744

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

Review Article.

The Brain in Love:

Has Neuroscience Stolen the Secret of Love?

Sultan Tarlac
ABSTRACT
No one knows when the story of love began in the history of mankind, though from a religious point of view it started with
Adam and Eve and the Forbidden Fruit. Scientifically speaking, love probably made its appearance with H. neanderthalensis
between 350 and 30 thousand years ago. Neanderthal graves have yielded the pollen of brightly coloured flowers brought
from different regions, and these have been associated with some kind of loving relationship between the living and the dead.
If love started with the Neanderthals, anthropological studies have shown that today, 147 out of 166 societies in the world have
a word for love or at least the concept of love, while for the other nineteen, it has been suggested that not enough questions
of the right kind have been asked to discover whether it exists or not. For this reason, love is accepted as a universal or nearuniversal feeling.
Key Words: love, romantic love, maternal love, neurobiology, fMRI, passion, dopamine, oxytocin, vasopressin
NeuroQuantology 2012; 4: 744-753

Why Do We Feel Love? 1

You would get different answers to this
question from psychiatrists, theologians and
evolutionary biologists. If you asked a
psychiatrist, you would be told that from the
viewpoint of psychoanalysis, love is the
external expression of an oedipally suppressed
feeling and a precious flower which the super
ego has raised up to the skies. According to
Oedipal suppression, boys are in love with
their mothers and girls with their fathers, and
at around the age of six this is suppressed.
Later, when they meet a member of the
opposite sex with similar characteristics to the
parent, passionate love occurs. According to
theologians, human love is a small reflection of
divine love. It is a small attempt to attain that
great love, one of the small steps on the ascent
Corresponding author: Sultan Tarlac, M.D., Assoc. Prof.,
Address: Universal Special Health Hospital, 35520, Alsancak, Izmir,
Turkey.
Phone: + 90 232 463 77 00
[email protected]
Received Jan 12, 2012. Revised Sept 6, 2012. Accepted Nov 14, 2012.
eISSN 1303-5150

to divine love. There is a beautiful story

concerning this: a man took his son from
Anatolia to a religious teacher in Baghdad, and
said to him, Make this boy your student, and
let him learn the way of God. The sheikh said
to the boy, Are you in love with anyone?
When the boy answered Yes, I love a girl back
in the village, the sheikh said, My child, we
can do nothing for a person who already has
someone in their heart. And to the father he
said, Take him home and let him get
married. The man returned to his village and
this time took his younger son to the sheikh in
Baghdad. The teacher asked, My child, have
you ever been in love? No, sir, said the boy.
At this the sheikh turned to the father and
said, Take this one home too, and bring him
back after he has been in love.
The loves of Joseph and Mevlana are
passionate expressions of Divine Love. In folk
tales, the loves of Leila and Majnun, Kerem
and Asl, Farhad and Shirin, and Tahir and
Zuhre are small human steps in that direction.
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

745

Why do People Fall in Love with a

Particular Type?
There is no certain answer to this question,
only a number of approaches and findings.
The first steps in the process happen in 30% of
people when they encounter a face which
appears to have good symmetry. What actually
starts it is not so much beauty, but along with
it such important indicative factors which will
add to the richness of the persons own life as
intelligence, trustworthiness, kindness, and
charm. The factors which determine falling in
love are formed in particular under the effects
of the testosterone levels to which we are
exposed in the 8-16th weeks of pregnancy, the
attention which is paid to us in childhood, and
adolescent hormones. Again, love may start as
a great surprise when the opposite person
shows liking. The desire for small contacts
may make this more apparent (Fisher, 2006;
Zeki and Romaya, 2010).

However, a feeling with so many emotional

and physiological effects would surely be
expected to be reflected in the brain.

But what concerns us most here is not

what type or person we fall in love with, but
rather the question of what happens in our
brain when we fall in love. In neuroscientific
terms, the question is whether love has a
neurobiological or chemical equivalent, and
whether there is a romantic system or neural
circuit in the brain.

In 2004, Semir Zeki and his colleagues,

(Bartels and Zeki, 2000; 2004) who had spent
years, investigating the organisation in the
brain cortex of the human visual system,
published the first study on the question of
what happens in the brain of a person who
sees a photograph of someone whom they love,
and the findings provoked a large response.
Eighteen people who were passionately in love
were included in the study, and their brain
activity was investigated by fMRG when they
were shown a picture of the person they loved.
When they first saw it, their brains subcortical
reward system showed great activity. Among
these regions, activity in the caudate head,
putamen, insular cortex, hippocampus,
anterior cingulate cortex cerebellum and
ventral tegmental area was noticeable. The
results were a surprise to everyone. Certain
brain regions, especially those which gave
rewards, were responding to the events (Xu et
al., 2011). A reward obtained will certainly
cause a repetition of the activity which
produced the reward. This includes food,
water, sex, cigarettes, cocaine and positive
social interactions, and the result is subjective
satisfaction (Burkett and Young, 2012). When
the reward cells are eventually satiated with
the stimulus, they enter a quiet state.
Repeated activity slowly comes to an end
(Zeki, 2007; Bartels and Zeki, 2000; 2004).

