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Determinants of Voting Behaviour in India: Theoretical
Perspective

+ahida A,hter and -ounis Ah. Shei,h
Research scholars) (i,ram .ni/ersity .00ain

Abstract
1he study o2 determinants o2 electoral beha/iour constitutes a /ery signi2icant area o2 em#irical in/estigation.
3an is a rational creature in the #hiloso#hical sense o2 term4 he is not so rational in the realms o2 his economic
or #olitical beha/iour. An em#irical study o2 the determinants o2 electoral beha/iour dis#lays the astounding 2act
that the beha/iour o2 man is in2luenced by se/eral irrational 2actors and #ressure grou#s in in/o,ing religious
and communal 2actors) in2luence o2 money or charismatic #ersonality o2 a leader and host o2 other irrational
2orces ha/e their de2inite in2luence on the minds o2 the /oters. 1he main #ur#ose o2 the #resent study is to 2ocus
attention on /oting beha/iour in India and to highlight the 2actors that determine the /oting beha/iour in India.
Key Words: 5eterminants) (oting 6eha/iour) 7lection) 8onstituency) Res#ondents etc.

Introduction
(oting9 is one o2 the most commonly used terms in contem#orary age o2 democratic #olitics. 1he e/er
increasing #o#ularity o2 democratic theory and #ractice has e/en made this term a household name. In
democratic system) and their number is :uite large and e/er increasing) each adult citi;en uses </oting9 as a
means o2 e=#ressing his a##ro/al or disa##ro/al o2 go/ernment decisions) #olicies and #rogrammes) the #olicies
and #rogrammes o2 /arious #olitical #arties and :ualities o2 candidate who are engaged in struggle to get the
status o2 being the re#resentati/es o2 #eo#le. In a limited way) /oting re2ers to the 2unction o2 electing
re#resentati/es by casting /otes in elections.


>owe/er) in broad terms) as Richard Rose and >ar/e 3assaa/ir #oint out) /oting co/ers as many as si=
im#ortant 2unctions?
!. It in/ol/es indi/iduals choice o2 go/ernors or ma0or go/ernmental #olicies4
2. It #ermits indi/iduals to #artici#ate in a reci#rocal and continuing e=change o2 in2luence with the
o22ice-holders and candidates4
. It contributes to the de/elo#ment or maintenance o2 an indi/iduals allegiance to the e=isting
constitutional regime4
4. It contributes to the de/elo#ment or maintenance o2 a /oters disa22ection 2rom the e=isting
constitutional regime4
5. It has emotional signi2icance 2or the indi/iduals4 and 2or some indi/iduals it may be 2unctionless)
i.e. de/oid o2 any signi2icant #ersonal emotional or #olitical conse:uences.
<(oting9 as such is a 2unction o2 immense signi2icance 2or the /oters) the candidates and students o2 #olitics. 1he
study o2 /oting beha/iour has come to be regarded as an im#ortant as#ect o2 contem#orary #olitical research and
theory.

