Electrons in Atoms

BIG Idea The atoms of

each element have a unique
arrangement of electrons.

5.1 Light and Quantized

Energy
Absorption spectrum
MAIN Idea Light, a form of
of Betelgeuse
electromagnetic radiation, has
characteristics of both a wave
and a particle.

5.2 Quantum Theory and

the Atom
MAIN Idea Wavelike properties of
electrons help relate atomic emission
spectra, energy states of atoms, and
atomic orbitals.

5.3 Electron Configuration

MAIN Idea A set of three rules
can be used to determine electron
arrangement in an atom.

ChemFacts
• Scientists use stellar absorption
spectra to identify a star’s elemental
composition and classify it into one
of the several spectral types.
• The properties of absorption spectra
are also related to a star’s surface
temperature.
• Stellar spectra revealed that stars
are made out of the same elements
as those found on Earth.
• There are around 600 dark lines in
the Sun’s absorption spectra.

Absorption
spectrum of Rigel

134
©Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS
Start-Up Activities

LAUNCH Lab Electron Configuration Make a

Foldable to help you summarize
How do you know the three rules that define how
electrons are arranged in an atom.
what is inside an atom?
Imagine that it is your birthday, and there is one wrapped STEP 1 Fold a sheet
present that is different from all the rest. Unlike the other of paper in half lengthwise.
gifts that you can open, you can only guess what is inside Make the back edge about
this package. In trying to determine the structure of the 2 cm longer than the
atom, early chemists had a similar experience. How good front edge.
are your skills of observation and deduction?

STEP 2 Fold into thirds.

STEP 3 Unfold and

cut along the folds of the
top flap to make three tabs.

STEP 4 Label the

Electron Configuration
tabs as follows: Aufbau Pauli
Aufbau
Principle, Pauli Exclusion Exclusion Hund’s
Procedure Principle, and Hund’s Rule.
Principle Principle Rule

1. Read and complete the lab safety form.

2. Obtain a wrapped box from your instructor.
3. Using as many observation methods as you can, &/,$!",%3 Use this Foldable with Sections 5.3. As
and without unwrapping or opening the box, try you read this section, summarize each rule under the
to determine what is inside the box. appropriate tab.
4. Record the observations you make throughout this
discovery process.

Analysis
1. Describe how you were able to determine Visit glencoe.com to:
characteristcs such as the size, shape, and ▶ study the entire chapter online
composition of the object in the box.
▶ explore
2. Indicate what senses you used to make your ▶ take Self-Check quizzes
observations.
▶ use the Personal Tutor to work Example
3. Discuss why it is hard to determine what type Problems step-by-step
of object is in the box without opening it. ▶ access Web Links for more information,
projects, and activities
Inquiry After reading the chapter, design another
investigation that illustrates the difficulties associated ▶ find the Try at Home Lab, Observing
with the study of subatomic particles. Light’s Wave Nature

Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms 135

Matt Meadows
Section 5.1
Objectives
◗ Compare the wave and particle
Light and Quantized Energy
natures of light. MAIN Idea Light, a form of electromagnetic radiation, has
◗ Define a quantum of energy, and characteristics of both a wave and a particle.
explain how it is related to an energy
change of matter. Real-World Reading Link Have you ever come inside on a cold day, headed
for the kitchen, and popped a cold snack into the microwave oven? When the
◗ Contrast continous electromagnetic
spectra and atomic emission spectra. microwaves reached your snack, small packets of energy warmed it in practically
no time at all.
Review Vocabulary
radiation: the rays and particles— The Atom and Unanswered Questions
alpha particles, beta particles, and After discovering three subatomic particles in the early 1900s, scientists
gamma rays—that are emitted by continued their quest to understand atomic structure and the arrange-
radioactive material ment of electrons within atoms.
Rutherford proposed that all of an atom’s positive charge and vir-
New Vocabulary
tually all of its mass are concentrated in a nucleus that is surrounded by
electromagnetic radiation fast-moving electrons. The model did not explain how the atom’s elec-
wavelength
trons are arranged in the space around the nucleus. Nor did it address
frequency
the question of why the negatively charged electrons are not pulled into
amplitude
electromagnetic spectrum the atom’s positively charged nucleus. Rutherford’s nuclear model did
quantum not begin to account for the differences and similarities in chemical
Planck’s constant behavior among the various elements.
photoelectric effect For example, consider the elements lithium, sodium, and potassium,
photon which are found in different periods on the periodic table but have sim-
atomic emission spectrum ilar chemical behaviors. All three elements appear metallic in nature,
and their atoms react vigorously with water to liberate hydrogen gas.
In fact, as shown in Figure 5.1, both sodium and potassium react so
violently that the hydrogen gas can ignite and even explode.
In the early 1900s, scientists began to unravel the puzzle of chemical
behavior. They observed that certain elements emitted visible light
when heated in a flame. Analysis of the emitted light revealed that an
element’s chemical behavior is related to the arrangement of the elec-
trons in its atoms. To understand this relationship and the nature of
atomic structure, it will be helpful to first understand the nature of light.
■ Figure 5.1 Different elements can
have similar reactions with water.

Lithium Sodium Potassium

136 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

©1994 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photographs, NYC
The Wave Nature of Light
Visible light is a type of electromagnetic radiation—a form of energy
that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travels through space. Other exam-
ples of electromagnetic radiation include microwaves that cook your
food, X rays that doctors and dentists use to examine bones and teeth,
and waves that carry radio and television programs into homes.
Characteristics of waves All waves can be described by several
characteristics, a few of which you might be familiar with from everyday
experience. You might have seen concentric waves when dropping an
object into water, as shown in Figure 5.2a.
The wavelength (represented by λ, the Greek letter lambda) is the
shortest distance between equivalent points on a continuous wave. For
example, in Figure 5.2b, the wavelength is measured from crest to crest
or from trough to trough. Wavelength is usually expressed in meters,
centimeters, or nanometers (1 nm = 1 × 10 -9 m).
The frequency (represented by ν, the Greek letter nu) is the number
of waves that pass a given point per second. One hertz (Hz), the SI unit
of frequency, equals one wave per second. In calculations, frequency is
expressed with units of waves per second, (1/s) or (s -1). When expressed
in this way, the term waves is understood. For example, 652 Hz =
652 waves/second = 652/s = 652 s -1.
The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from the origin to a
crest, or from the origin to a trough, as illustrated in Figure 5.2b.
Wavelength and frequency do not affect the amplitude of a wave.
All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, travel at a speed
of 3.00 × 10 8 m/s in a vacuum. Because the speed of light is such an
important and universal value, it is given its own symbol, c. The speed
of light is the product of its wavelength (λ) and its frequency (ν).

Electromagnetic Wave Relationship

c is the speed of light in a vacuum.
c = λν λ is the wavelength.
ν is the frequency.
The product of the frequency and the wavelength is equal to the speed of light in a vacuum.

a ■ Figure 5.2 a. The concentric waves in the water show the characteristic
properties of all waves. b. Amplitude, wavelength, and frequency are the main
characteristics of waves.
Identify a crest, a trough, and one wavelength in the photo.

b
Wavelength (λ) Crest

Amplitude
Origin

Wavelength (λ) Trough

Section 5.1 • Light and Quantized Energy 137

Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs
■ Figure 5.3 These waves illustrate Longer
the relationship between wavelength and wavelength
frequency. As wavelength increases,
frequency decreases.
Infer Does frequency or wavelength
affect amplitude?

Lower frequency
Shorter
wavelength

Higher frequency

Although the speed of all electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is the

same, waves can have different wavelengths and frequencies. As you can
see from the equation on the previous page, wavelength and frequency
are inversely related; in other words, as one quantity increases, the other
decreases. To better understand this relationship, examine the two
waves illustrated in Figure 5.3. Although both waves travel at the speed
of light, you can see that the red wave has a longer wavelength and lower
frequency than the violet wave.
Electromagnetic spectrum Sunlight, which is one example of
white light, contains a nearly continuous range of wavelengths and
frequencies. White light passing through a prism separates into a
continuous spectrum of colors similar to the spectrum in Figure 5.4.
These are the colors of the visible spectrum. The spectrum is called con-
tinuous because each point of it corresponds to a unique wavelength
and frequency. You might be familiar with the colors of the visible spec-
trum. If you have ever seen a rainbow, you have seen all of the visible
colors at once. A rainbow is formed when tiny drops of water in the air
disperse the white light from the Sun into its component colors, produc-
ing a spectrum that arches across the sky.

■ Figure 5.4 When white light passes

through a prism, it is separated into a con-
tinuous spectrum of its different compo-
nents—red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
indigo, and violet light.

138 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

©DAVID PARKER/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers, Inc.
The visible spectrum of light shown in Figure 5.4, however, com- Careers In chemistry
prises only a small portion of the complete electromagnetic spectrum,
which is illustrated in Figure 5.5. The electromagnetic spectrum, also Spectroscopist Spectroscopy is
called the EM spectrum, includes all forms of electromagnetic radiation, the study of the spectra absorbed or
with the only differences in the types of radiation being their frequen- emitted by matter. Because each ele-
cies and wavelengths. Note in Figure 5.4 that the bend varies with the ment’s spectrum is unique, it is like a
wavelengths as they pass through the prism, resulting in the sequence of fingerprint. Astrophysicists use spec-
the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. In examin- troscopy to investigate what a star,
ing the energy of the radiation shown in Figure 5.5, note that energy such as the Sun, is made of. A star’s
increases with increasing frequency. Thus, looking back at Figure 5.3, absorption spectrum shows many
dark lines, which allow spectrosco-
the violet light, with its greater frequency, has more energy than the red
pists to identify the elements present
light. This relationship between frequency and energy will be explained
in the star. For more information on
in the next section. chemistry careers, visit glencoe.com.
Because all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed in a given
medium, you can use the formula c = λν to calculate the wavelength or
frequency of any wave.
Reading Check State the relationship between the energy and the
frequency of electromagnetic radiation.
Connection to Physics
Electromagnetic radiation from diverse ori-
gins constantly bombards us. In addition to the radiation from the Sun,
human activities also produce radiation which include radio and TV
signals, phone relay stations, lightbulbs, medical X-ray equipment, and
particle accelerators. Natural sources on Earth, such as lightning, natu-
ral radioactivity, and even the glow of fireflies, also contribute. Our
knowledge of the universe is based on electromagnetic radiation emit-
ted by distant objects and detected with instruments on Earth.

■ Figure 5.5 The electromagnetic spectrum covers a wide range of frequencies.

The visible-light section of the spectrum is very narrow. As frequency and energy increase,
wavelength decreases.

