 seconds.

a) Find i0(t) for t ≥ 0 seconds
b) Find v0(t) for t ≥ 0+ seconds

io(t) = 0.6e-750t Amps

v0(t) = -7.20e-750t Volts

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 9

Source-Free RC Circuits

As you might expect, source-free RC circuits are an analogue

of source-free RL circuits. The derivation for the capacitor
voltage is now a node equation rather than a loop equation.

Source-Free RC Circuits
• To be consistent with the direction of
assigned voltage
v(t ) dv (t )
+C =0
R dt
dv (t ) v(t )
+ =0
dt RC

• Comparing the last equation to that of the RL circuit, it

becomes obvious that the form of the solution is the same
with the time constant τ = RC rather than L/R

di (t ) R
+ i(t ) = 0
dt L

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 10

Comparison Between Source-free RL and RC

• Transient response equations:

R t
- t -
iL (t ) = I L 0e L
= I L 0e t

t t
- -
v C (t ) = VC 0e RC
= VC 0e t

• Time constants:

L
tL =
R
t C = RC

RC Natural Response

The time constant is τ = RC

for a first-order RC circuit.

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 11

General RC Circuits

The time constant of a single-capacitor circuit will be τ = ReqC

where Req is the resistance seen by the capacitor.

Example: Req=R2+R1R3 / (R1+R3)

The Source Free RC Circuit

Find the voltage v(t) at t = 200µS.

v(t) = 321mV at t = 200µS

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 12

Textbook Problem 8.22 Hayt 7E

(a) Find vC(t) for all time in the circuit below.

(b) At what time is vC = 0.1vC(0)?

vC(0) = 192V vC (t ) = vC (0)e -125t

vC = 0.1vC(0) when t = 18.42mS

Driven RL and RC Circuits

• Many RL and RC circuits are driven by a DC or an AC source.

The complete response of a driven RL or RC source is the sum
of the transient response and the forced response:

i (t ) = tran (t ) + forced (t )

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 13

The Unit Step Function u(t)

First, we will define a Step Function:

• A Step Function is often used to drive circuits.
• The forcing function of 1u(t) represents a function that has
zero value up until t = 0, and a value of 1 forever after.

Step Function Examples

t=0 t=0

1V R 1V R

v(t) v(t)

1V 1V

0V 0V
t t
Unit Step function

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 14

Circuit Example

I I

1Ω 1Ω
1V L 2V L

I = 1A I = 2A

Suppose the voltage source changes abruptly from 1V to 2V.

Does the current change abruptly as well?

Example - continued
Voltage

2V

1V
time
Current

2A

1A
time

Transient Response + Forced Response

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 15

Complete Response

• The differential equation for the circuit above now becomes

di (t )
Ri (t ) + L= vS (t )
dt
• The transient part of the complete solution is determined by
setting the forcing function vS(t) = 0
di (t )
Ri (t ) + L =0
dt

Complete Solution

• The complete solution is solved by assuming i(t) is of the

form: i(t)
t
-
k1 + k 2 e t
+ R
AC u(t) L
di (t ) -
Ri (t ) + L = u (t )
dt
• Substituting the solution above into the circuit equation yields:

Væ - tö
R R
- t
i(t ) = çç1 - e L ÷÷ + i(0)e L
Rè ø

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 16

Procedure for Solving First-Order Circuits

1. Identify the variable of interest for the circuit. For RC

circuits, it is most convenient to choose the capacitive
voltage - for RL circuits, it is best to choose the inductor
current.
2. Determine the initial value of the variable at t0. Note that if
you choose capacitor voltage or inductive current, it is not
necessary to distinguish between t = 0- and t = 0+ because
these are continuous variables.
3. Calculate the final value of the variable as t → ∞
4. Calculate the time constant of the circuit.

Example

The switch is in the position shown for a long time before t = 0.

Find i(t).

t=0

i(t) R=1Ω
L=1H
1V 2V

t
-
i (t ) = k1 + k 2 e t

Time constant τ = 1 sec

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 17

Example - continued
t
-
i (t ) = k1 + k 2 e t

At t = 0, i(0) = 2 A 2 = k1 + k2

At t = ∞, i(∞) = 1 A 1 = k1 + 0

Therefore, k1 = 1, k2 = 1

The answer is: i(t ) = 1 + e -t

Example Graph

i (t )

2A

1A
i(t ) = 2 i(t ) = 1 + e -t

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 18

Example: RL Circuit with Step Input

Find i(t)

i(t)=25+25(1-e-t/2)u(t) A

Driven RC Circuits

Find Vc(t) and i(t)

vC(t)=20 + 80e-t/1.2 V and i(t)=0.1 + 0.4e−t/1.2 A

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 19

Driven RC Circuits - Continued

vC=20 + 80e-t/1.2 V

i=0.1 + 0.4e−t/1.2 A

Chapter 7 Summary

• Showed how to determine the natural response of both RL

and RC circuits;
• Showed how to determine the step response of both RL
and RC circuits.

Engr228 - Chapter 7, Nilsson 10E 20