Elements of slow sand filter (1)supernatant water The depth of the supernatant water above the sand bed

varies from 1 to 1.5 metres. It provides a constant head of water so as to overcome the resistance of the filter bed and thereby promote the downward flow of the water into the sand bed. It provides waiting period of some hours for the raw water to undergo purification by sedimentation, oxidation and particle agglomeration. (2) A bed of graded sand The thickness of the sand bed is about 1 metre. The sand grains have an effective diameter between 0.2 and 0.3 mm. The sand bed is supported by a layer of graded gravel 30-40 cm deep which also prevents the fine grains being carried into the drainage pipes. Water percolates through the sand bed very slowly and as it does so, it is subjected to mechanical straining, sedimentation, adsorption, oxidation and bacterial action. The rate of filtration of water lies between 0.1 and 0.4 m3/hour/per square meter of sand bed surface.

VITAL LAYER The slimy growth covering the surface of the sand bed is known as Schmutzdecke, vital layer, zoogleal layer or biological layer. This layer consists of threadlike algae, plankton, diatoms and bacteria. It may take several days for the vital layer to form fully and when fully formed it extends for 2 to 3 cm into the top portion of the sand bed. The formation of vital layer is know as ripening of the filter. The vital layer is the heart of the slow sand filter. It removes organic matter, holds back bacteria and oxidizes ammoniacal nitrogen into nitrates and helps in purifying the water. Until the vital layer is fully formed, the first few days filtrate is usually run to waste. (3) An under drainage system

At the bottom of the filter bed is the under drainage system. It consists of perforated pipes which not only provides an outlet for filtered water but also supports the filter medium above. FILTER BOX The filter box is an open rectangular box, 2.5 to 4 metres deep and is built wholly or partly below ground. The walls may be made of stone, brick or cement. The filter box consists of, Supernatant water Sandbed Gravel support Filter bottom 1 to 1.5 metres 1.2 metres 0.3 metres 0.16 metres

(4) A system of filter control values Filter control values are present to maintain a constant rate of filtration. The venturi meter is used to measure the bed resistance or loss of head. When the resistance builds up, the operator opens the regulation value so as to maintain a steady rate of filtration.

FILTER CLEANING When the bed resistance increases to such an extent that the regulating value has to be kept fully open, it it time to clean the filter bed. The supernatant water is then drained off and the sand bed is cleaned by scraping off the top portion of the sand layer to a depth of 1 2 cm. After 20 or 30 scrapings, the thickness of the sand bed will have reduced and a new bed is constructed.

RAPID SAND OR MECHANICAL FILTERS The steps involved are, (1) Coagulation : the raw water is first treated with a chemical coagulant such as alum.

(2) Rapid mixing : the treated water is then subjected to violent agitation in a mixing chamber for a few minutes. This allows a quick and through dissemination of alum throughout the bulk of the water. (3) Flocculation : this phase involves a slow and gentle stirring of the treated water in a flocculation chamber for about 30 minutes. This result in the formation of a thick, copious, white flocculent precipitate of aluminium hydroxide. (4) Sedimentation : the coagulated water is then led into sedimentation tanks where it is kept for 2 6 hours, when the flocculent precipitate together with impurities and bacteria settle down in the tank. (5) Filtration : filtration. the partly purified water is then subjected to rapid sand

FILTER BEDS : Each unit of filter bed has a surface of 80 to 90 m2. Sand is the filtering medium. The effective size of the sand particles is between 0.4 0.7 mm. The depth of the sand bed is usually about 1 metre. Below the sand bed is a layer of graded gravel, 30 to 40 cm deep. The gravel supports the sand bed and permits the filtered water to move freely towards the under drains. The depth of the water on the top of the sand bed is 1.0 to 1.5m. The rate of filtration is 5 15 m3/m2/hour. Filtration removes the remaining alum floc not removed by sedimentation. As filtration proceeds, the suspended impurities and bacteria clog the filters resulting in their reduced efficiency called loss of head.