Samuel S.7lders/eld in his <theory and 3ethod in /oting 6eha/iour research9 writes. @1he term </oting
6eha/iour9 is not new. 6ut it has been used o2 late to describe certain areas o2 study and ty#es o2 #olitical
#henomena which #re/iously had either not been concei/ed or were considered irrele/ant.A (oting beha/iour is
not con2ined to the e=amination o2 /oting statistics) records and com#utation o2 electoral shi2ts and swings. It
also in/ol/es an analysis o2 indi/idual #sychological #rocesses "#erce#tion) emotion and moti/ation$ and their
relation to #olitical action as well as o2 institutional #atterns) such as the communication #rocess and their im#act
on elections. In the words o2 Plana and Riggs) @/oting 6eha/iour) is a 2ield o2 study concerned with the ways in
which #eo#le tend to /ote in #ublic elections and reasons why they /ote as they as they do.A 1he /oting
6eha/iour has recently been e=#anded in the meaning and is ta,en as one ma0or and broad area o2 study.
1he study o2 electoral beha/iour constitutes a /ery signi2icant area o2 em#irical in/estigation. 3an is a
rational creature in the #hiloso#hical sense o2 the term4 he is not so rational in the realms o2 his economic or
#olitical beha/iour. An em#irical study o2 the electoral beha/iour dis#lays the astounding 2act that the beha/iour
o2 man is in2luenced by se/eral irrational 2actors and #ressure grou# in in/o,ing religious and communal 2actors)
in2luence o2 money or charismatic #ersonality o2 a leader and a host o2 other irrational 2orces can ha/e their
de2inite in2luence on the minds o2 the /oters. 1he role o2 these irrational 2orces can be disco/ered or discerned in
case a student o2 em#irical #olitics 2ocuses his attention on how the results o2 an election are obtained. 1his 2act
a##lies to e/ery democratic system and as such) India is no e=ce#tion. >owe/er) ,ee#ing the case o2 Indian
/oting beha/iour in /iew) Pro2. (.3. Sirsi,ar well obser/ers)AAn en:uiry into the #rocess o2 elections indicates
2actors other than rationality. It may be said that India has secured a stable go/ernment4 but the means o2 mass
mani#ulation) castes in2luences minority 2ears and charismatic hold o2 the Prime 3inister ha/e #layed no #art in
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this #rocessA.
Voting Behaviour in India
India is the largest wor,ing democracy) a #arliamentary democracy) in the world. At the time o2 3arch-
A#ril !&&B #olls) an electorate o2 as many as 5&!.5 million /oters went to the #olls to choose their
re#resentati/es 2rom amongst !4474 contestants. All men and women o2 !* years or abo/e o2 the age ha/e the
right to /ote in Indian elections. 5es#ite the 2act that nearly hal2 o2 them are illiterates) they ha/e in the #ast
acted wisely and in mature way to elect their re#resentati/es. 1hey ha/e already #artici#ated in 7le/en elections
to Co, Sabha) se/eral elections to state legislati/e assemblies and a large number o2 bi- elections.
Dith the 2irst general elections held in India in!&52 was some election studies conducted. In the beginning
these studies lac, methodological rigor and so#histication. 6ut as more and more studies o2 election #olitics and
/oting beha/iour were made the research tools used by #sychologists became increasingly shar#ened. At the
outset most o2 these studies were im#ressionistic and 0ournalistic in orientation. >owe/er) with the increased use
o2 sur/ey method and obser/ation techni:ue has the :uality o2 election studies in India im#ro/ed.
7lection studies in India were mainly ins#ired by western studies on /oting beha/iour) es#ecially the
8olumbia and 3ichigan studies in the .nited States. 1he scholars o2 8olumbia uni/ersity o2 New -or,
em#hasi;ed the in2luence o2 social and en/ironmental 2orces on the choices o2 /oters. Dhile the studies
underta,en by the 3ichigan Sur/ey Research 8entre stressed the #sychological /ariables or the sub0ecti/e world
o2 the indi/idual /oters.
In reaction to the e=cessi/e em#hasis on social and socio-#sychological /ariables by the abo/e two schools)
a grou# o2 scholars with a /iew to redressing the balance in /oting research) tended to draw attention to im#act
o2 #olitical /ariables on /oters choice. In re2erence to American /oters) ,ey sated that the electorate was not
@strait-0ac,etedA by social determinants or mo/ed by sub-conscious urges triggered by de/ilishly s,ill2ul
#ro#agandists. >e said that it was rather one o2 an @electorate mo/ed by concern about central and rele/ant
:uestions o2 #ublic #olicy) o2 go/ernmental #er2ormance) and e=ecuti/e #ersonalityA
7lections in India ha/e been mainly studied by #olitical scientists) but the contributions o2 social
Anthro#ologists in this res#ect can not be ignored. S#ecial mention must be o2 E.F. 6aily and A.8. 3ayer who
ha/e dealt with elections mainly at micro-le/el. Dith the hel# o2 both #artici#ants and non-#artici#ants
obser/ation techni:ue they ha/e del/ed into the election #olitics and /oting beha/iour o2 the #eo#le. 1hey ha/e
2urther em#hasi;ed the lin,age between local) state and national #olitics which is wo/en round #atronage and
bro,erage. 1hey ha/e highlighted the @3achineA character o2 election #olitics.