Visible light
Wavelength increases
Wavelength (λ) in meters
4 2 −2 −4 −6 −8 −10 −12 −14
3 × 10 3 × 10 3 3 × 10 3 × 10 3 × 10 3 × 10 3 × 10 3 × 10 3 × 10

Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma rays

Microwaves X rays

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (ν) in hertz
Energy/frequency increases

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Section 5.1 • Light and Quantized Energy 139

EXAMPLE Problem 5.1
Math Handbook
Calculating Wavelength of an EM Wave Microwaves are used to cook food Solving Algebraic
and transmit information. What is the wavelength of a microwave that has a Equations
frequency of 3.44 × 10 9 Hz? pages 954–955

1 Analyze the Problem

You are given the frequency of a microwave. You also know that because microwaves are
part of the electromagnetic spectrum, their speeds, frequencies, and wavelengths are
related by the formula c = λν. The value of c is a known constant. First, solve the
equation for wavelength, then substitute the known values and solve.
Known Unknown
ν = 3.44 × 10 9 Hz λ=?m
c = 3.00 × 10 8 m/s

2 Solve for the Unknown

Solve the equation relating the speed, frequency, and wavelength of an electromagnetic
wave for wavelength (λ).

c = λν State the electromagnetic wave relationship.

λ = c/ν Solve for λ.

3.00 × 10 8 m/s
λ = __ Substitute c = 3.00 × 10 8 m/s and ν= 3.44 × 10 9 Hz.
3.44 × 10 9 Hz
Note that hertz is equivalent to 1/s or s -1.
3.00 × 10 8 m/s
λ = __ 9 -1
Divide numbers and units.
3.44 × 10 s
λ = 8.72 × 10 -2 m

3 Evaluate the Answer

The answer is correctly expressed in a unit of wavelength (m). Both of the known values
in the problem are expressed with three significant figures, so the answer should have
three significant figures, which it does. The value for the wavelength is within the
wavelength range for microwaves shown in Figure 5.5.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 978 and glencoe.com

1. Objects get their colors from reflecting only certain wavelengths when hit with white light.
Light reflected from a green leaf is found to have a wavelength of 4.90 × 10 -7 m.
What is the frequency of the light?
2. X rays can penetrate body tissues and are widely used to diagnose and treat disorders
of internal body structures. What is the frequency of an X ray with a wavelength of
1.15 × 10 -10 m?
3. After careful analysis, an electromagnetic wave is found to have a frequency of
7.8 × 10 6 Hz. What is the speed of the wave?
4. Challenge While an FM radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 94.7 MHz, an
AM station broadcasts at a frequency of 820 kHz. What are the wavelengths of the
two broadcasts? Which of the drawings below corresponds to the FM station?
To the AM station?
a b

140 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

The Particle Nature of Light
While considering light as a wave explains much of its everyday behav-
ior, it fails to adequately describe important aspects of light’s interac-
tions with matter. The wave model of light cannot explain why heated
objects emit only certain frequencies of light at a given temperature,
or why some metals emit electrons when light of a specific frequency
shines on them. Scientists realized that a new model or a revision of
the wave model of light was needed to address these phenomena.
The quantum concept When objects are heated, they emit glow- VOCABULARY
ing light. Figure 5.6 illustrates this phenomenon with iron. A piece of ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
iron appears dark gray at room temperature, glows red when heated suf- Phenomenon
ficiently, and turns orange, then bluish in color at even higher tempera- an observable fact or event
tures. As you will learn in later chapters, the temperature of an object is During rainstorms, electric currents
a measure of the average kinetic energy of its particles. As the iron gets often pass from the sky to Earth—
hotter, it possesses a greater amount of energy and emits different colors a phenomenon we call lightning.
of light. These different colors correspond to different frequencies
and wavelengths.
The wave model could not explain the emission of these different
wavelengths. In 1900, German physicist Max Planck (1858–1947) began
searching for an explanation of this phenomenon as he studied the light
emitted by heated objects. His study led him to a startling conclusion:
matter can gain or lose energy only in small, specific amounts called
quanta. A quantum is the minimum amount of energy that can be
gained or lost by an atom.
Reading Check Explain why the color of heated objects changes with
their temperature.
Planck and other physicists of the time thought the concept of
quantized energy was revolutionary, and some found it disturbing. Prior
experience had led scientists to think that energy could be absorbed and
emitted in continually varying quantities, with no minimum limit to the
amount. For example, think about heating a cup of water in a micro-
wave oven. It seems that you can add any amount of thermal energy to
the water by regulating the power and duration of the microwaves.
Actually, the water’s temperature increases in infinitesimal steps as its
molecules absorb quanta of energy. Because these steps are so small, the
temperature seems to rise in a continuous, rather than a stepwise,
manner.

■ Figure 5.6 The wavelength of the

light emitted by heated metal, such as the
iron at left, depends on the temperature. At
room temperature, iron is gray. When heated,
it first turns red, then glowing orange.
Explain the relationship between the
color and the temperature of the metal.

Section 5.1 • Light and Quantized Energy 141

©Royalty-Free/Corbis
Planck proposed that the energy emitted by hot objects was quan-
tized. He then went further and demonstrated mathematically that a
relationship exists between the energy of a quantum and the frequency
of the emitted radiation.

Energy of a Quantum
E quantum represents energy.
E quantum = hν h is Planck’s constant.
ν represents frequency.

The energy of a quantum is given by the product of Planck’s constant and the frequency.

Real-World Chemistry Planck’s constant has a value of 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s, where J is the sym-
The Photoelectric Effect bol for joule, the SI unit of energy. The equation shows that the energy
of radiation increases as the radiation’s frequency, v, increases.
According to Planck’s theory, for a given frequency, v, matter can
emit or absorb energy only in whole-number multiples of hv; that is,
1hv, 2hv, 3hv, and so on. A useful analogy for this concept is that of a
child building a wall of wooden blocks. The child can add to or take
away height from the wall only in increments of whole numbers of
blocks. Similarly, matter can have only certain amounts of energy—
quantities of energy between these values do not exist.
The photoelectric effect Scientists also knew that the wave model
of light could not explain a phenomenon called the photoelectric effect.
In the photoelectric effect, electrons, called photoelectrons, are emitted
from a metal’s surface when light of a certain frequency, or higher than
a certain frequency, shines on the surface, as shown in Figure 5.7.
The wave model predicts that given enough time, even low-energy,
Solar energy is sometimes used low-frequency light would accumulate and supply enough energy to
to power road signs. Photovoltaic eject photoelectrons from a metal. In reality, a metal will not eject pho-
cells use the photoelectric effect toelectrons below a specific frequency of incident light. For example, no
to convert the energy of light into matter how intensely or how long it shines, light with a frequency less
electric energy.
than 1.14 × 10 15 Hz does not eject photoelectrons from silver. But even
dim light with a frequency equal to or greater than 1.14 × 10 15 Hz ejects
photoelectrons from silver.
Reading Check Describe the photoelectric effect.

■ Figure 5.7 The photoelectric

effect occurs when light of a certain
frequency strikes a metal surface
and ejects electrons. When the Electron ejected
intensity of the light increases, from surface
the number of electrons ejected Incident beam of light
increases. When the frequency
(energy) of the light increases, the Metal surface
energy of the ejected electrons
increases.

Electrons

142 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

©Andrew Fox/Corbis/Corbis
Light’s dual nature To explain the photoelectric effect, Albert
Einstein proposed in 1905 that light has a dual nature. A beam of light
has wavelike and particlelike properties. It can be thought of as a beam
of bundles of energy called photons. A photon is a massless particle that
carries a quantum of energy. Extending Planck’s idea of quantized ener-
gy, Einstein calculated that a photon’s energy depends on its frequency.

Energy of a Photon
E photon represents energy.
E photon = hν h is Planck’s constant.
ν represents frequency.

The energy of a photon is given by the product of Planck’s constant and the frequency.

Einstein also proposed that the energy of a photon must have a certain
threshold value to cause the ejection of a photoelectron from the surface
of the metal. Thus, even small numbers of photons with energy above
the threshold value will cause the photoelectric effect. Einstein won the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for this work.

EXAMPLE Problem 5.2

Math Handbook
Calculate the Energy of a Photon Every object gets its color by reflecting a Operations with
certain portion of incident light. The color is determined by the wavelength of the Scientific Notation
reflected photons, thus by their energy. What is the energy of a photon from the page 948
violet portion of the Sun’s light if it has a frequency of 7.230 × 10 14 s -1?
1 Analyze the Problem
Known Unknown
ν = 7.230 × 10 14 s -1 E photon = ? J
h = 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s

2 Solve for the Unknown

E photon = hν State the equation for the energy of a photon.

E photon = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(7.230 × 10 14 s -1) Substitute h = 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s and ν = 7.230 × 10 14 s -1.

E photon = 4.791 × 10 -19 J Multiply and divide numbers and units.

3 Evaluate the Answer

As expected, the energy of a single photon of light is extremely small. The unit is joules,
an energy unit, and there are four significant figures.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 978 and glencoe.com

5. Calculate the energy possessed by a single photon of each of the following types of
electromagnetic radiation.
a. 6.32 × 10 20 s –1 b. 9.50 × 10 13 Hz c. 1.05 × 10 16 s –1
6. The blue color in some fireworks occurs when copper(I) chloride is heated to
approximately 1500 K and emits blue light of wavelength 4.50 × 10 2 nm. How much
energy does one photon of this light carry?
7. Challenge The microwaves used to heat food have a wavelength of 0.125 m. What is the
energy of one photon of the microwave radiation?

Section 5.1 • Light and Quantized Energy 143

Atomic Emission Spectra
Have you ever wondered how light is produced in the
glowing tubes of neon signs? This process is another
Identify Compounds phenomenon that cannot be explained by the wave
model of light. The light of the neon sign is produced
How do flame colors vary for different by passing electricity through a tube filled with neon
elements?
gas. Neon atoms in the tube absorb energy and
become excited. These excited atoms return to their
Procedure
stable state by emitting light to release that energy.
If the light emitted by the neon is passed through a
1. Read and complete the lab safety form. glass prism, neon’s atomic emission spectrum is
2. Dip one of six cotton swabs into the lithium produced. The atomic emission spectrum of an
chloride solution. Put the swab into the element is the set of frequencies of the electromag-
flame of a Bunsen burner. Observe the color netic waves emitted by atoms of the element. Neon’s
of the flame, and record it in your data table. atomic emission spectrum consists of several individ-
3. Repeat Step 2 for each of the metallic chlo- ual lines of color corresponding to the frequencies of
ride solutions (sodium chloride, potassium the radiation emited by the atoms of neon. It is not a
chloride, calcium chloride, and strontium
continuous range of colors, as in the visible spectrum
chloride). Record the color of each flame in
of white light.
your data table.
4. Compare your results to the flame tests Reading Check Explain how an emission
shown in the Elements Handbook. spectrum is produced.
5. Repeat Step 2 using a sample of unknown Each element’s atomic emission spectrum is unique
solution obtained from your teacher. Record
and can be used to identify an element or determine
the color of the flame produced.
whether that element is part of an unknown com-
6. Dispose of the used cotton swabs as directed
pound. For example, when a platinum wire is dipped
by your teacher.
into a strontium nitrate solution and then inserted
Analysis into a burner flame, the strontium atoms emit a char-
1. Suggest a reason why each compound pro- acteristic red color. You can perform a series of flame
duced a flame of a different color, even tests by doing the MiniLab.
though they each contain chlorine. Figure 5.8 shows an illustration of the character-
2. Explain how an element’s flame test might istic purple-pink glow produced by excited hydrogen
be related to its atomic emission spectrum. atoms and the visible portion of hydrogen’s emission
3. Infer the identity of the unknown crystals. spectrum responsible for producing the glow. Note
Explain your reasoning. how the line nature of hydrogen’s atomic emission
spectrum differs from that of a continuous spectrum.