BACK WASHING Rapid sand filters need frequent washing daily or weekly, depending upon the loss of head. Washing is accomplished by reversing the flow of water through the sand bed, which is called back washing. It helps in dislodging the impurities and cleaning up the sand bed. The washing is stopped when the wash water is sufficiently clean. The whole process of washing takes about 15 minutes.

ADVANTAGES

Slow sand filter It is simple to construct and operate No preliminary

Rapid sand filter It can deal with raw water directly. storage is needed.

The cost of construction is cheaper The physical and chemical quality of slow sand Filtered water is very high

The filter beds occupy less space Filtration is rapid,40 50 times that of a filter

The total bacterial count is reduced by 99.9 to 99.99%

There is more flexibility in operation

c.)chlorination:Chlorination is a supplement and not a substitute to sand filtration. Its actions include, Chlorine kills pathogenic bacteria, but is has no effect on spores and certain viruses except in high doses. It oxidizes iron, manganese and hydrogen sulphide It destroys taste and odour producing constituents It controls algae and slime organisms It aids coagulation

Action of chlorine :

When chlorine is added to water, there is formation of hydrochloric acid and hypochlorous acid. The hydrochloric acid is neutralized by the alkalinity of the water. The hypochlorous acid ionizes to form hydrogen ions and hypochlorite ions. The disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to the hypochlorous acid. Chlorine acts best as a disinfectant when the pH of water is around 7 because of the predominance of hypochlorous acid.

Principles of chlorination : The water to be chlorinated should be clear and free from turbidity. The chlorine demand of the water should be estimated. The chlorine demand of the water is the difference between the amount of chlorine added to the water and the amount of residual chlorine remaining at the end of a specific period of contact at a given temperature and pH of the water. The point at which the chlorine demand of the water is met is called the break point. If further chlorine is added beyond the break point, free chlorine begins to appear in the water. The free residual chlorine should be present for a contact period of at least one hour to kill bacteria and viruses. The minimum recommended concentration of free chlorine id 0.5mg/litre for one hour. The free residual chlorine provides a margin of safety against subsequent microbial contamination which may occur during storage and distribution. The sum of the chlorine demand of the water plus the free residual chlorine of 0.5mg/1 constitutes the correct dose of chlorine to be applied.

METHOD USED Chlorine is applied either as Chlorine gas : It is the first choice because it is economical, quick in action, efficient and easy to apply. However, it is an irritant to the eyes and poisonous.

Chloramines ; They are loose compounds of chlorine and ammonia. They have a less tendency to produce chlorinous taste and gives a more persistent type of residual chlorine. Perchloron : It is also called high test hypochlorite and is a calcium compound. Break point chlorination : The addition of chlorine to water to a point at which free residual chlorine begins to appear is called breakpoint chlorination. Superchlorination Superchlorination comprises of the addition of large doses of chlorine to the water and removal of excess of chlorine by dechlorination. This method is used for heavily polluted river water.

Other agents used for water purification Ozonation : Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent which has a strong virucidal effect. It eliminates undesirable odour, taste and color. The drawback of ozone is that there is no residual germicidal effect. Ultraviolet irradiation : It is effective against most microorganisms including viruses. The apparatus needed is expensive. 2.)Purification of water on a small scale:1.household purification of water: three methods are available for purifying water A .boiling: boiling is a satisfactory method of purifying water the water must be brought to a rolling boil for 10-20 min B .chemical disinfection: it is done by using bleaching powder, chlorine solution ,hytest hypochloride ,chlorine tablets, iodine ,potassium permanganate. C . filtration: water can be purified on a small scale by filtering through ceramic filters such as Pasteur chamber land filters.

GUIDLINES FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY:The guidelines for drinking water quality recommended by WHO(1993&1996) relate to the following variables, 1.)Acceptability aspects Physical parameters: a.should be free from turbidity.water with turbidity of less than 5 nephelometric turbidity units (NUP)is acceptable. b.should be free from color.the guideline value is up to 15 true color units. c.should be free from taste and odor. no health based guidelines value is proposed for taste and color.