Determinants of voting Behaviour
1he beha/iour o2 a /oter is in2luence by se/eral 2actors such as religion) caste) community) language)
money) #olicy or ideology) #ur#ose o2 the #olls) e=tent o2 2ranchise and the li,e #olitical #arties and grou#s ma,e
use o2 these /ariables 2or the sa,e o2 winning the battle o2 the ballot bo=. 5es#ite ma,ing their #ro2essions 2or
enlightened secularism) #oliticians can be 2ound in/o,ing a##eals to the religious and communal sentiments o2
the #eo#le4 they can also be 2ound in/ol/ed in e=#loiting the 2actors o2 language or money to achie/e the
#ur#ose o2 emerging success2ul in the war o2 /otes. A##eals are issued and can/assing cam#aigns are conducted
in the name o2 a #articular #olicy or ideology 2or the same #ur#ose. 1he interest o2 the /oters and accordingly
their beha/iour at the time o2 /oting is also in2luenced by the nature or #ur#ose o2 the elections or the e=tent o2
the su22rage. 1hat is) national elections or the election o2 the chie2 e=ecuti/e engage wider attention than a local
election 2or the #ost o2 a sub-ordinate authority. 1he 2orce o2 charisma has its own #art to #lay where by /oters
are in2luenced en masse by the slogan o2 @Faribi >ataoA) or <A /ote 2or a #air o2 bulloc,s is a /ote 2or Pandit0i is
and a /ote 2or #andit0i /ote 2or stability and #rogress4 or < Indira means India) India means Indira9 and the li,e.
(oting 6eha/iour studies can be di/ided into two ma0or categories4 one school o2 thought has 2ollowed the
sociological a##roach. 1he study which is most re#resentati/e o2 this #oint o2 /iew is contained in the boo,
</oting9 by 6erelson) Ca;arars2eld and 3c#hee. It stresses the 2act that socio-economic and ethnic status is
related to the #rocess o2 the /oters choice.1he conclusion in the boo,s 4 Dithin the /arious social strata "ethnic)
religious and economic$ the #olitical #arties maintain 2airly constant rates o2 su##ort which di22er mar,edly
2rom one stratum to ne=t .In order to account 2or this) one has to assume that #olitical discussion goes. 'n mainly
within certain grou#s and is much less li,ely to cross social barriers o2 all ,inds.1he other school o2 thought is
re#resented by the authors o2 the American /oters.
In contrast with the sociological a##roaches o2 the 8olumbia school the Ann Arbor grou# #resented the
#sychological and #olitical a##roach. 1he #sychological a##roach does recogni;e the role o2 social
characteristics li,e socio-economic status) religion and 2amily in2luence. >owe/er) it argues @1he distribution o2
social characteristics in a #o#ulation /aries but slowly o/er a #eriod o2 time. -et crucial 2luctuations in the
national /ote occur 2rom election to election. Such 2luctuation can not be accounted 2or by inde#endent /ariables
which o/er brie2 s#ans o2 time) do not /ary. 1he attitudinal a##roach directed more attention to #olitical ob0ects
o2 orientation such as the candidate and the issues) which do shi2t in the short term.
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Parties) candidate and issues are the immediate determinants o2 /oting beha/iour. 1hey are the inter/ening
/ariables. 1he inter/ene between the distant but more #ermanent sociological and #olitical 2orces that o#erate
u#on the /oter and his actual /ote. 1he #sychological school has concentrated on three /ariables) #arty-
identi2ication) and candidate-orientation and issue orientation. 1hey recogni;e these as the most signi2icant
2actors. 6y #arty identi2ication is meant a /oters #sychological attachment to a #olitical #arty. 6y issue
orientation) is meant the attitude o2 a #erson towards current :uestions and as to what the go/ernment should do
or should not do. Issue orientation is the determinant in /oting beha/iour in the ..S.A because? Political #arties
do not ado#t clear cut and distinct #ositions on current issues.
(oters are most concerned about general issues than s#eci2ic issues. 8andidate- orientation means the
attitude o2 the /oter towards the #ersonal :ualities o2 the candidate. 1his can be bro,en u# 2urther into his
#er2ormance) ca#abilities and his #ersonal :ualities ,i,e his honesty) his religious de/otion etc. candidate G
orientation is signi2icant 2actor. 1he data #ertaining to the elections and the electoral #rocess can hel# us to
analy;e the /oting beha/iour o2 the #eo#le o2 India. In2act) the /oting beha/iour studies conducted in India ha/e
identi2ied the 2ollowing main #olitical and socio-economic 2actors which act as determinants o2 /oting beha/iour
in India.

aste
8aste continues to be a determinant o2 /oting beha/iour in India. It has dee# roots in the society and
constitutes an im#ortant basis o2 social relations at all le/els. 5es#ite the ado#tion o2 se/eral #ro/isions which
#rohibit action and discrimination on its basis) caste continues to be a determinant o2 #olitical beha/iour. (otes
are demanded in the name o2 caste. @Hat Ii (ote Hat Io.A 6rahmin /otes /s Hat /otes or Hat /otes /s Ahir /otes
etc.) are commonly used <#rinci#les9 in #lanning election strategy.