What Happens in the Brain in Love?

In neuroscience, love is much stronger than a
basic emotion or state of mind. Emotionally, it
means thinking obsessively and repeatedly
about the beloved. This takes up around 85%
of waking time. The persons own priorities
change and there is a continual, compulsive
desire for closeness. Anxiety and fear are
reduced, and risk-taking is made easier. A
feeling of ecstatic, euphoric happiness takes
over the person, and he or she is ready to die
for the beloved. All the possessions of the
beloved are seen as extensions of him/herself
and even a simple piece of trash from the
beloved is imbued with a kind of sacred
quality. At the same time love has deep
physiological effects on the body. Among these
are a reduction in appetite and a loss of
interest in food-drink, and pain sensitivity, an
increase in the pulse rate, palpitations,
sweating, trembling, intestinal activity, and an
increase in stomach acidity and the rate of
swallowing. Over the ages, these physiological
responses have made people think that the
heart was the instrument of falling in love.

In order to understand whether there is

a system in the brain for taste, sight, smell,
touch, hearing, or at a more complex level
violin playing for example, the most-used
method is functional MR (fMRG) brain
imaging. This is a method which can show
which regions of the brain operate in response
to a particular stimulus or for a specific
purpose. The basic principle is simple: changes
in blood flow (haemodynamic response) and
oxygen
(blood-oxygen-level-dependent

BOLD) take place in certain parts of the brain

in connection with operations which the brain
is performing. Differently functioning brain
regions can be shown by fMRG by comparing
them with the brains of normal people, i.e.
individuals who are not performing those
operations.

What then are the deeper functions of

these parts of the brain which spring into
action when the lover sees the beloved? The
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

most remarkable of these regions is the A10

region in the ventral tegmental area (VTA).
The VTA, along with the substantiva nigra, is
the source of 90% of the dopamine in the
brain. Because of this regions richness in
dopamine, it is active in all reward stimuli. In
addition, it contributes to wakefulness,
attention, increased libido, motivation and
reward-seeking. The basic function of
dopamine is the want in the reward system.
At the same time, dopamine is closely
associated with novelty-seeking and creativity.
It is the source of reiterative thought and
behaviour. The clinically pathological state of
this can be seen in schizophrenic and
Parkinsons
patients
during
excessive
dopaminergic stimulation in dopamine
dysregulation syndrome. At the same time
dopamine creates the feeling of unity with the
beloved. It is dopamine which causes poets to
write poetry when they are in love, and
musicians to make music. The pallidum and
the caudal nucleus integrate sensory input
with motor output in order to bring it into
action. This provides the detection of reward
and purposeful behaviour. The anterior
cingulate cortex evaluates internal and
external stimuli, and creates suitable
emotional responses to them. It provides
decision-making, risk analysis and selfawareness. The hypothalamus, as is known
from previous studies, deals with both sexual
stimuli and loving stimuli. The autonomic
system is the central producer of various
sexual hormones. It also regulates hunger,
thirst and body temperature. The insular
cortex creates that feeling of restlessness when
we are in love, and reflects our emotions on to
our bodies in the form of a rise in the pulse
rate and sweating (Zeki, 2007; Ortigue et al.,
2010).

Figure 1. Brain regions showing activity in people madly in

love. Modified from Zeki S. Neurobiology of love. FEBS Letters
2007; 581: 2575-2579.