■ Figure 5.8 The purple

light emitted by hydrogen can
be separated into its different Slit Prism separates light
components using a prism. into its components.
Hydrogen has an atomic emis-
sion spectrum that comprises
four lines of different
wavelengths.
Determine Which line has
the highest energy?
410 434 486 656
nm nm nm nm

Hydrogen gas
discharge tube λ (nm) 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
emits light. Hydrogen’s Atomic Emission Spectrum

144 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

■ Figure 5.9 The first spectrum is an
absorption spectrum. It is composed of black
lines on a continuous spectrum. The black
lines correspond to certain frequencies
absorbed by a given element, helium in this
case. They can be matched to the colored
lines present in helium’s emission spectrum,
shown below the absorption spectrum.

Connection to Astronomy An atomic emission spectrum is character-

istic of the element being examined and can be used to identify that
element. The fact that only certain colors appear in an element’s atomic
emission spectrum means that only specific frequencies of light are
emitted. Because those emitted frequencies are related to energy by the
formula E photon = hν, only photons with specific energies are emitted.
This was not predicted by the laws of classical physics. Scientists had
expected to observe the emission of a continuous series of colors as
excited electrons lost energy. Elements absorb the same specific fre-
quencies of light as the frequencies they emit, thus creating an absorp-
tion spectrum. In an absorption spectrum, the absorbed frequencies
appear as black lines, as shown in Figure 5.9. By comparing the black
lines to the emission spectrum of elements, scientists are able to deter-
mine the composition of the outer layers of stars.

Section 5.1 Assessment

Section Summary 8. MAIN Idea Compare the dual nature of light.
◗ All waves are defined by their wave- 9. Describe the phenomena that can be explained only by the particle model of
lengths, frequencies, amplitudes, light.
and speeds. 10. Compare and contrast continuous spectrum and emission spectrum.
◗ In a vacuum, all electromagnetic 11. Assess Employ quantum theory to assess the amount of energy that matter
waves travel at the speed of light. gains and loses.
◗ All electromagnetic waves have both 12. Discuss the way in which Einstein utilized Planck’s quantum concept to explain
wave and particle properties. the photoelectric effect.
◗ Matter emits and absorbs energy 13. Calculate Heating 235 g of water from 22.6°C to 94.4°C in a microwave oven
in quanta. requires 7.06 × 10 4 J of energy. If the microwave frequency is 2.88 × 10 10 s -1,
◗ White light produces a continuous how many quanta are required to supply the 7.06 × 10 4 J?
spectrum. An element’s emission 14. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Use Figure 5.5 and your knowledge of
spectrum consists of a series of electromagnetic radiation to match the numbered items with the lettered items.
lines of individual colors. The numbered items may be used more than once or not at all.
a. longest wavelength 1. gamma ray
b. highest frequency 2. infrared wave
c. greatest energy 3. radio waves

Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 5.1 • Light and Quantized Energy 145
©2004 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photographs, NYC
Section 5.2
Objectives
◗ Compare the Bohr and quantum
Quantum Theory
mechanical models of the atom.
◗ Explain the impact of de Broglie’s
and the Atom
wave-particle duality and the MAIN Idea Wavelike properties of electrons help relate atomic
Heisenberg uncertainty principle emission spectra, energy states of atoms, and atomic orbitals.
on the current view of electrons
in atoms. Real-World Reading Link Imagine climbing a ladder and trying to stand
between the rungs. Unless you could stand on air, it would not work. When
◗ Identify the relationships among
a hydrogen atom’s energy levels, atoms are in various energy states, electrons behave in much the same way as a
sublevels, and atomic orbitals. person climbing up the rungs of a ladder.

Review Vocabulary Bohr’s Model of the Atom

atom: the smallest particle of an The dual wave-particle model of light accounted for several previously
element that retains all the properties unexplainable phenomena, but scientists still did not understand the
of that element; is composed of relationships among atomic structure, electrons, and atomic emission
electrons, protons, and neutrons spectra. Recall that hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum is discontinu-
ous; that is, it is made up of only certain frequencies of light. Why are
New Vocabulary
the atomic emission spectra of elements discontinuous rather than con-
ground state
tinuous? Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist working in Rutherford’s labora-
quantum number
tory in 1913, proposed a quantum model for the hydrogen atom that
de Broglie equation
Heisenberg uncertainty principle seemed to answer this question. Bohr’s model also correctly predicted
quantum mechanical model of the atom the frequencies of the lines in hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum.
atomic orbital Energy states of hydrogen Building on Planck’s and Einstein’s
principal quantum number concepts of quantized energy, Bohr proposed that the hydrogen atom
principal energy level
has only certain allowable energy states. The lowest allowable energy
energy sublevel
state of an atom is called its ground state. When an atom gains energy,
it is said to be in an excited state.
Bohr also related the hydrogen atom’s energy states to the electron
within the atom. He suggested that the electron in a hydrogen atom
moves around the nucleus in only certain allowed circular orbits. The
smaller the electron’s orbit, the lower the atom’s energy state, or energy
level. Conversely, the larger the electron’s orbit, the higher the atom’s
energy state, or energy level. Thus, a hydrogen atom can have many dif-
ferent excited states, although it contains only one electron. Bohr’s idea
is illustrated in Figure 5.10.

■ Figure 5.10 The figure shows an

atom that has one electron. Note that the Electron
illustration is not to scale. In its ground
Electron
state, the electron is associated with the
lowest energy level. When the atom is in
an excited state, the electron is associat-
ed with a higher energy level.
Nucleus Nucleus

Ground state Excited state

146 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Table 5.1 Bohr’s Description of the Hydrogen Atom
Corresponding Atomic
Bohr’s Atomic Orbit Quantum Number Orbit Radius (nm) Relative Energy
Energy Level

First n=1 0.0529 1 E1

Second n=2 0.212 2 E 2 = 4E 1
Third n=3 0.476 3 E 3 = 9E 1
Fourth n=4 0.846 4 E 4 = 16E 1
Fifth n=5 1.32 5 E 5 = 25E 1
Sixth n=6 1.90 6 E 6 = 36E 1
Seventh n=7 2.59 7 E 7 = 49E 1

In order to complete his calculations, Bohr assigned a number, n,

called a quantum number, to each orbit. He also calculated the radius
of each orbit. For the first orbit, the one closest to the nucleus, n = 1
and the orbit radius is 0.0529 nm; for the second orbit, n = 2 and the
orbit radius is 0.212 nm; and so on. Additional information about
Bohr’s description of hydrogen’s allowed orbits and energy levels is
given in Table 5.1.
The hydrogen line spectrum Bohr suggested that the hydrogen
atom is in the ground state, also called the first energy level, when its
single electron is in the n = 1 orbit. In the ground state, the atom does
not radiate energy. When energy is added from an outside source, the
electron moves to a higher-energy orbit, such as the n = 2 orbit shown
in Figure 5.11. Such an electron transition raises the atom to an excited
state. When the atom is in an excited state, the electron can drop from
the higher-energy orbit to a lower-energy orbit. As a result of this tran-
sition, the atom emits a photon corresponding to the energy difference
between the two levels.
∆E = E higher-energy orbit - E lower-energy orbit = E photon = hv

Visible series
■ Figure 5.11 When an electron
(Balmer) drops from a higher-energy orbit to a
lower-energy orbit, a photon is emitted.
The ultraviolet (Lyman), visible (Balmer),
and infrared (Paschen) series correspond
to electrons dropping to n = 1, n = 2,
n=1 + and n = 3, respectively.
n=2
n=3

n=4
n=5

n=6
Ultraviolet Infrared
series n=7 series Interactive Figure To see
(Lyman) an animation of the Balmer Series,
(Paschen)
visit glencoe.com.

Section 5.2 • Quantum Theory and the Atom 147

■ Figure 5.12 Only certain energy levels n
∞
are allowed. The energy levels are similar to 6
the rungs of a ladder. The four visible lines 5
correspond to electrons dropping from a
higher n to the orbit n = 2. As n increases, 4
the hydrogen atom’s energy levels are closer
to each other. 3

Energy of hydrogen atom

2

Interactive Figure To see

an animation of electron transi- 1
tions, visit glencoe.com.

Because only certain atomic energies are possible, only certain fre-
quencies of electromagnetic radiation can be emitted. You might com-
pare hydrogen’s atomic energy states to rungs on a ladder. A person can
climb up or down the ladder only from rung to rung. Similarly, the
hydrogen atom’s electron can move only from one allowable orbit to
another, and therefore, can emit or absorb only certain amounts of ener-
gy, corresponding to the energy difference between the two orbits.
Figure 5.12 shows that, unlike rungs on a ladder, however, the
hydrogen atom’s energy levels are not evenly spaced. Figure 5.12 also
illustrates the four electron transitions that account for visible lines in
hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum, shown in Figure 5.8. Electron
transitions from higher-energy orbits to the second orbit account for all
of hydrogen’s visible lines, which form the Balmer series. Other electron
transitions have been measured that are not visible, such as the Lyman
series (ultraviolet), in which electrons drop into the n = 1 orbit, and the
Paschen series (infrared), in which electrons drop into the n = 3 orbit.
Reading Check Explain why different colors of light result from elec-
tron behavior in the atom.
The limits of Bohr’s model Bohr’s model explained hydrogen’s
observed spectral lines. However, the model failed to explain the
spectrum of any other element. Moreover, Bohr’s model did not fully
account for the chemical behavior of atoms. In fact, although Bohr’s
idea of quantized energy levels laid the groundwork for atomic models
to come, later experiments demonstrated that the Bohr model was
fundamentally incorrect. The movements of electrons in atoms are not
completely understood even now; however, substantial evidence indi-
cates that electrons do not move around the nucleus in circular orbits.

148 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

The Quantum Mechanical
Model of the Atom
Scientists in the mid-1920s, by then convinced that the Bohr atomic
model was incorrect, formulated new and innovative explanations of
how electrons are arranged in atoms. In 1924, a French graduate student
in physics named Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) proposed an idea that
eventually accounted for the fixed energy levels of Bohr’s model.
Electrons as waves De Broglie had been thinking that Bohr’s
quantized electron orbits had characteristics similar to those of waves.
For example, as Figures 5.13a and 5.13b show, only multiples of half-
wavelengths are possible on a plucked harp string because the string is
fixed at both ends. Similarly, de Broglie saw that only odd numbers of
wavelengths are allowed in a circular orbit of fixed radius, as shown in
Figure 5.13c. He also reflected on the fact that light—at one time
thought to be strictly a wave phenomenon—has both wave and particle
characteristics. These thoughts led de Broglie to pose a new question: If
waves can have particlelike behavior, could the opposite also be true?
That is, can particles of matter, including electrons, behave like waves?

a ■ Figure 5.13 a. The string on the harp vibrates between

two fixed endpoints. b. The vibrations of a string between the
two fixed endpoints labeled A and B are limited to multiples of
half-wavelengths. c. Electrons on circular orbits can only have
odd numbers of wavelengths.

n=1 A B

1 half–wavelength n = 3 wavelengths

n=2 A B

2 half–wavelengths n = 5 wavelengths

n=3 A B

3 half–wavelengths n ≠ whole number (not allowed)

b Vibrating guitar string c Orbiting electron

Only multiples of half-wavelengths allowed Only whole numbers of wavelengths allowed

Section 5.2 • Quantum Theory and the Atom 149

©John D. Norman/CORBIS
The de Broglie equation predicts that all moving particles have
wave characteristics. It also explains why it is impossible to notice the
wavelength of a fast-moving car. An automobile moving at 25 m/s
and having a mass of 910 kg has a wavelength of 2.9 × 10 -38 m, a
wavelength far too small to be seen or detected. By comparison, an
electron moving at the same speed has the easily measured wavelength
of 2.9 × 10 -5 m. Subsequent experiments have proven that electrons
and other moving particles do indeed have wave characteristics. De
Broglie knew that if an electron has wavelike motion and is restricted
to circular orbits of fixed radius, only certain wavelengths, frequencies,
and energies are possible. Developing his idea, de Broglie derived the
following equation.