!eligion
1he establishment o2 a secular state in India by guaranteeing the right to 2reedom o2 religion to e/eryone)
treating e/ery religion as e:ual and non Recognition o2 any religion as a state religion-has not been success2ul in
#re/enting the role o2 the religion as a determinant o2 #olitical beha/iour in general and /oting beha/iour in
#articular. 1he e=istence o2 such #olitical #arties and non #olitical grou#s as stand lin,ed with a #articular
religion) 2or e=am#le )the 3uslim league) the A,ali 5al) the >indu 3aha Sabha) the Shi/ Sena etc.has been one
o2 the reasons behind the continued role o2 religion as a determinant o2 /oting beha/iour. Religious #luralism o2
the Indian society is a ma0or 2eature o2 the en/ironment o2 the Indian #olitical system and it greatly in2luences
the struggle 2or #ower among #olitical #arties. 1he selection o2 candidates is done with an eye u#on the #resence
o2 a religious ma0ority in a #articular constituency.

"anguage
India is a multi lingual state. 1here are !* o22icaial languages and se/eral hundred other languages and
dialects. Cinguism also ser/es as a 2actor in /oting beha/iour. 1he organi;ation o2 states on linguistic basis 2ully
re2lects the im#ortance o2 language as a 2actor o2 #olitics in India. 1here ha/e been #roblems in the states li,e
that o2 the status o2 one #articular language in that state or relating to the :uality o2 the status o2 a language o2 a
state 2or e=am#le) in >aryana there has been a demand 2or declaring Pun0abi as the second o22icial language.
1he Pun0abis want that the language status should be con2erred on Pun0abi in >aryana "this was reali;ed in !&&B$.
In Iarnata,a there is a demand that Iannada alone should be the medium o2 instructions in schools) but it is
being o##osed by other ethnic grou#s. Such #roblems are #resenting in almost all the states since #eo#le ha/e
emotional attachment with their languages) they easily get in2luenced whene/er there comes u# any issue
relating to language. Cinguistic interest always in2luence /oting beha/iour.

#oney $actor
1he role o2 money can not be ignored in the study o2 electoral beha/iour. 1hough India is a #oor country)
crores o2 ru#ees are s#ent in election. In the #resent #olitical and economic conte=t) the conduct o2 election and
the electioneering cam#aign led by candidates and #olitical #arties ha/e tended to be costly. Dhile the !&52
elections to #arliament and the state legislatures cost Rs. !%.5% crores) the !&*% elections to the Co, Sabha alone
cost about Rs. 52 crores) not withstanding all the economy measures ta,en to ,ee# the costs down. It must be
stressed here that this is a conser/ati/e estimate based #erha#s on the returns 2iled by the candidates to the
election commission. 1hese incurred. 8ertainly with the #resent system o2 conducting elections) the costs will
escalate at least in #ro#ortion to the rise in the cost o2 li/ing.
3oreo/er) ins#ite o2 s#eci2ying a celing on e=#enditure that a candidate can ma,e in his election) the
amendment in the re#resentation o2 the #eo#le act o2 !&74 has laid down that the amount s#ent by a #arty shall
not be ta,en as an e=#enditure made by the candidate. 1he role o2 money in the #olitics o2 our country should)
howe/er) be disco/ered in the #olitics o2 #olitical 2unding. It 2inds #lace in the world o2 big industrialists and
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ca#italists to /arious #olitical #arties) #articularly the congress #arty. 1he statutory ban on donations made by
business com#anies to #olitical #arties) im#osed by the legislation o2 !&B& has certainly 2ailed to) achie/e the
legislator li,e 6.I.P. Sinha who had rightly warned that the money coming 2rom the com#anies @is legitimate
and white4 i2 this is sto##ed) deals would be struc, under the table and blac, money would ha/e 2ull swayA.
>owe/er) money is not e/erything in an election) money and musclemen alone that one can win an
election. 3oney and musclemen ha/e to be used co/ertly. In some cases) e=cessi/e use o2 money or musclemen
also brings about a reaction against the candidate who uses them.

urrent events
1he current #roblems and di22iculties 2aced by the #eo#le as well as recent #olitical de/elo#ments or the
#oll e/e de/elo#ments also act as determinants o2 /oting beha/iour. 1he #olitical and economic e/ents o2 the
election year also act as determining 2actors. 1he #rice rise) shortages and other economic hardshi#s 2aced by the
#eo#le during !&BB-B7 hel#ed se/eral Political #arties in considerably reducing the #o#ularity o2 the congress
with the masses. In !&B7) the congress) though it retained its ma0ority at the centre) su22ered a loss o2 #o#ularity
which was re2lected in its #oor #er2ormance in the elections to the Cegislati/e Assemblies. >owe/er) the /ictory
in the !&7! Indo-#a, war turned the tide in 2a/our o2 the 8ongress in the elections that 2ollowed. In !&*4 o2 the
assassination o2 3rs.Fandhi created a huge sym#athy wa/e in 2a/our o2 the congress"I$ and its leaders 3r. Ra0i/
Fandhi in!&&!)the assassination o2 3r.ra0i/ Fandhi on 2!
ist
3ay) stemmed the swing away to a low swing in
2a/our o2 the 8ongress"I$. 1he /iolent #rotests against the decision to im#lement the 3andal 8ommission
Re#ort by the Hanta dal Fo/ernment in !&&% #layed a de2inite role in reducing its #o#ularity. In the election) the
current e/ent li,e the Iargil /ictory always in2luences the /oting beha/iour.