746

In brief, when people in love see their

beloved, they fall into an ocean of dopamine in
the reward pathways in their subcortical
structures. So then what happens in the brain
cortex? According to the results of the same
fMRG studies, there is a deactivation in
various cortical areas in contrast to the
subcortical active regions in the brain cortex of
people who are in love. Regions which show
de-activation or reduced activity are the
prefrontal region, the parieto-temporooccipital region, and the temporo-parietal
region (Zeki, 2007; Bartels and Zeki, 2000;
2004; Esch and Stefano, 2005). The
prefrontal region in humans is the most
important region for visualisation, intention
and decision-making and logical deduction. It
is the source of logic and adherence to social
rules, morality and respect. The reduction in
the activity of this region in people in love
results in a weakening or loss of its functions.
This is possible because the brain regions
responsible for logic and the rules of social
morality have stopped working properly.
Another example is the story of the fall of Troy,
in which Paris, the young prince of Troy, is a
guest of Menelaos, king of Sparta in Greece,
and falls in love with the kings wife Helen. He
carries her away to Troy, with the result that
Menelaos and his brother Agamemnon lay
siege to the city. And the rest is history, or at
least legend: the wooden horse and the
destruction of Troy. When youre in love, the
rules of logic arent applied. Love comes in,
and sense goes out the window. It is for this
reason that people in love tend to take stupid
and illogical risks. In the case of an impossible
love, they are not persuaded by people trying
to make them see sense. The parieto-temporooccipital region provides a persons sense of
position in space, and spatially separates the
self from the other. When this region is
deactivated, the separation between self and
other is suspended, and the person
experiences unity with the beloved. In this
way, just as a person cannot conceal the fact
that he is drunk, he or she cannot conceal the
fact of being in love.
The Difference between Men and
Women
Is there a difference between the active brain
regions of men and women when they are in
love? To answer this question, seven men and
ten women who were in love were examined by
fMRG, and different areas were assessed. In
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

men, greater activity was seen in the right

dorsal insula, associated with penile
tumescence, the region for seeing beautiful
faces, and the visual integration area. In
women, the regions for attention, memory and
emotion showed greater activity (Ortigue,
2010). From this we can understand that men
fall in love with women and their faces in a
way that includes sexual arousal, while women
are more interested in the romantic aspect of
love that is, they fall in love with love itself!
(Marazziti et al., 2010)
The Love of a Mother for her Child and
the Love of a Lover for the Beloved
To investigate this, fMRG studies were carried
out comparing mothers and lovers (Bartels
and Zeki, 2001). The mothers were shown
pictures of their child, while the lovers viewed
pictures of the face of their beloved. When the
fMRG images of the mothers and the lovers
were superimposed, just about the same
regions of the brain showed activity in the two
groups, except for one. These areas were the
anterior cingulate cortex, the caudate nucleus,
the bilateral insular region, the striatum
(formed from the putamen + caudate nucleus
and the globus pallidus), the Periaqueductal
gray matter (PAGM), and the hippocampus.
The only difference in mothers looking at their
children was that increased activity was seen
in the PAGC. The PAGC has been confirmed
in many other studies as specific to mothers
love, and this region was not active in lovers.
Why the PAGC? This region is in particular a
region where the endogen reduction and pain
relieving mechanisms and the encephalinergic
system are concentrated. The secretion of
endorphin and dinorphins blocks mu
receptors and the secretion of Substans P,
which is a transmitter in the pain pathways
behind the spinal cord (Kendrick, 2004).
Stimulation of this region provides substantial
analgesia and is probably one of the regions
providing analgesia during birth.
While this is happening in the deep brain
structures of mothers, is anything happening
in the brain cortex which is different from
lovers? In mothers, deactivation is seen in the
parieto-temporo-occipital, prefrontal region
and the medial temporal region. These are the
same regions as the deactivated cortical
regions seen in lovers. This means that
mothers have the same problems of
visualisation, intention and decision-making

747

Psychometric Properties of the Infatuation

ttachment Scales. J Sex Res 2012 Oct 25.
ahead of print]
Is Love a Morbid Obsession?
Everyone accepts that up to a point love is an
obsessive condition. The lover constantly
thinks about the beloved. In the case of headover-heels love, this may occupy about 85% of
waking time. The desire to see and touch the
beloved is constantly repeated in their
thoughts. Obsession is known as a compulsive,
involuntary, compelling cyclical thought
pattern. The person is aware of it, but cannot
stop thinking these thoughts. This can lead to
distress. In order to relieve this stress, ritualtype compulsive behaviour may develop. In
obsessive disorders, a reduction has been
shown of 5-HIAA, a breakdown product of
serotonin, in the spinal fluid and blood. At the
same time, obsessive disorders show a good
response to drugs which stimulate the
serotonergic system. In other words, there is a
consistent
relationship
between
the
serotonergic system and obsessive disorders.

Figure 2. Differences in serum thrombocyte serotonin

transporter (PLT-ST) concentration between normal people,
those diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder, and
people in the 6th and 12-18th months of being in love. Levels
are lower than normal in the 6th month of being in love, but
this gradually returns to normal. Modified from Marazziti D et
al., Psychol Med 1999; 29(3):741-5.