Particle Electromagnetic–Wave Relationship

λ represents wavelength.
λ=_
h
mν
h is Planck’s constant.
m represents mass of the particle.
ν represents frequency.

The wavelength of a particle is the ratio of Planck’s constant, and the product of the
particle’s mass by its frequency.

Problem-solving lab
Interpret Scientific
Illustrations Series
limit Hδ Hγ Hβ Hα
What electron transitions account for the
Balmer series? Hydrogen’s emission spectrum
comprises three series of lines. Some wave-
lengths are ultraviolet (Lyman series) and infra- 4000 5000 6000 7000
red (Paschen series). Visible wavelengths
λ (Å)
comprise the Balmer series. The Bohr atomic
model attributes these spectral lines to transi- Think Critically
tions from higher-energy states with electron 1. Calculate the wavelengths for the following
orbits in which n = n i to lower-energy states electron orbit transitions.
with smaller electron orbits in which n = n f. a. n i = 3; n f = 2 c. n i = 5; n f = 2
b. n i = 4; n f = 2 d. n i = 6; n f = 2
Analysis
2. Relate the Balmer-series wavelengths you
The image at right illustrates some of the transi-
calculated in Question 1 to those determined
tions in hydrogen’s Balmer series. These Balmer
experimentally. Allowing for experimental
lines are designated H α (6562 Å), H β (4861 Å),
error and calculation uncertainty, do the
H γ (4340 Å), and H δ (4101 Å). Each wavelength
wavelengths match? Explain your answer.
(λ) is related to an electron transition within a
One angstrom (Å) equals 10 –10 m.
hydrogen atom by the following equation, in
which 1.09678 × 10 7 m –1 is known as the 3. Apply the formula E = hc/λ to determine the
Rydberg constant. energy per quantum for each of the orbit
transitions in Question 1.
_
1
= 1.09678 × 10 7 _
1
-_
1
λ 2 (2
m –1
nf ni ) 4. Extend the Bohr model by calculating the
wavelength and energy per quantum for the
For hydrogen’s Balmer series, electron orbit tran- electron orbit transition for which n f = 3 and
sitions occur from larger orbits to the n = 2 n i = 5. This transition accounts for a spectral
orbit; that is, n f = 2. line in hydrogen’s Paschen series.

150 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle Step by step, scientists
such as Rutherford, Bohr, and de Broglie had been unraveling the
mysteries of the atom. However, a conclusion reached by the German
theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976) proved to have
profound implications for atomic models.
Heisenberg showed that it is impossible to take any measurement of
an object without disturbing the object. Imagine trying to locate a hov-
ering, helium-filled balloon in a darkened room. If you wave your hand
about, you can locate the balloon’s position when you touch it. However,
when you touch the balloon, you transfer energy to it and change its
position. You could also detect the balloon’s position by turning on a
flashlight. Using this method, photons of light reflected from the bal-
loon would reach your eyes and reveal the balloon’s location. Because
the balloon is a macroscopic object, the effect of the rebounding pho-
tons on its position is very small and not observable.
Imagine trying to determine an electron’s location by “bumping” it
with a high-energy photon. Because such a photon has about the same
energy as an electron, the interaction between the two particles changes
both the wavelength of the photon and the position and velocity of the
electron, as shown in Figure 5.14. In other words, the act of observing
the electron produces a significant, unavoidable uncertainty in the posi-
tion and motion of the electron. Heisenberg’s analysis of interactions,
such as those between photons and electrons, led him to his historic
conclusion. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is fun-
damentally impossible to know precisely both the velocity and position
of a particle at the same time.
Reading Check Explain the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
Although scientists of the time found Heisenberg’s principle difficult
to accept, it has been proven to describe the fundamental limitations of
what can be observed. The interaction of a photon with a macroscopic
object such as a helium-filled balloon has so little effect on the balloon
that the uncertainty in its position is too small to measure. But that is
not the case with an electron moving at 6 × 10 6 m/s near an atomic
nucleus. The uncertainty of the electron’s position is at least 10 -9 m,
about 10 times greater than the diameter of the entire atom.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also means that is impossible
to assign fixed paths for electrons like the circular orbits in Bohr’s
model. The only quantity that can be known is the probability for an
electron to occupy a certain region around the nucleus.

y y Photon’s ■ Figure 5.14 When a photon inter-

wavelength acts with an electron at rest, both the
increases. velocity and the position of the electron
are modified. This illustrates the
λ Heisenberg uncertainty principle. It is
Photon Electron impossible to know at the same time the
x x position and the velocity of a particle.
λ Explain Why has the photon’s
Speed = 0
Electron’s speed energy changed?
increases.

Before collision After collision

Section 5.2 • Quantum Theory and the Atom 151

The Schrödinger wave equation In 1926, Austrian physicist
Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) furthered the wave-particle theory
proposed by de Broglie. Schrödinger derived an equation that treated
the hydrogen atom’s electron as a wave. Schrödinger’s new model for
the hydrogen atom seemed to apply equally well to atoms of other ele-
ments—an area in which Bohr’s model failed. The atomic model in
which electrons are treated as waves is called the wave mechanical
model of the atom or, the quantum mechanical model of the atom.
Like Bohr’s model, the quantum mechanical model limits an electron’s
energy to certain values. However, unlike Bohr’s model, the quantum
mechanical model makes no attempt to describe the electron’s path
around the nucleus.
Reading Check Compare and contrast Bohr’s model and the
quantum mechanical model.
The Schrödinger wave equation is too complex to be considered
here. However, each solution to the equation is known as a wave func-
tion, which is related to the probability of finding the electron within a
particular volume of space around the nucleus. Recall from your study
of mathematics that an event with a high probability is more likely to
occur than one with a low probability.
Electron’s probable location The wave function predicts a three-
dimensional region around the nucleus, called an atomic orbital,
which describes the electron’s probable location. An atomic orbital is like
a fuzzy cloud in which the density at a given point is proportional to the
probability of finding the electron at that point. Figure 5.15a illustrates
the probability map that describes the electron in the atom’s lowest
energy state. The probability map can be thought of as a time-exposure
photograph of the electron moving around the nucleus, in which each
dot represents the electron’s location at an instant in time. The high
density of dots near the nucleus indicates the electron’s most probable
location. However, because the cloud has no definite boundary, it is
also possible that the electron might be found at a considerable distance
from the nucleus.
Reading Check Describe where electrons are located in an atom.

■ Figure 5.15 The density map a b

represents the probability of finding
an electron at a given position Boundary
around the nucleus. a. The higher Nucleus
density of points near the nucleus
shows that the electron is more
likely to be found close to the nu-
cleus. b. At any given time, there is
a 90% probability of finding the
electron within the circular region
shown. This surface is sometimes
chosen to represent the boundary
of the atom. In this illustration, the
circle corresponds to a projection of
the 3-dimensional sphere that con-
tains the electrons.
Density Maps

152 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
Because the boundary of an atomic orbital is fuzzy, the orbital does
not have an exact defined size. To overcome the inherent uncertainty
about the electron’s location, chemists arbitrarily draw an orbital’s
surface to contain 90% of the electron’s total probability distribution.
This means that the probability of finding the electron within the
boundary is 0.9 and the probability of finding it outside the boundary
is 0.1. In other words, it is more likely to find the electron close to the
nucleus and within the volume defined by the boundary, than to find it
outside the volume. The circle shown in Figure 5.15b encloses 90% of
the lowest-energy orbital of hydrogen.
Principal quantum number Recall that the Bohr atomic model
assigns quantum numbers to electron orbits. Similarly, the quantum
mechanical model assigns four quantum numbers to atomic orbitals.
The first one is the principal quantum number (n) and indicates the
relative size and energy of atomic orbitals. As n increases, the orbital
becomes larger, the electron spends more time farther from the nucleus,
and the atom’s energy increases. Therefore, n specifies the atom’s major
energy levels. Each major energy level is called a principal energy level.
An atom’s lowest principal energy level is assigned a principal quantum
number of 1. When the hydrogen atom’s single electron occupies an
orbital with n = 1, the atom is in its ground state. Up to 7 energy levels
have been detected for the hydrogen atom, giving n values ranging from
1 to 7.
Energy sublevels Principal energy levels contain energy sublevels.
Principal energy level 1 consists of a single sublevel, principal energy
level 2 consists of two sublevels, principal energy level 3 consists of three
sublevels, and so on. To better understand the relationship between the
atom’s energy levels and sublevels, picture the seats in a wedge-shaped
section of a theater, as shown in Figure 5.16. As you move away from
the stage, the rows become higher and contain more seats. Similarly,
the number of energy sublevels in a principal energy level increases
as n increases.
Reading Check Explain the relationship between energy levels
and sublevels.

■ Figure 5.16 Energy levels can be thought of as rows of seats in a theater. The rows
that are higher up and farther from the stage contain more seats. Similarly, energy levels
related to orbitals farther from the nucleus contain more sublevels.

n = 4 (4 sublevels)
n = 3 (3 sublevels)
n = 2 (2 sublevels)
n = 1 (1 sublevel )

Section 5.2 • Quantum Theory and the Atom 153

©Alberto Biscaro/Masterfile
Shapes of orbitals Sublevels are labeled s, p, d, or f according to the
shapes of the atom’s orbitals. All s orbitals are spherical, and all p orbit-
als are dumbbell-shaped; however, not all d or f orbitals have the same
shape. Each orbital can contain, at most, two electrons. The single sub-
level in principal energy level 1 corresponds to a spherical orbital called
the 1s orbital. The two sublevels in principal energy level 2 are designat-
ed 2s and 2p. The 2s sublevel corresponds to the 2s orbital, which is
spherical like the 1s orbital but larger in size, as shown in Figure 5.17a.
The 2p sublevel corresponds to three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals desig-
nated 2p x, 2p y, and 2p z. The subscripts x, y, and z merely designate the
orientations of p orbitals along the x, y, and z coordinate axes, as shown
in Figure 5.17b. Each of the p orbitals related to an energy sublevel has
the same energy.
Reading Check Describe the shapes of s and p orbitals.
Principal energy level 3 consists of three sublevels designated 3s, 3p,
and 3d. Each d sublevel relates to five orbitals of equal energy. Four of
the d orbitals have identical shapes but different orientations along the
x, y, and z coordinate axes. However, the fifth orbital, d z 2, is shaped and
oriented differently than the other four. The shapes and orientations of
the five d orbitals are illustrated in Figure 5.17c. The fourth principal
energy level (n = 4) contains a fourth sublevel, called the 4f sublevel,
which relates to seven f orbitals of equal energy. The f orbitals have
complex, multilobed shapes.