%lection ampaigns
7ach #arty launches a /igorous cam#aign 2or in2luencing the /oters in its 2a/our. .se o2 such means as
mass meetings) street meetings) #ersonal contacts) #osters) #oster war) s#eeches by 2ilm stars) 1.( and radio
broadcasts) News Pa#er ad/ertisements) hand bills) #rocessions and #ro#aganda is made to win /otes)
#articularly the 2loating /otes during the election cam#aigns. 1he election cam#aigns are designed to ma,e a
/oter belie/e that his interest can be best ser/ed by the #artyJthe candidate o2 the #arty contesting 2rom his
constituency. 1hus acts as an im#ortant determinant o2 /oting beha/iour.

"ocal Issues
Cocal issues always in2luence the choice o2 the /oters. A regional or a local #arty always tries to identi2y
itsel2 with local issues and there by secures 2or itsel2 #o#ular local su##ort. 1he success o2 the Hhar,hand 3u,i
3orcha in Hhar,hand region o2 6ihar is a classic e=am#le which highlights the role o2 local issues as
determinants o2 /oting beha/iour. 1he s#ectacular success o2 the 1elugu 5esam Party in Andhra Pradesh in the
!&&& Co, Sabha and Andhra (idhan Sabha elections was largely determined by its image as a local #arty
identi2ied with the local interests o2 the state and ha/ing a good su##ort with the centre. All regional #arties try
to win elections on local issues. In 2act) all agencies o2 #ublic o#inion always act as determinants o2 /oting
beha/iour.

#ass Illiteracy
3ass illiteracy has been another 2actor o2 /oting beha/iour in India. It is because o2 this wea,ness o2 the
#eo#le that #olitical #arties) communal grou#s and militant out2its are in a #osition to e=#loit the sentiments o2
the /otes o2 the illiterates constitute a big #ro#ortion o2 the /otes #olled and hence they #lay a big role in
determining the outcomes o2 elections. >owe/er) des#ite this 2eature) the common sense and maturity born out
o2 the e=#erience o2 the #ast has also been #laying a big role in in2luencing the /oter9s minds and actions. In
!&&7) they united to de2eat the 2orces o2 authoritarianism and in !&*%) they again united to de2eat the disunited
non- #er2ormers.

onclusion
7lections occu#y a #rominent #lace in the democratic go/ernment& It is a means through which #eo#le
e=#ress and en2orce their #olitical o#inion and regulate #olitical organi;ation o2 the society. >owe/er the
beha/iour o2 a /oter is in2luence by se/eral 2actors such as religion) caste) community) language) money) #olicy
or ideology) #ur#ose o2 the #olls) e=tent o2 2ranchise and the li,e #olitical #arties and grou#s ma,e use o2 these
/ariables 2or the sa,e o2 winning the battle o2 the ballot bo=. It is there2ore) im#erati/e that the use o2 these
determinants should be a/oided and elections should be conducted in a /ery 2ree and 2air manner. It also de#ends
u#on whether the system allows 2reedom o2 thought) e=#ression and association to the #eo#le. 3ere #resence o2
an electoral system does not ma,e a #olitical system democratic. 1he will o2 #eo#le is e=#ressed through /oting
in elections and there2ore) all undemocratic and un2air means li,e mani#ulating and rigging need to be a/oided
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in the elections. No such action is ta,en which would in any way undermine the #o#ular will e=#ressed through
elections.

!eferences
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5elhi) !&*&.
. Eadia)6.C) India Fo/ernment and Politics)Sahitya 6hawan Publications Agra.
4. Hohari)H.8) #rinci#les o2 3odern Political 1heory"7d.second$) sterling Publication New 5elhi.
5. H.8.Hohari) @Indian Fo/ernment and PoliticsA (ishal Publication) New 5elhi.
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*. Singhal) S.8) 8om#arati/e #olitics) Ca,shmi Narian Agarwal #ublishers Agra.
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