Could the early stages of being in love be

a similar condition to obsession? In searching
for an answer to this question, measurements
were made of the concentrations of serum
thrombocyte serotonin transporter (PLT-ST)
in 20 normal people, 20 people who had been
newly diagnosed according to DSM-IV with
obsessive disorder but who had not taken any
medication, and 20 people who were in the 6th
month of being deeply in love (Marazziti et al.,
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

748

1999). As expected, PLT-ST concentrations of

people with obsessive disorder were found to
be considerably higher than those of normal
people (1328 as against 736 fmmol/mg
protein). What was interesting was that the
value for the people who were in love was even
lower than that of the obsessives (624
fmmol/mg
protein).
The
researchers
wondered how PLT-ST levels in the lovers
would change over time; they measured the
values of six of the lovers in the 12-18th month
when they were still (but no longer
passionately) in love, and found that values
were no different from normal (1241
fmmol/mg protein). From this it can be seen
that in the period of passionate, head-overheels love, there is a change in PLT-ST levels
consistent with obsessive disorder. Passionate
love is an obsession, and from the point of
view of serotonin chemistry it lasts around 1218 months.

and rise in women can be found logically.

First, a reduction in testosterone in men
softens their masculine characteristics and
reduces their extroversion. It makes it easier to
concentrate on one person. At the same time
it causes a reduction in masculine
aggressiveness, and this softening is
reciprocated by the woman. With regard to the
increase in testosterone levels in women, there
are a number of logical explanations. In the
novelty of love there is a risk arising from
uncertainty. The rise in testosterone in women
makes it easier to take on that risk. During
ovulation, a rise in testosterone increases
sexual desire in women. At the same time it
increases a womans extroversion and awakens
her masculine attributes. As a result, just as
love begins, the changes in mens and womens
testosterone levels bring the two sexes closer
together, if only for a short time (Marazziti and
Canale, 2004).

Loves Traditional Home the Heart

Love has traditionally been associated with the
heart, and even today we draw a heart to
represent love. The reason for this is the rising
central (in the brain) and peripheral level of
nor-epinephrine (NE). In the periphery, the
increase
in
NE
causes
tachycardia,
palpitations, a rise in blood pressure and
trembling hands in the presence of the
beloved. With this exaggerated stimulus effect
on the heart, love is perceived as centred not in
the brain but in the heart. This increase in the
central nervous system effects the locus
ceruleus, and causes an increase in attention
and in focus on the beloved. This focussing
and attention means that small details about
love are remembered. At the same time it
causes sleepless nights and a loss of appetite.
NE also causes an increase in sexual
motivation. Amphetamine given at a suitable
dose will potentialize all of these effects on
dopamine and NE in the same way.

Does Love Rejuvenate the Brain?

Swimming in an ocean of dopamine in the
period of being passionately in love is a
principal source of creativity for poets and
musicians. The main neurotrophic factor
which keeps the brain young is neuron growth
factor
(NGF)
(Levi-Montalcini,
1996;
Marazziti, 2004; 2003). To find out whether
there is a change in neurotrophin levels in
people who are passionately in love, serum
levels of NGF, brain derivated neurthropic
factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin 3-4 were
measured in 58 people who were in the first
six months of being passionately in love and
who thought about their beloved for at least
four hours a day. Serum levels were compared
between people who were not in love and those
who had been in love for a short time (the first
six months) and for a long time (49 months).
Serum NGF levels in the newly passionate
lovers were found to be significantly higher
than those of people who were alone and not
in love (277 as against 149 pg/mL) almost
double. NGF levels in the long-term lovers
were found to have fallen to 45% of that of the
passionate lovers in their first six months, and
were even below that of normal people (143 as
against 149 pg/mL). At the same time, a
significant relationship was detected between
the scores of these people on the Passionate
Love Scale and their NGF levels. As their
scores for passionate love increased, so did
their NGF levels. No similar change was

The Puzzle of Testosterone

In the period of passionate and intense love
there is also a change in the sex hormones.
These hormones have receptors in the brain.
The change in testosterone is one of the most
interesting of these changes. In this early
period, testosterone levels fall in men but rise
in women, a finding which is in conflict with
the expectation that it would rise in men.
However, the reason why it should fall in men

www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

measured in other neurotrophic

(Emanuelle, 2006; 2011).

factors

Figure 3. Compared with normal people, the neuron growth

factor (NGF). serum levels of people in the first six months of
passionate love scale (Langeslag et al., 2012) are considerably
raised, while as time goes on these levels even fall to below
normal. BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor, NT:
neurotrophin, PLS: Passion love scale. Modified from
Emanuelle E et al., Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels
associated
with
early-stage
romantic
love.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006; 31: 288-294.