■ Figure 5.17 Each energy sublevel relates to orbitals of different shape.

z z z z z

x
x x x
x

y y y
y y

px py pz
1s orbital 2s orbital
a. All s orbitals are spherical, and their size increases b. The three p orbitals are dumbshell-shaped and are oriented along the three
with increasing principal quantum number. perpendicular x, y, and z axes.

z
z z z z
y
y y y x

y
x x x x

dxy dxz dyz dx2-y2 dz2

c. Four of the five d orbitals have the same shape but lie in
different planes. The d z orbital has its own unique shape.
2

154 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Table 5.2 Hydrogen’s First Four Principal Energy Levels
Total Number of Orbitals
Principal Quantum Sublevels (Types of Number of Orbitals
Related to Principal
Number (n) Orbitals) Present Related to Sublevel
Energy Level (n 2)
1 s 1 1
s 1
2 4
p 3
s 1
3 p 3 9
d 5
s 1
p 3
4 16
d 5
f 7

Hydrogen’s first four principal energy levels, sublevels, and related

atomic orbitals are summarized in Table 5.2. Note that the number of
orbitals related to each sublevel is always an odd number, and that the
maximum number of orbitals related to each principal energy level
equals n 2.
At any given time, the electron in a hydrogen atom can occupy just
one orbital. You can think of the other orbitals as unoccupied spaces
—spaces available should the atom’s energy increase or decrease. For
example, when the hydrogen atom is in the ground state, the electron
occupies the 1s orbital. However, when the atom gains a quantum of
energy, the electron is excited to one of the unoccupied orbitals.
Depending on the amount of energy available, the electron can move
to the 2s orbital, to one of the three 2p orbitals, or to any other orbital
that is vacant.

Section 5.2 Assessment

Section Summary 15. MAIN Idea Explain the reason, according to Bohr’s atomic model, why atomic

◗ Bohr’s atomic model attributes hydro- emission spectra contain only certain frequencies of light.
gen’s emission spectrum to electrons 16. Differentiate between the wavelength of visible light and the wavelength
dropping from higher-energy to of a moving soccer ball.
lower-energy orbits. 17. Enumerate the sublevels contained in the hydrogen atom’s first four energy
◗ The de Broglie equation relates a levels. What orbitals are related to each s sublevel and each p sublevel?
particle’s wavelength to its mass, 18. Explain why the location of an electron in an atom is uncertain using the
its velocity, and Planck’s constant. Heisenberg uncertainty principle and de Broglie’s wave-particle duality. How is
◗ The quantum mechanical model the location of electrons in atoms defined?
assumes that electrons have wave 19. Calculate Use the information in Table 5.1 to calculate how many times larger
properties. the hydrogen atom’s seventh Bohr radius is than its first Bohr radius.
◗ Electrons occupy three-dimensional 20. Compare and contrast Bohr’s model and the quantum mechanical model
regions of space called atomic orbitals. of the atom.

Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com Section 5.2 • Quantum Theory and the Atom 155
Section 5.3
Objectives
◗ Apply the Pauli exclusion principle,
Electron Configuration
the aufbau principle, and Hund’s rule MAIN Idea A set of three rules can be used to determine electron
to write electron configurations using arrangement in an atom.
orbital diagrams and electron
configuration notation. Real-World Reading Link As students board a bus, they each sit in a separate
◗ Define valence electrons, and draw bench seat until they are all full. Then, they begin sharing seats. Electrons fill
electron-dot structures representing atomic orbitals in a similar way.
an atom’s valence electrons.
Ground-State Electron Configuration
Review Vocabulary When you consider that atoms of the heaviest elements contain more
electron: a negatively charged, fast- than 100 electrons, the idea of determining electron arrangements in
moving particle with an extremely small atoms with many electrons seems daunting. Fortunately, all atoms can
mass that is found in all forms of matter
be described with orbitals similar to hydrogen’s. This allows us to
and moves through the empty space
describe arrangements of electrons in atoms using a few specific rules.
surrounding an atom’s nucleus
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom’s
New Vocabulary electron configuration. Because low-energy systems are more stable
electron configuration than high-energy systems, electrons in an atom tend to assume the
aufbau principle arrangement that gives the atom the lowest energy possible. The most
Pauli exclusion principle stable, lowest-energy arrangement of the electrons is called the element’s
Hund’s rule ground-state electron configuration. Three rules, or principles—the
valence electron aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule—define
electron-dot structure how electrons can be arranged in an atom’s orbitals.
The aufbau principle The aufbau principle states that each elec-
tron occupies the lowest energy orbital available. Therefore, your first
step in determining an element’s ground-state electron configuration is
learning the sequence of atomic orbitals from lowest energy to highest
energy. This sequence, known as an aufbau diagram, is shown in
Figure 5.18. In the diagram, each box represents an atomic orbital.

■ Figure 5.18 The aufbau diagram

shows the energy of each sublevel rela- 7p
6d 5f
tive to the energry of other sublevels. 7s
Each box on the diagram represents an 6p
5d
atomic orbital.
6s 4f
Determine Which sublevel has 5p
5s 4d
the greater energy, 4d or 5p?
Orbital filling sequence

4p
Increasing energy

4s 3d

3p
3s

2p
2s

1s

156 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Table 5.3 Features of the Aufbau Diagram
Feature Example

All orbitals related to an energy sublevel are of equal energy. All three 2p orbitals are of equal energy.

In a multi-electron atom, the energy sublevels within

The three 2p orbitals are of higher energy than the 2s orbital.
a principal energy level have different energies.

In order of increasing energy, the sequence of energy If n = 4, then the sequence of energy sublevels is
sublevels within a principal energy level is s, p, d, and f. 4s, 4p, 4d, and 4f.

Orbitals related to energy sublevels within one principal The orbital related to the atom’s 4s sublevel has a lower energy
energy level can overlap orbitals related to energy sublevels than the five orbitals related to the 3d sublevel.
within another principal level.

Table 5.3 summarizes several features of the aufbau diagram. VOCABULARY

Although the aufbau principle describes the sequence in which orbitals WORD ORIGIN
are filled with electrons, it is important to know that atoms are not built Aufbau
up electron by electron. comes from the German word
aufbauen, which means to
The Pauli exclusion principle Electrons in orbitals can be repre-
configure or arrange
sented by arrows in boxes. Each electron has an associated spin, similar
to the way a top spins on its point. Like the top, the electron is able to
spin in only one of two directions. An arrow pointing up ↑ represents
the electron spinning in one direction, and an arrow pointing down ↓
represents the electron spinning in the opposite direction. An empty
box represents an unoccupied orbital, a box containing a single up
arrow ↑ represents an orbital with one electron, and a box containing
both up and down arrows ↑↓ represents a filled orbital.
The Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum of two elec- &/,$!",%3
trons can occupy a single atomic orbital, but only if the electrons have Incorporate information
from this section into
opposite spins. Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli (1900–1958) pro- your Foldable.
posed this principle after observing atoms in excited states. An atomic
orbital containing paired electrons with opposite spins is written as ↑↓ .
Because each orbital can contain, at most, two electrons, the maximum
number of electrons related to each principal energy level equals 2n 2.
Hund’s rule The fact that negatively charged electrons repel each
other has an important impact on the distribution of electrons in equal-
energy orbitals. Hund’s rule states that single electrons with the same
spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before additional electrons
with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals. For example, let the
boxes below represent the 2p orbitals. One electron enters each of the
three 2p orbitals before a second electron enters any of the orbitals. The
sequence in which six electrons occupy three p orbitals is shown below.
→

→
→

→
→

1. 2. 3.
→

→
→

→
→

4. 5. 6.
→

→
→

→
→

Reading Check State the three rules that define how electrons are
arranged in atoms.

Section 5.3 • Electron Configuration 157

2s 1s
Electron Arrangement
You can represent an atom’s electron configuration using one of two
2px convenient methods: orbital diagrams or electron configuration
notation.
Orbital diagrams As mentioned earlier, electrons in orbitals can be
represented by arrows in boxes. Each box is labeled with the principal
2py quantum number and sublevel associated with the orbital. For example,
the orbital diagram for a ground-state carbon atom, which contains two
2pz electrons in the 1s orbital, two electrons in the 2s orbital, and one elec-
Neon atom tron in two of three separate 2p orbitals, is shown below.
→

→
→
→
→

→
→
→

1s 2s 2p

→
→
→

→
1s 2s 2p
■ Figure 5.19 The 1s, 2s, and
2p orbitals of a neon atom overlap. Electron configuration notation The electron configuration
Determine how many electrons notation designates the principal energy level and energy sublevel
a neon atom has.
associated with each of the atom’s orbitals and includes a superscript
representing the number of electrons in the orbital. For example, the
electron configuration notation of a ground-state carbon atom is writ-
ten 1s 22s 22p 2. Orbital diagrams and electron configuration notations
for the elements in periods one and two of the periodic table are shown
in Table 5.4. Figure 5.19 illustrates how the 1s, 2s, 2p x, 2p y, and 2p z
orbitals of the neon atom, previously illustrated in Figure 5.17, overlap.

Interactive Table Explore electron

Electron Configurations configurations and orbital diagrams
Table 5.4 and Orbital Diagrams at glencoe.com.

for Elements 1–10

Orbital Diagram
Element Atomic Number Electron Configuration Notation
1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z

Hydrogen 1 ↑ 1s 1

Helium 2 ↑↓ 1s 2

Lithium 3 ↑↓ ↑ 1s 2 2s 1

Beryllium 4 ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s 2 2s 2

Boron 5 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 1

Carbon 6 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2

Nitrogen 7 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3

Oxygen 8 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4

Fluorine 9 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 5

Neon 10 ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6

158 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Note that the electron configuration notation does not usually show
the orbital distributions of electrons related to a sublevel. It is under-
stood that a designation such as nitrogen’s 2p 3 represents the orbital Personal Tutor For an online tutorial
occupancy 2p x 12p y 12p z 1. on electron configuration notation,
visit glencoe.com.
For sodium, the first ten electrons occupy 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals.
Then, according to the aufbau sequence, the eleventh electron occupies
the 3s orbital. The electron configuration notation and orbital diagram
for sodium are written as follows.
1s22s22p63s1
→

→
→
→

→
→

→
→
→
1s 2s 2p 3s

Noble-gas notation is a method of representing electron configura- VOCABULARY

tions of noble gases. Noble gases are the elements in the last column of SCIENCE USAGE V. COMMON USAGE
the periodic table. They have eight electrons in their outermost orbital Period
and they are unusually stable. You will learn more about noble gases in Science usage: a horizontal row
Chapter 6. The noble-gas notation uses bracketed symbols. For example, of elements in the current
[He] represents the electron configuration for helium, 1s 2, and [Ne] periodic table
represents the electron configuration for neon, 1s 22s 22p 6. Compare the There are seven periods in the
electron configuration for neon with sodium’s configuration above. current periodic table.
Note that the inner-level configuration for sodium is identical to the
Common usage: an interval of time
electron configuration for neon. Using noble-gas notation, sodium’s
determined by some recurring
electron configuration can be shortened to the form [Ne]3s 1. The elec-
phenomenon
tron configuration for an element can be represented using the noble- The period of Earth’s orbit is one year.
gas notation for the noble gas in the previous period and the electron
configuration for the additional orbitals being filled. The complete and
abbreviated (using noble-gas notation) electron configurations of the
period 3 elements are shown in Table 5.5.
Reading Check Explain how to write the noble-gas notation for an
element. What is the noble-gas notation for calcium?

Electron Configurations for

Table 5.5
Elements 11–18 Interactive Figure To see an
animation of electron configurations,
visit glencoe.com.
Complete Electron
Atomic
Element Electron Configuration
Number
Configuration Using Noble Gas
Sodium 11 1s 22s 22p 63s 1 [Ne]3s 1
Magnesium 12 1s 22s 22p 63s 2 [Ne]3s 2
Aluminum 13 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1 [Ne]3s 23p 1
Silicon 14 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 2 [Ne]3s 23p 2
Phosphorus 15 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3 [Ne]3s 23p 3
Sulfur 16 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 4 [Ne]3s 23p 4
Chlorine 17 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 5 [Ne]3s 23p 5
Argon 18 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 6 [Ne]3s 23p 6 or [Ar]

Section 5.3 • Electron Configuration 159

Exceptions to predicted configurations You can use the
aufbau diagram to write correct ground-state electron configurations
for all elements up to and including vanadium, atomic number 23.
However, if you were to proceed in this manner, your configurations
for chromium, [Ar]4s 23d 4, and copper, [Ar]4s 23d 9, would be incorrect.
The correct configurations for these two elements are [Ar]4s 13d 5 for
chromium and [Ar]4s 13d 10 for copper. The electron configurations for
these two elements, as well as those of several other elements, illustrate
the increased stability of half-filled and filled sets of s and d orbitals.

Problem-Solving Strategy
Filling Atomic Orbitals
By drawing a sublevel diagram and following the arrows,
you can write the ground-state electron configuration for
any chemical element.
1. Sketch the sublevel diagram on a blank piece of paper. 1s

2. Determine the number of electrons in one atom of the element

for which you are writing the electron configuration. The 2s 2p
number of electrons in a neutral atom equals the element’s
atomic number. 3s 3p 3d
3. Starting with 1s, write the aufbau sequence of atomic orbitals
by following the diagonal arrows from the top of the sublevel 4s 4p 4d 4f
diagram to the bottom. When you complete one line of arrows,
move to the right, to the beginning of the next line of arrows.
5s 5p 5d 5f
As you proceed, add superscripts indicating the numbers of
electrons in each set of atomic orbitals. Continue only until you
have sufficient atomic orbitals to accommodate the total number 6s 6p 6d
of electrons in one atom of the element.
4. Apply noble-gas notation. 7s 7p

The sublevel diagram shows the order in

Apply the Strategy which the orbitals are usually filled.
Write the ground-state electron configuration for zirconium.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 978 and glencoe.com

21. Write ground-state electron configurations for the following elements.

a. bromine (Br) c. antimony (Sb) e. terbium (Tb)
b. strontium (Sr) d. rhenium (Re) f. titanium (Ti)
22. A chlorine atom in its ground state has a total of seven electrons in orbitals related to the
atom’s third energy level. How many of the seven electrons occupy p orbitals? How many
of the 17 electrons in a chlorine atom occupy p orbitals?
23. When a sulfur atom reacts with other atoms, electrons in orbitals related to the atom’s
third energy level are involved. How many such electrons does a sulfur atom have?
24. An element has the ground-state electron configuration [Kr]5s 24d 105p 1. It is part of some
semiconductors and used in various alloys. What element is it?
25. Challenge In its ground state, an atom of an element has two electrons in all orbitals
related to the atom’s highest energy level for which n = 6. Using noble-gas notation,
write the electron configuration for this element, and identify the element.

160 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Valence Electrons
Only certain electrons, called valence electrons, determine the chemical
properties of an element. Valence electrons are defined as electrons in
the atom’s outermost orbitals—generally those orbitals associated with
the atom’s highest principal energy level. For example, a sulfur atom
contains 16 electrons, only six of which occupy the outermost 3s and
3p orbitals, as shown by sulfur’s electron configuration. Sulfur has six
valence electrons.
S [Ne]3s 23p 4
Similarly, although a cesium atom contains 55 electrons, it has just one
valence electron, the 6s electron shown in cesium’s electron configuration.
Cs [Xe]6s 1

Electron-dot structures Because valence electrons are involved in

forming chemical bonds, chemists often represent them visually using a
simple shorthand method, called electron-dot structure. An atom’s
electron-dot structure consists of the element’s symbol, which repre-
sents the atomic nucleus and inner-level electrons, surrounded by dots
representing all of the atom’s valence electrons. American chemist
G. N. Lewis (1875–1946) devised the method while teaching a college
chemistry class in 1902.
In writing an atom’s electron-dot structure, dots representing valence
electrons are placed one at a time on the four sides of the symbol (they
may be placed in any sequence) and then paired up until all are used.
The ground-state electron configurations and electron-dot structures
for the elements in the second period are shown in Table 5.6.

Interactive Table Explore

Electron
Table Configurations
electron-dot structures at
glencoe.com.
5.6 and Dot Structures
Atomic Electron Electron-Dot
Element
Number Configuration Structure

Lithium 3 1s 22s 1 Li

Beryllium 4 1s 22s 2 Be

Boron 5 1s 22s 22p 1 B

Carbon 6 1s 22s 22p 2 C

Nitrogen 7 1s 22s 22p 3 N

Oxygen 8 1s 22s 22p 4 O

Fluorine 9 1s 22s 22p 5 F

Neon 10 1s 22s 22p 6 Ne

Section 5.3 • Electron Configuration 161

EXAMPLE Problem 5.3
Electron-Dot Structures Some toothpastes contain stannous fluoride,
a compound of tin and fluorine. What is tin’s electron-dot structure?
1 Analyze the Problem
Consult the periodic table to determine the total number of electrons in a tin atom. Write
out tin’s electron configuration, and determine its number of valence electrons. Then use
the rules for electron-dot structures to draw the electron-dot structure for tin.

2 Solve for the Unknown

Tin has an atomic number of 50. Thus, a tin atom has 50 electrons.
Write out tin’s electron configuration using
[Kr]5s 24d 105p 2 noble-gas notation. The closest noble gas is Kr.

The two 5s and the two 5p electrons (the electrons in the orbitals related to the
atom’s highest principal energy level) represent tin’s four valence electrons.
Draw the four valence electrons around tin’s chemical symbol (Sn) to show
tin’s electron-dot structure. Sn

3 Evaluate the Answer

The correct symbol for tin (Sn) has been used, and the rules for drawing electron-dot
structures have been correctly applied.

PRACTICE Problems Extra Practice Page 978 and glencoe.com

26. Draw electron-dot structures for atoms of the following elements.

a. magnesium b. thallium c. xenon
27. An atom of an element has a total of 13 electrons. What is the element, and how many
electrons are shown in its electron-dot structure?
28. Challenge An element exists in the gaseous state at room temperature and normal
atmospheric pressure and is known to be one of the following: hydrogen, helium,
nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, or neon. Identify the element based on the electron- X
dot structure at right.

Section 5.3 Assessment

Section Summary 29. MAIN Idea Apply the Pauli exclusion principle, the aufbau principle, and

◗ The arrangement of electrons in an Hund’s rule to write out the electron configuration and draw the orbital diagram
atom is called the atom’s electron for each of the following elements.
configuration. a. silicon b. fluorine c. calcium d. krypton
◗ Electron configurations are defined 30. Define valence electron.
by the aufbau principle, the Pauli 31. Illustrate and describe the sequence in which ten electrons occupy the five
exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule. orbitals related to an atom’s d sublevel.
◗ An element’s valence electrons deter- 32. Extend the aufbau sequence through an element that has not yet been identi-
mine the chemical properties of the fied, but whose atoms would completely fill 7p orbitals. How many electrons such
element. an atom would have? Write its electron configuration using noble-gas notation
◗ Electron configurations can be repre- for the previous noble gas, radon.
sented using orbital diagrams, elec- 33. Interpret Scientific Illustrations Which is the correct electron-dot structure
tron configuration notation, and for an atom of selenium? Explain.
electron-dot structures.
a. Se b. Se c. Se d. S

162 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms Self-Check Quiz glencoe.com

Tiny Tweezers Scissors
beam Lens
Peering through a microscope, a cell biologist Tweezers
beam
can grasp a single cell with a pair of “tweezers.”
But these are not the kind of tweezers you
might find in a medicine cabinet. These tweezers Tweezers
are made from two laser beams and can hold beam
very tiny things such as cells and even individual
Spindle
atoms.
You might have heard that lasers can be used Chromosome
Cell
to cut things. Laser “scissors” are used in some
surgeries. But surprisingly, lasers can also trap
living cells and other microscopic objects in their
Figure 2 Organelles found within living cells are accessible to
beams without damaging them. How can beams the smallest lasers.
of light hold things in place?

Gripping with light When light rays pass Lasers and cancer So what use do scientists
through a cell, they change direction slightly. have for these tiny tweezers? One group of
This is similar to how light rays bend when scientists is using them to study cell organelles.
passing through water in an aquarium. When They are studying the forces exerted by mitotic
light rays are bent, they exert a force. Large spindles—the grouping of microtubules that
objects, such as aquariums, are too massive to coordinates cell division. The spindles guide rep-
be affected by this miniscule force, but tiny licated chromosomes to opposite sides of the
cells respond to the force. If the light rays are cell—a key role in cell division. However, scien-
positioned in just the right way, they can hold tists do not know exactly how the spindles per-
a small object in place, as shown in Figure 1. form this function.
Tiny laser scissors have been used to cut off
pieces of chromosomes during cell division. Laser
tweezers were then used to move the pieces
Microscope lens around the cell and the spindles, as shown in
Figure 2. Knowing the force with which the
Laser beam
tweezers grasp the chromosomes, scientists can
Ray 1 Ray 2
measure the opposing force exerted by the spin-
1 2
dles. Scientists hope that learning how spindles
function during cell division will help them learn
more about diseases related to cell division, such
Cell
as cancer—a disease in which cells divide
uncontrollably.
F
F2 F1

Chemistry
Laser Light Lasers can be found in a wide variety
2 1 of everyday settings. Research the different types
of lasers you might encounter daily, and find out
what kind of light each laser uses. Summarize the
results of your research in a journal. For more
Figure 1 As the laser passes through the cell, the beam is bent.
information about how laser light is made, visit
The cell feels a force in the opposite direction of bending and so is glencoe.com.
held within the beam of light.