So what is the advantage of this increase

in NGF in the period of passionate love? NGF
is essential for the life of neurons and
dendritic growth. This is true both for the
peripheral and the central nervous systems. It
increases their myelinisation, speeds up
healing and has aniogenic properties. Along
with this, it increases opioid sensitivity and the
secretion of cortisone and vasopressin. A fall
has been associated with various pathological
conditions such as neural degeneration,
dementia, depression, autism, and an increase
in sensitivity to pain.
Does Love Soothe Physical Pain?
One of the reasons why love causes bonding is
the increase in encephalins, which pervade the
concept of love. There are morphinergic and
encephalinergic pathways in the rewardpleasure system. In particular, stimulation of
the mu3 receptors causes a feeling of
wellbeing. It erases negative memories, and
strengthens positive and happy states in the
memory. With this strengthening of good
memories, the
lover selectively
only
remembers the good things, so that he or she
is prevented from seeing the true whole
picture of the beloved. Everything is viewed
through rose-tinted spectacles. And at the
same time the morphinergic system can
perform its expected role of
nonpharmacologically reducing sensitivity to pain.

749

But does love really reduce sensitivity to

pain? In one study, 15 people in the first nine
months of being in love were subjected to
severe and slight thermal pain in the hand.
When they were shown a picture of their
beloved, pain scores for the severe pain fell
from 7.2 to 6.2, and the score for slight pain
fell from 3.7 to 2.4. That is, the scores on the
visual pain scale for both severe and slight
pain fell by about one point (Younger et al.,
2010).
Another study (Master et al., 2009)
examined the effect of holding the beloveds
hand and seeing his or her picture with
thermal pain as a stimulus. Twenty-eight
women in the first six months of being
passionately in love were included in the
study. When they held their beloveds hand,
their pain scores were measured as about 0.5
points lower, but when they held the hand of a
stranger, it was found that their score rose by
up to 1.5 points. A similar result was obtained
when the subjects were shown a picture of
their beloved: their pain score fell by about one
point. When they looked at the picture of a
strangers face or of an object, their pain score
showed a very slight increase. That is, holding
the hand of the beloved or seeing a photograph
of them reduced their pain score, or in other
words it caused them to feel less pain.

Figure 4. A reduction in pain scores is caused in lovers by

holding the hand or seeing a photograph of the beloved
compared with that of a stranger. Modified from Master SL et
al., A Pictures Worth: Partner Photographs Reduce
Experimentally Induced Pain. Psychological Science 2009; 20:
1316-1318

How can love reduce pain?

As we saw before, the morphinergicencephalinergic system, which comes into
operation in love, is an anti-nociceptive
painkilling and pain reduction system. With
NGF increasing at the same time, it
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

strengthens the painkilling encephalinergic

system. In addition, in fMRG studies of the
brain, a reduction in activity has been shown
in the ventro-lateral nucleus of the thalamus
and the supplementary motor area. The
ventro-lateral nucleus of the thalamus is the
place through which pain is carried to the
brain cortex. A reduction in the working of this
nucleus weakens the direct transmission and
interpretation of pain to the brain cortex.
Also, the supplementary motor area is a region
whose activity is seen to be reduced and which
is important in pain integration. At the same
time, the reward and pleasure system are
directly activated and bring the reductive pain
system into operation. Pain sensitivity is
reduced through both systems. We saw that
when mothers see pictures of their children, it
is especially activated. This region is the most
important place in the reductive painkilling
system. When the love poet Cemal Sreya says
I have imprisoned you in my fingertips. I
feel you in every place that I touch, and my
soul is burning, we must welcome it, because
love only gives one point of nonpharmacological benefit on the visual pain
scale!
When we think that love and the support
of the beloved can reduce pain, lovers being
together when they are in pain, or at least
being able to see a photograph, can help as a
non-pharmacological pain reliever. On the
other hand, it makes it easy to understand why
those unhappy in love constantly complain of
headaches, backaches, and other aches and
pains.
The Case of Unrequited Love
In the game of love, we often come across
lovers who are rejected. Each rejection
provokes a protest in the lover, and then
follows an obsessive desire to regain the
beloved. This is because the source of reward
and pleasure is about to be lost. However, after
a time, if this attempt is unsuccessful,
acceptance of the loss begins to take effect. In
this period, we often see hopelessness, anger,
irritability, and social isolation. Signs of
depression are seen in 40% of rejected lovers,
and in 12% it results in medium to serious
depression. At this time, aggression, suicide
and murder also occur.
What is happening in the brains of these
rejected lovers? An fMRG study was
performed on 15 rejected lovers who still spent

750

85% of their waking time thinking about their

beloved (we are not including in this what may
have gone on in their dreams!), and the same
active brain areas were seen as in those
passionately in love. Even when they were
rejected, their brains showed the same areas of
activity as in people totally in love. What was
different from happy lovers was greater
activity in the right accumbens nucleus and
the ventral pallidum. This same increase in
activity in the right accumbens nucleus seen in
people who have lost someone close to them
(Emanuele, 2009). That is, rejection in love
provokes a similar reaction in the brain to
death and bereavement. Also, the ventral
pallidum is a region which is rich in
vasopressin (VZP) 1A receptors (Fisher, 2010).
We will come back later to the importance of
this region and its connection to VZP. Activity
in this region declines as love continues and
disappointments in love increase. Activity
begins in the left insular cortex, an area which
also shows activity in times of anxiety,
weeping, and when pain is inflicted on the
skin.
Fidelity, Cheating and
Monogamy/Polygamy
If there is deep and passionate love and
fidelity, how is it that we also see infidelity and
cheating? In mammals there are two
hormones which control fidelity: oxytocin
(OXY) and vasopressin (VZP). VZP is also
called arginine-VZP and the antidiuretic
hormone. OXY and VZP are synthesised in the
hypothalamic magnocellular supra-optic and
paraventricular nuclei and released into the
blood by axonal transport from the pituitary
gland. These are the only hormones which are
released from the pituitary gland and have a
direct distant effect on the body. The two
hormones have a similar structure, and
partially affect each others receptors. In
humans, they are both coded on the same
chromosome, 20p13, while the receptors are
coded on chromosome 2. They have a peptide
structure formed from nine amino-acids, and
differences in the third and eighth amino-acids
make the difference between them. The
hormone OXY is structured Cys-Thr-Ile-GlnAsn-Cys-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH3, while VZP has the
structure Cys-Thr-Phe-Gln-Asn-Cys-Pro-ArgGly-NH3. These hormones are also found in
worms, rodents, birds, octopuses, elephants
and whales, with variations in amino-acids in
the same areas causing inter-specific
www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

differences. They have peripheral classical

effects: OXY causes milk production and
contractions of the uterus during birth, while
VZP is involved in water retention (especially
on VZP-2 receptors).
Along with their peripheral effects, OXY
and VZP have receptors which give them a
greater effect on the central nervous system, in
many regions from the brain stem to the spinal
cord. OXY receptors are found in the
accumbens nucleus, the amygdala and the
hippocampus. OXY is involved in the
formation of social memory (Martin-Du Pan,
2012; Atzil et al., 2012; Kumsta and Heinrichs,
2012) the recognition of facial emotion, and
the feeling of trust in other people, and causes
aggression in pregnant women and mothers. It
is fundamental to male-female pair-bonding,
mother-child bonding (Weismann et al., 2012;
Scheele et al., 2012). It passes from breastfeeding mothers to their children and
increases mother-child bonding. When the
OXY gene does not function, problems are
experienced in memory of social events and
recognition. The social memory is disrupted.
When the OXY receptor is blocked in mothers,
care for the infant decreases. Secretion of OXY
from the rear pituitary rises in parallel with
oestrogen in the blood. It rises appreciably in
embracing and suckling, and during birth,
sexual arousal and orgasm. OXY has been
called the cuddling chemical. It is prominent
in bonding in women, while VZP is more
closely related to bonding in men (Ferguson et
al., 2000).
VZP, especially in mens brains, mostly
has VZP1A receptors in the ventral pallidum
and putamen region. In men it has functions
such as the formation of pair bonding,
aggression, territorial defence, protection of
children and hierarchical organisation. The
effects of OXY and VZP overlap to some extent
in both men and women.
What We Learn from Rodents
How can monogamy and polygamy be
explained?
In nature, only 3-5% of all
species albatrosses and voles for example
are monogamous, that is they only have one
mate. The most interesting thing about
monogamy and polygamy is work that shows
that a single hormone or gene is responsible
for turning the one into the other. Two species
of voles show different pair bonding and
behaviour characteristics: prairie voles are

751

monogamous, while meadow voles are

polygamous. But how do we know that a vole
is monogamous? One male vole and five or six
females are placed in a maze. The male smells
only one of them, and generally pays attention
to and mates with that one. When these voles
lose their mate they take on the task of caring
for the young and do not choose another mate.
When the brains of monogamous prairie
voles were examined, it was found that there
was a high density of receptors for OXY in the
accumbens nucleus and a high density of
VZP1a receptors in the ventral pallidum. It is
known that the gene for OXY production was
on chromosome 2 in prairie voles, so if this
gene is knocked out, the hormone OXY can no
longer be produced. This makes a prairie vole
which has been monogamous from birth
polygamous and promiscuous. He mates with
any female he comes across, and takes no care
of his young. This means that pair bonding can
be prevented by a single gene. And if a
substance is put into the empty spaces of the
monogamous prairie voles brain which blocks
VZP1A receptors, this also transforms a
monogamous animal into a polygamous one
(Lim and Young, 2006).
Meadow voles on the other hand are
polygamous in terms of breeding habits. They
do not form pair bonds and are solitary. Their
social memories are weak. When we examine
the brains of these rodents, we find that in
contrast to the monogamous prairie voles, the
density of OXY and VZP1A receptors in the
accumbens nuclei and ventral pallidum is low
from birth. Giving these polygamous voles
intracerebral ventricular OXY makes them
monogamous. They lose their polygamous
behaviour and turn into well-behaved fathers
of the family. Maybe in the future polygamous
tendencies in men might be shown up in gene
analysis. Their identity cards might be marked
polygamous tendencies, good for one-night
stands, does not bond, or otherwise
monogamous, a good father of a family,
giving women the chance to choose
accordingly.
So monogamous and polygamous
behaviour in humans is also closely related to
the hormones OXY and VZP and their
receptors. And receptor and hormone
concentrations are closely related to
genetically related phenotypes (Ross et al.,
2009). For humans, we have evidence for the
accumbens nucleus and the ventral pallidum
www.neuroquantology.com