Chemistry and Health 163

ANALYZE LINE SPECTRA

Background: Emission spectra are produced

when excited atoms return to a more stable state
by emitting radiation of specific wavelengths. When
white light passes through a sample, atoms in the
sample absorb specific wavelengths. This produces
dark lines in the continuous spectrum of white light
and is called an absorption spectrum.
Question: What absorption and emission spectra
do various substances produce?

Materials
ring stand with clamp 7. With the room lights darkened, view the light using
40-W tubular lightbulb the Flinn C-Spectra®. The top spectrum viewed will
light socket with grounded power cord be a continuous spectrum from the white lightbulb.
275-mL polystyrene culture flask The bottom spectrum will be the absorption spec-
Flinn C-Spectra® or similar diffraction grating trum of the red solution. Use colored pencils to make
red, green, blue, and yellow food coloring a drawing of the absorption spectra you observe.
set of colored pencils 8. Repeat Steps 6 and 7 using the green, blue, and
spectrum tubes (hydrogen, neon, and sodium) yellow solutions.
spectrum-tube power supply (3)
9. Cleanup and Disposal Turn off the light and
spectrum-tube power supplies. Wait several minutes
Safety Precautions for the lightbulb and spectrum tubes to cool.
WARNING: Use care around the spectrum-tube power Dispose of the liquids and store the lightbulb
supplies. Spectrum tubes will become hot when used. and spectrum tubes as directed by your teacher.

Procedure Analyze and Conclude

1. Read and complete the lab safety form. 1. Think Critically How can the single electron in a
hydrogen atom produce all of the lines found in its
2. Use a Flinn C-Spectra® or similar diffraction grating
emission spectrum?
to view an incandescent lightbulb. Draw the
observed spectrum using colored pencils. 2. Predict How can you predict the absorption
spectrum of a solution by looking at its color?
3. Use the Flinn C-Spectra® to view the emission
spectra from tubes of gaseous hydrogen, neon, 3. Apply How can spectra be used to identify the
and sodium. Use colored pencils to draw the presence of specific elements in a substance?
observed spectra. 4. Error Analysis Name a potential source of error in
this experiment. Choose one of the elements you
4. Fill a 275-mL culture flask with about 100 mL of
observed, and research its absorption spectrum.
water. Add two or three drops of red food coloring
Compare your findings with the results of your
to the water. Shake the solution.
experiment.
5. Repeat Step 4 for the green, blue, and yellow food
coloring.
INQUIRY EXTENSION
6. Set up the 40-W lightbulb so that it is near eye level. Hypothesize What would happen if you mixed
Place the flask with red food coloring about 8 cm more than one color of food coloring with water
from the lightbulb so that you are able to see light and repeated the experiment? Design an experiment
from the bulb above the solution and light from the to test your hypothesis.
bulb projecting through the solution.

164 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms

Matt Meadows
Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards
from glencoe.com.

BIG Idea The atoms of each element have a unique arrangement of electrons.

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

MAIN Idea Light, a form of Key Concepts
electromagnetic radiation, has • All waves are defined by their wavelengths, frequencies, amplitudes, and speeds.
characteristics of both a wave
and a particle. c = λν
Vocabulary • In a vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light.
• amplitude (p. 137)
• All electromagnetic waves have both wave and particle properties.
• atomic emission spectrum (p. 144)
• electromagnetic radiation (p. 137) • Matter emits and absorbs energy in quanta.
• electromagnetic spectrum (p. 139)
• frequency (p. 137) E quantum = hν
• photoelectric effect (p. 142)
• photon (p. 143) • White light produces a continuous spectrum. An element’s emission spectrum
• Planck’s constant (p. 142) consists of a series of lines of individual colors.
• quantum (p. 141)
• wavelength (p. 137)

Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom

MAIN Idea Wavelike properties Key Concepts
of electrons help relate atomic • Bohr’s atomic model attributes hydrogen’s emission spectrum to electrons
emission spectra, energy states of dropping from higher-energy to lower-energy orbits.
atoms, and atomic orbitals.
∆E = E higher-energy orbit - E lower-energy orbit = E photon = hν
Vocabulary
• atomic orbital (p. 152) • The de Broglie equation relates a particle’s wavelength to its mass, its velocity,
• de Broglie equation (p. 150) and Planck’s constant.
• energy sublevel (p. 153)
• ground state (p. 146) λ = h / mν
• Heisenberg uncertainty
principle (p. 151) • The quantum mechanical model of the atom assumes that electrons have wave
• principal energy level (p. 153) properties.
• principal quantum number (p.153) • Electrons occupy three-dimensional regions of space called atomic orbitals.
• quantum mechanical model
of the atom (p. 152)
• quantum number (p. 147)

Section 5.3 Electron Configuration

MAIN Idea A set of three rules can Key Concepts
be used to determine electron • The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom’s electron
arrangement in an atom. configuration.
Vocabulary • Electron configurations are defined by the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion
• aufbau principle (p. 156) principle, and Hund’s rule.
• electron configuration (p. 156) • An element’s valence electrons determine the chemical properties of the element.
• electron-dot structure (p. 161) • Electron configurations can be represented using orbital diagrams, electron
• Hund’s rule (p. 157) configuration notation, and electron-dot structures.
• Pauli exclusion principle (p. 157)
• valence electron (p. 161)

Vocabulary PuzzleMaker glencoe.com Chapter 5 • Study Guide 165

Section 5.1 48. What is the speed of an electromagnetic wave with a
frequency of 1.33 × 10 17 Hz and a wavelength of 2.25 nm?
Mastering Concepts 49. What is the energy of a photon of red light that has a
34. Define the following terms. frequency of 4.48 × 10 14 Hz?
a. frequency c. quantum
b. wavelength d. ground state Hg

35. Arrange the following types of electromagnetic radiation

in order of increasing wavelength. λ (nm) 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
a. ultraviolet light c. radio waves
■ Figure 5.21
b. microwaves d. X rays
36. A gamma ray has a frequency of 2.88 × 10 21 Hz. What 50. Mercury Mercury’s atomic emission spectrum is shown
does this mean? in Figure 5.21. Estimate the wavelength of the orange
37. What is the photoelectric effect? line. What is its frequency? What is the energy of a pho-
ton corresponding to the orange line emitted by the
38. Neon Sign How does light emitted from a neon sign mercury atom?
differ from sunlight?
51. What is the energy of an ultraviolet photon that has a
39. Explain Planck’s quantum concept as it relates to energy wavelength of 1.18 × 10 -8 m?
lost or gained by matter.
52. A photon has an energy of 2.93 × 10 -25 J. What is its
40. How did Einstein explain the photoelectric effect? frequency? What type of electromagnetic radiation is
41. Rainbow What are two differences between the red and the photon?
green electromagnetic waves in a rainbow? 53. A photon has an energy of 1.10 × 10 -13 J. What is the
42. Temperature What happens to the light emitted by a photon’s wavelength? What type of electromagnetic
heated, glowing object as its temperature increases? radiation is it?
43. What are three deficiencies of the wave model of light 54. Spacecraft How long does it take a radio signal from
related to light’s interaction with matter? the Voyager spacecraft to reach Earth if the distance
44. How are radio waves and ultraviolet waves similar? How between Voyager and Earth is 2.72 × 10 9 km?
are they different? 55. Radio Waves If your favorite FM radio station
broadcasts at a frequency of 104.5 MHz, what is the
Mastering Problems wavelength of the station’s signal in meters? What is
Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma rays the energy of a photon of the station’s electromagnetic
Microwaves X rays signal?
56. Platinum What minimum frequency of light is needed
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
10
10
12
10
14
10
16
10
18
10
20 22
10 to eject a photoelectron from atoms of platinum, which
require at least 9.08 × 10 -19 J/photon?
Frequency (ν) in hertz
57. Eye Surgery The argon fluoride (ArF) laser used in
Electromagnetic Spectrum some refractive eye surgeries emits electromagnetic
■ Figure 5.20
radiation of 193.3 nm wavelength. What is the frequency
of the ArF laser’s radiation? What is the energy of a sin-
45. Radiation Use Figure 5.20 to determine the following gle quantum of the radiation?
types of radiation.
410 434 486 656
a. radiation with a frequency of 8.6 × 10 11 s -1 nm nm nm nm
b. radiation with a wavelength of 4.2 nm
c. radiation with a frequency of 5.6 MHz
d. radiation that travels at a speed of 3.00 × 10 8 m/s λ (nm) 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
46. What is the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation Hydrogen’s Atomic Emission Spectrum
with a frequency of 5.00 × 10 12 Hz? What kind of
electromagnetic radiation is this? ■ Figure 5.22

47. What is the frequency of electromagnetic radiation 58. Hydrogen One line in hydrogen’s emission spectrum
with a wavelength of 3.33 × 10 -8 m? What type of has a wavelength of 486 nm. Examine Figure 5.22 to
electromagnetic radiation is this? determine the line’s color. What is the line’s frequency?

166 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms Chapter Test glencoe.com

Section 5.2 Section 5.3
Mastering Concepts Mastering Concepts
59. According to the Bohr model, how do electrons move 76. In what sequence do electrons fill the atomic orbitals
in atoms? related to a sublevel?
60. What does n designate in Bohr’s atomic model?
7p 6d
61. What is the difference between an atom’s ground state 7s 5f
and an excited state? 6p
5d 4f
6s 5p
62. What is the name of the atomic model in which elec- 4d
5s

Orbital filling sequence

Increasing energy
trons are treated as waves? Who first wrote the electron 4p
wave equations that led to this model? 4s 3d
63. What is an atomic orbital? 3p
64. What does n represent in the quantum mechanical 3s
model of the atom? 2p
Visible series (Balmer) 2s

n=1+ n=2 1s
n=3 ■ Figure 5.24
n=4
n=5 77. Rubidium Using Figure 5.24, explain why one electron
n=6 in a rubidium atom occupies a 5s orbital rather than a
n=7 4d or 4f orbital.
Ultraviolet series (Lyman) Infrared series (Paschen)
78. What are valence electrons? How many of a magnesium
■ Figure 5.23 atom’s 12 electrons are valence electrons?
65. Electron Transition According to the Bohr model 79. Light is said to have a dual wave-particle nature. What
shown in Figure 5.23, what type of electron-orbit does this statement mean?
transitions produce the ultraviolet lines in hydrogen’s 80. Describe the difference between a quantum and
Lyman series? a photon.
66. How many energy sublevels are contained in each of the 81. How many electrons are shown in each element’s elec-
hydrogen atom’s first three energy levels? tron-dot structure?
67. What atomic orbitals are related to a d sublevel? a. carbon c. calcium
b. iodine d. gallium
68. What do the sublevel designations s, p, d, and f specify
with respect to the atom’s orbitals? 82. When writing the electron configuration notation for an
atom, what three principles or rules should you follow?
69. How are the five orbitals related to an atom’s d sublevel
designated? 83. Write the electron configuration and draw the orbital
notation for atoms of oxygen and sulfur.
70. What is the maximum number of electrons an orbital
can contain?
Mastering Problems
71. Describe the relative orientations of the orbitals related
84. List the aufbau sequence of orbitals from 1s to 7p.
to an atom’s 2p sublevel.
85. Write each element’s orbital notation and complete
72. How many electrons can be contained in all the orbitals
related to an argon atom’s third energy level? electron configuration.
a. beryllium c. nitrogen
73. How does the quantum mechanical model of the atom b. aluminum d. sodium
describe the paths of an atom’s electrons?
86. Use noble-gas notation to describe the electron
74. Macroscopic Objects Why do we not notice the wave- configurations of the elements represented by the
lengths of moving objects such as automobiles? following symbols.
75. Why is it impossible to know precisely the velocity and a. Kr c. Zr
position of an electron at the same time? b. P d. Pb

Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 5 • Assessment 167

87. What element is represented by each electron Mixed Review
configuration?
a. 1s 22s 22p 5 94. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be
b. [Ar]4s 2 contained in an atom’s orbitals having the following
c. [Xe]6s 24f 4 principal quantum numbers?
d. [Kr]5s 24d 105p 4 a. 3 c. 6
e. [Rn]7s 25f 13 b. 4 d. 7
f. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 104p 5
95. What is the wavelength of light with a frequency of
88. Which electron configuration notation describes an 5.77 × 10 14 Hz?
atom in an excited state?
a. [Ar]4s 23d 104p 2
b. [Ne]3s 23p 5 1. 3.
c. [Kr]5s 24d 1
d. [Ar]4s 23d 84p 1
2. 4.
→

→
→
→

→
→

■ Figure 5.27
→

→
→
→

→
→

3s 3p 4s 3d
96. Waves Using the waves shown in Figure 5.27, identify
→

→
→
→

→
→
→

the wave or waves with the following characteristics.

→

→
→
→

3s 3p 4s 3d a. longest wavelength
b. greatest frequency
→
→

→
→
→

c. largest amplitude
→
→

→
→
→

3s 3p 4s 3d
d. shortest wavelength
→
→

→
→
→

97. How many orientations are possible for the orbitals

→
→

→
→
→

3s 3p 4s 3d related to each sublevels?

■ Figure 5.25
a. s c. d
b. p d. f
89. Which orbital diagram in Figure 5.25 is incorrect for an 98. Which elements have only two electrons in their electron-
atom in its ground state? dot structures: hydrogen, helium, lithium, aluminum,
90. Draw an electron-dot structure for an atom of each calcium, cobalt, bromine, krypton, or barium?
element. 99. In Bohr’s atomic model, what electron-orbit transition
a. carbon produces the blue-green line in hydrogen’s atomic emis-
b. arsenic sion spectrum?
c. polonium
d. potassium 100. Zinc A zinc atom contains a total of 18 electrons in its
e. barium 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals. Why does its electron-dot struc-
ture show only two dots?
91. Arsenic An atom of arsenic has how many electron-
containing orbitals? How many of the orbitals are com- 101. X Ray An X-ray photon has an energy of 3.01 × 10 -18 J.
pletely filled? How many of the orbitals are associated What is its frequency and wavelength?
with the atom’s n = 4 principal energy level? 102. Which element has the ground-state electron configura-
tion represented by the noble-gas notation [Rn]7s 1?
X 103. How did Bohr explain atomic emission spectra?
104. Infrared Radiation How many photons of infrared
■ Figure 5.26
radiation with a fre-quency of 4.88 × 10 13 Hz are
92. Which element could have the ground-state required to provide an energy of 1.00 J?
electron-dot notation shown in Figure 5.26? 105. Light travels slower in water than it does in air; however,
a. manganese c. calcium its frequency remains the same. How does the wave-
b. antimony d. samarium length of light change as it travels from air to water?
93. For an atom of tin in the ground state, write the electron 106. According to the quantum mechanical model of the
configuration using noble-gas notation, and draw its atom, what happens when an atom absorbs a quantum
electron-dot structure. of energy?

168 Chapter 5 • Electrons in Atoms Chapter Test glencoe.com

Think Critically
Additional Assessment
107. Compare and Contrast Briefly discuss the difference
between an orbit in Bohr’s model of the atom and an Chemistry
orbital in the quantum mechanical view of the atom.
115. Neon Signs To make neon signs emit different col-
108. Calculate It takes 8.17 × 10 -19 J of energy to remove
ors, manufacturers often fill the signs with gases other
one electron from a gold surface. What is the maximum than neon. Write an essay about the use of gases in
wavelength of light capable of causing this effect? neon signs and the colors produced by the gases.
z z 116. Rutherford’s Model Imagine that you are a scientist
z in the early twentieth century, and you have just
y
learned the details of a new, nuclear model of the atom
x proposed by the prominent English physicist Ernest
x Rutherford. After analyzing the model, you discern
x
what you believe to be important limitations. Write a
y y letter to Rutherford in which you express your con-
py dxz cerns regarding his model. Use diagrams and examples
of specific elements to help you make your point.
1s orbital p orbital d orbital
■ Figure 5.28
Document-Based Questions
109. Describe the shapes of the atomic orbitals shown in Sodium Vapor When sodium metal is vaporized in a gas-
Figure 5.28. Specify their orientations and relate each discharge lamp, two closely spaced, bright yellow-orange lines
orbital to a particular type of energy sublevel. are produced. Because sodium vapor lamps are electrically
110. Infer Suppose that you live in a universe in which
efficient, they are used widely for outdoor lighting, such as
the Pauli exclusion principle states that a maximum streetlights and security lighting.
of three, rather than two, electrons can occupy a single Figure 5.29 shows the emission spectrum of sodium metal.
atomic orbital. Evaluate and explain the new chemical The entire visible spectrum is shown for comparison.
properties of the elements lithium and phosphorus.
Data obtained from: Volland, W. March 2005. Spectroscopy: Element
Identification and Emission Spectra.
Challenge Problem
111. Hydrogen Atom The hydrogen atom’s energy is
-6.05 × 10 –20 J when the electron is in the n = 6 orbit
and -2.18 × 10 –18 J when the electron is in the n = 1.
Calculate the wavelength of the photon emitted when
the electron drops from the n = 6 orbit to the n = 1
orbit. Use the following values: h = 6.626 × 10 –34 J•s
and c = 3.00 × 10 8 m/s. Na

■ Figure 5.29
Cumulative Review 117. Differentiate between the two spectra shown above.
112. Round 20.56120 g to three significant figures. (Chapter 2) 118. Sodium’s two bright lines have wavelengths of
113. Identify whether each statement describes a chemical 588.9590 nm and 589.9524 nm. What is the ground-
property or a physical property. (Chapter 3) state electron configuration notation for sodium, and
a. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature. how does sodium’s electron configuration relate to
b. Sucrose is a white, crystalline solid. the lines?
c. Iron rusts when exposed to moist air. 119. Calculate the energies of photons related to the
d. Paper burns when ignited. two lines using the relationships expressed in the
114. An atom of gadolinium has an atomic number of 64 and following equations.
a mass number of 153. How many electrons, protons, E photon = hv; c = λv; E = hc/λ
and neutrons does it contain? (Chapter 4)

Chapter Test glencoe.com Chapter 5 • Assessment 169

Cumulative

Standardized Test Practice

Multiple Choice
1. Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation from outer Use the periodic table and the table below to answer
space. What is the frequency of a cosmic ray that has Questions 6 to 8.
a wavelength of 2.67 × 10 -13 m when it reaches
Earth? (The speed of light is 3.00 × 10 8 m/s.) Electron Configurations for Selected Transition Metals
A. 8.90 × 10 -22 s -1 Element Symbol
Atomic Electron
B. 3.75 × 10 12 s -1 Number Configuration
C. 8.01 × 10 −5 s -1 Vanadium V 23 [Ar]4s 23d 3
D. 1.12 × 10 21 s -1 Yttrium Y 39 [Kr]5s 24d 1
2. Which is the electron-dot structure for indium? [Xe]6s 24f 145d 6
A. In Scandium Sc 21 [Ar]4s 23d 1

B. In Cadmium Cd 48

C. In 6. Using noble-gas notation, what is the ground-state

electron configuration of Cd?
D. In
A. [Kr]4d 104f 2
Use the figure below to answer Questions 3 and 4. B. [Ar]4s 23d 10
C. [Kr]5s 24d 10
z z z
D. [Xe]5s 24d 10

x x x 7. What is the element that has the ground-state

electron configuration [Xe]6s 24f 145d 6?
y y A. La
y
B. Ti
C. W
D. Os
3. To which sublevel do all of these orbitals belong?
A. s 8. What is the complete electron configuration of a
B. p scandium atom?
C. d A. 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 23d 1
D. f B. 1s 22s 22p 73s 23p 74s 23d 1
4. How many electrons total can reside in this sublevel? C. 1s 22s 22p 53s 23p 54s 23d 1
A. 2 D. 1s 22s 12p 73s 13p 74s 23d 1
B. 3
C. 6 9. Which is NOT evidence that a chemical change has
D. 8 occurred?
A. The properties of the substances involved in the
5. What is the maximum theoretical number of reaction have changed.
electrons related to the fifth principal energy level B. An odor is produced.
of an atom? C. The composition of the substances involved in
A. 10 the reaction have changed.
B. 20 D. The total mass of all substances involved has
C. 25 changed.
D. 50

170 Chapter 5 • Assessment Standardized Test Practice glencoe.com

Short Answer SAT Subject Test: Chemistry
Use the data below to answer Questions 10 to 13. Use the diagram below to answer Questions 17 and 18.

Temperature of Water with Heating

→
→
→
→
→
→

→
→
A. C.
Time (s) Temperature (°C) 2 2 2 3
1s 1s 2s 2p
0 16.3

→
→

→
→
→
→

→
→
→
30 19.7 B. D.
2 2 2 1 6
60 24.2 1s 2s 1s 2s 2p
90 27.8
16. Which shows an orbital diagram that violates the
120 32.0
aufbau principle?
150 35.3 A. A D. D
180 39.6 B. B E. none
210 43.3 C. C
240 48.1
17. Which shows the orbital diagram for the element
beryllium?
10. Make a graph showing temperature versus time.
A. A D. D
11. Is the heating of this sample of water a linear B. B E. none
process? Explain how you can tell. C. C

12. Use your graph to find the approximate rate of 18. A student performs an experiment to measure the
heating in degrees per second. What is this value in boiling point of pentane and measures it at 37.2°C.
degrees per minute? The literature reports this value as 36.1°C. What is
the student’s percent error?
13. Show the equation to convert the temperature at A. 97.0%
180 s from degrees Celsius to Kelvin and to degrees B. 2.95%
Fahrenheit. C. 1.1%
D. 15.5%
Extended Response E. 3.05%

14. Compare the information provided in an electron- 19. Which method of separating components of a
dot structure with the information in an electron mixture
14.X depends on the different boiling points of
configuration. the components of the mixture?
A. chromatography
15. Explain why 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 64s 24d 104p 2 is not the B. filtration
correct electron configuration for germanium (Ge). C. crystallization
Write the correct electron configuration for D. distillation
Germanium. E. sublimation

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