752

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

which is similar to that for the brains of voles

(Beery and Zucher, 2010). At the same time,
fMRG studies have shown marked activity in
the accumbens nucleus and the ventral
pallidum in cases of long-term bonding. This
shows that the mechanisms in voles also
function in humans.
Studies on OXY have also provided
similar evidence. OXY was the first peptide
hormone to be synthesised; the person who
synthesised it in 1953 won the Nobel Prize.
OXY is sold commercially as a nasal spray and
for intravenous injection, and it is used mostly
as a common way of increasing cows milk
production. In humans, the hormones
characteristic of providing social trust is very
clear. It decreases social fear and anxiety, and
it is used for this effect in the treatment of
autism. It makes it easier to gain trust in
relations with another person (both in love
and when dealing with money!) When love
ends or a marriage breaks up, the reason why
we say how did I ever trust the bastard? is
most likely the fall in OXY levels in our blood
which happens alongside the reduction in
bonding and trust as we come to our senses.
That is, the false sensation of trust caused by
OXY has been removed.
A group of people were told to place
money with an investor. If the investor gained
money they would win, but if the investor was
untrustworthy and a cheat they would lose.
Some of the subjects were given a placebo
nasal spray, and the others were given an OXY
spray. It was found that the group who were
given the OXY nasal spray trusted the investor
more and entered into twice the risk. That is,
OXY increases trust, and makes it easier to
take risks with money. In just the same way,
new lovers trust each other with no regard for
the long-term consequences. However, when

the same people were dealing with a computer

rather than a human investor, the OXY spray
did not have the same effect. That is, this
hormone has an effect on person-to-person
contacts, but not on human-to-machine
relations. For this reason, it may be
recommended that people do not take
decisions involving financial risk when their
OXY levels are raised by situations such as
raised oestrogen levels in menstruation, sexual
activity, and orgasm or breast-feeding.
When this effect became known it
captured the popular commercial imagination,
and OXY-containing perfumes were produced,
and marketed with slogans like Trust is
Strength, and You will become irresistible,
and both your social life and your wallet will
be enriched.
Does all this mean that the secret of love
has been stolen? When Newton explained the
colours of the rainbow by the use of a prism,
the Romantic poet John Keats wrote in his
poem Lamia:
Do not all charms fly
At the mere touch of cold philosophy?
There was an awful rainbow once in
heaven:
We know her woof, her texture; she is given
In the dull catalogue of common things.
Philosophy will clip an Angel's wings,
Conquer all mysteries by rule and line,
Empty the haunted air, and gnomed mine
Unweave a rainbow

I dont think we have mistreated love in

the same way, because love will always keep
part of itself secret.

www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | December 2012 | Volume 10 | Issue 4 | Page 744-753

Tarlac S., The brain in love

References
Atzil S, Hendler T, Zagoory-Sharon O, Winetraub Y,
Feldman R. Synchrony and specificity in the maternal
and the paternal brain: relations to oxytocin and
vasopressin. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry
2012; 51(8):798-811. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2012.06.008.
Bartels A, Zeki S. The neural basis of romantic love.
Neuroreport 2000; 27;11:3829-34.
Bartels A, Zeki S. The neural correlates of maternal and
romantic love. Neuroimage 2004; 21(3):1155-66.
Beery AK, Zucker I. Oxytocin and same-sex social
behavior in female meadow voles. Neuroscience
2010; 25; 169(2):665-73.
Burkett JP, Young LJ. The behavioral, anatomical and
pharmacological parallels between social attachment,
love and addiction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2012;
224(1):1-26.
Emanuele E. NGF and romantic love. Archives Italiennes
de Biologie 2011; 149: 265-268.
Emanuele E. Of love and death: the emerging role of
romantic disruption in suicidal behavior. Suicide Life
Threat Behav 2009; 39: 240.
Emanuele E, Politi P, Bianchi M, Minoretti P, Bertona M,
Geroldi D. Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels
associated
with
early-stage
romantic
love.
Psychoneuroendocrinology 2006; 31: 288-294.
Esch T and Stefano G.B. The neurobiology of love. Neuro
Endocrinol Lett 2005; 26: 175-192.
Fisher HE, Aron A, Brown LL. Romantic love: a
mammalian brain system for mate choice. Philos
Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2006; 361: 2173-2186.
Fisher HE, Brown LL, Aron A, Strong G, Mashek D.
Reward, addiction, and emotion regulation systems
associated with rejection in love. J Neurophysiol
2010; 104: 51-60.
FXu X, Aron A, Brown L, Cao G, Feng T, Weng X.
Reward and motivation systems: a brain mapping
study of early-stage intense romantic love in Chinese
participants. Hum Brain Mapp 2011;32(2):249-57.
Ferguson J, Young LJ, Hearn EF et al., Social amnesia in
mice lacking the oxytocine gene. Nature Genetics
2000; 25: 284-288.
Kawabata H, Zeki S. Neural correlates of beauty. J
Neurophysiol 2004;91(4):1699-705.
Kendrick K.M. The neurobiology of social bonds. J
Neuroendocrinol 2004; 16: 1007-1008.
Kumsta R, Heinrichs M. Oxytocin, stress and social
behavior: neurogenetics of the human oxytocin
system. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2012 Oct 3. doi:pii:
S0959-4388(12)00146-8.
10.1016/j.conb.2012.09.004.
Langeslag SJ, Muris P, Franken IH. Measuring Romantic
Love: Psychometric Properties of the Infatuation and
Attachment Scales. J Sex Res 2012 Oct 25. [Epub
ahead of print]
Levi-Montalcini R, Skaper SD, Dal Toso R, Petrelli L,
Leon A. Nerve growth factor: from neurotrophin to
neurokine. Trends Neurosci 1996; 19: 514-520.
Lim MM, Young LJ. Neuropeptidergic regulation of
affiliative behavior and social bonding in animals.
Horm Behav 2006;50(4): 506-17.
Marazziti D, Akiskal HS, Rossi A et al., Alteration of the
platelet serotonin transporter in romantic love.
Psychol Med 1999; 29:7415.
Marazziti D, Canale D. Hormonal changes when falling in
love. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004; 29 (7): 9316.
Marazziti D, Consoli G, Albanese F, Laquidara E, Baroni
S, Catena Dell'osso M. Romantic attachment and

753

subtypes/dimensions of jealousy. Clin Pract

Epidemiol Ment Health 2010; 8(6):53-8.
Marazziti D and Canale D. Hormonal changes when
falling in love. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2004; 29:
931-936.
Marazziti D and Cassano G.B. The neurobiology of
attraction. J Endocrinol Invest 2003; 26:58-60.
Martin-Du Pan RC. Oxytocin: the hormone of love, trust
and social bond. Clinical use in autism and social
phobia. Rev Med Suisse 2012; 21;8:627-30.
Master SL, Eisenberger NI, Taylor SE, Naliboff BD,
Shirinyan D, Lieberman MD. A Pictures Worth:
Partner Photographs Reduce Experimentally Induced
Pain. Psychological Science 2009; 20: 1316-1318
Ortigue S, Bianchi-Demicheli F, Patel N, Frum C, Lewis
JW. Neuroimaging of love: fMRI meta-analysis
evidence toward new perspectives in sexual medicine.
J Sex Med 2010; 7(11):3541-52.
Ross HE, Freeman SM, Spiegel LL, Ren X, Terwilliger
EF, Young LJ. Variation in oxytocin receptor density
in the nucleus accumbens has differential effects on
affiliative behaviors in monogamous and polygamous
voles.
J
Neurosci
2009;29(5):1312-8.
doi:
10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5039-08.2009.
Scheele D, Striepens N, Gntrkn O, Deutschlnder S,
Maier W, Kendrick KM, Hurlemann R. Oxytocin
Modulates Social Distance between Males and
Females. J Neurosci 2012;32(46):16074-9.
Weisman O, Zagoory-Sharon O, Feldman R. Oxytocin
administration
to
parent
enhances
infant
physiological and behavioral readiness for social
engagement. Biol Psychiatry 2012;72(12):982-9. doi:
10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.011.
Younger J, Aron A, Parke S, Chatterjee N, Mackey S.
Viewing Pictures of a Romantic Partner Reduces
Experimental Pain: Involvement of Neural Reward
Systems. PLoS ONE 2010; 5(10): e13309.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013309
Zeki S, Romaya JP. The brain reaction to viewing faces of
opposite- and same-sex romantic partners. PLoS
One. 2010;5(12):e15802.
Zeki S. Neurobiology of love. FEBS Letters 2007; 581:
2575-2579.

www.neuroquantology.com