Drivers of shifting cultivation in Nagaland: crop cycles, crop selection, and management

Abstract

In Nagaland, northeastern India, shifting cultivation (SC) is a traditional agricultural practice influenced by a wide range of ecological, social, and economic factors. This study analyzes the variables influencing crop selection and land management in changing cultivation practices. Focused group discussions (FGDs) were conducted across 20 villages selected from four districts: Dimapur, Kohima, Mokokchung, and Zunheboto. The analysis revealed that socio-cultural dynamics, economic pressures, and ecological considerations are intricately intertwined and significantly shape this traditional practice. The study concludes that although SC is rooted in tradition, it dynamically evolves in response to modern challenges. This study provides a foundation for understanding the complex interplay of factors influencing traditional agricultural practices and sets the stage for future research to promote sustainable, adaptive, and community-led agricultural practices.

1 Introduction

In Nagaland, a northeastern state of India, SC is intricate and influenced by ecological, social, and economic variables. This traditional agricultural method involves rotating crops across various plots to revitalize soil fertility, transcending simple farming techniques. It is the embodiment of a community’s cultural ethos. Therefore, recognizing these interlinked factors is crucial for understanding the dynamics of SC (Kichu et al. 2015; Singh and Munth 2013).

In order to fully understand the current challenges and sustainability of SC, it is necessary to thoroughly examine this deeply ingrained practice’s historical evolution and cultural significance.

1.1 Historical and cultural context of SC

Historically, SC has been a sustainable agriculture model that balances agricultural needs with ecological stewardship. This practice highlights Indigenous communities’ extensive ecological knowledge and adeptness to coexist with nature. However, this equilibrium is threatened by contemporary challenges, such as socio-cultural changes, global economic influences, and climate change. Analyzing these challenges is vital for gaining insights into the present and future of SC (Segger and Phillips 2015).

By focusing on the socio-cultural dimensions of SC, the significant role of community traditions and practices in shaping it can be explored.

1.2 Socio-cultural, economic, and ecological dimensions

This study examines SC’s socio-cultural underpinnings, economic drivers, and ecological implications. It also examines the impact of external factors such as migration and government policies. This study aimed to analyze the intricate variables influencing land management and crop choice in SC. The results will improve knowledge of traditional agricultural practices and how to adapt them to meet modern challenges.

The following thorough overview delves into the multifaceted nature of SC, as revealed by an analysis of the ecological and economic factors.

1.3 Overview of factors influencing SC

SC, integral to many tropical communities, involves cyclical farming processes. This study analyzes the following variables influencing SC: socio-cultural traditions, ecological considerations, and economic necessity.

2 Methodology for data collection and analysis

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach to identify the key factors influencing SC’s shifting cycle, crop selection, and maintenance. Primary data were collected through FGDs in 20 villages selected across Dimapur, Kohima, Mokokchung, and Zunheboto districts.

• a) Sample selection and FGD conduct: This research employed a comprehensive multi-dimensional framework, underpinned by qualitative and quantitative methodologies, to ascertain the determinants influencing SC practices. A crucial analysis component involved the execution of FGDs across twenty distinct villages within Nagaland. The participants encompassed diverse stakeholders, including farmers, village elders (Gaon Budha), community leaders, and individuals engaged in SC cultivation.

• b) Data recording and transcription: All FGDs were documented with the participants’ consent, and verbatim transcriptions were made. The transcriptions were cross-checked with field notes to ensure accuracy.

• c) Coding and categorization: The transcribed data underwent thematic analysis using open coding as the initial step to identify recurrent themes and patterns. Subsequently, axial coding categorized these themes into broader ecological, economic, and social factors, resulting in 229 distinct factors.

• d) Quantitative analysis and table creation: Factors were quantified based on their frequency of mention across all FGDs. These quantitative data were then tabulated to show the distribution of factors across different operational aspects of SC, such as the shifting cycle, maintenance, and crops.

• e) Verification and validation: A team of agricultural study experts independently reviewed a subset of the coded data to ensure the accuracy of the coding scheme and interpretations and validate the findings.

• f) Ethical considerations: Throughout the study, ethical guidelines were rigorously followed. The participants were informed of the study’s purpose, their right to anonymity, and the voluntary nature of their participation.

• g) A multi-step process examined the factors determining shifting cycles and crop management (Fig. 1).

• h) Limitations of the study: The methodology of the study, which involved the primary use of FGDs, could have inadvertently led to the inadequate representation of specific demographic groups. In particular, younger individuals may not have been included enough because they typically occupy lower positions in the clans and sub-clans that make up Naga society’s hierarchical structure. Likewise, women, who typically possess restricted authority in village councils, might have also been inadequately represented. Informal interactions and objective observation were made to reduce these biases and influences. The fact that elderly women were able to voice their opinions is noteworthy. A more comprehensive individual household survey could have addressed these representational issues, providing a more balanced view of the community’s perspectives.

However, it is important to acknowledge the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which affected the study’s execution over two years. This unprecedented situation did limit the feasibility of conducting a more extensive household survey. Despite these limitations, the insights gained from this study provide a valuable starting point for further research.

Fig. 1

Process of identifying factors

3 Results

The pivotal factors that affect the shifting cycles, crop selection, and maintenance strategies inherent in SC systems were identified and examined. These factors were organized into three overarching dimensions—social, economic, and environmental—and further dissected into specific variables. By utilizing a mixed methods approach incorporating FGDs, participant observations, and Statistical analysis, this study investigates the intricate interrelations among these dimensions and their ramifications for sustainable agricultural practices within the region.

The outcomes of this investigation offer a conceptual framework for comprehending the coexistence and contention between traditional practices and contemporary interventions within the context of SC. Through a meticulous analysis of these dynamics, the research aims to inform policy development and strategic initiatives that can bolster the resilience and adaptability of SC systems while concurrently safeguarding the cultural heritage of the Naga communities.

The identified variables were systematically categorized into three principal dimensions: social, economic, and environmental. Each dimension encompasses variables about SC practices relevant to that particular category. Social factors encompass clan-specific land demarcations, kinship dynamics, and communal rituals, which significantly influence decisions regarding plot selection, shifting cycles, and maintenance protocols. Economic factors encompass resource allocation, labor input potential, and market-driven crop selections, illuminating financial security’s growing significance within traditional agricultural frameworks. Conversely, environmental factors underscore the importance of soil fertility, management of fallow periods, and water conservation practices, indicating that SC systems are fundamentally rooted in ecological contexts.

To further elucidate the influence of both traditional practices and modern influences, these dimensions were delineated into an unequivocal 22 factors, as presented in factors (Table 1). For instance, plot selection was influenced by social factors (such as clan delineation and labor availability) alongside environmental constraints (including land fertility and soil erosion). Similarly, demographic pressures, forest regeneration requirements, and livelihood constraints shaped the dynamics of shifting cycles. These interconnections underscore the intricate realities of SC and the necessity of addressing these elements within an integrated framework to ensure the system’s sustainability.

Table 1 Influencing factors on SC

3.1 Analysis of factors

3.1.1 Social factors

Social factors highlight the cultural and institutional frameworks guiding SC practices. For instance, clan demarcation is crucial in patch selection, with traditional institutions like the Village Council and Gaon Budhas overseeing land allocation. Similarly, migration patterns influence labor availability, mainly as younger generations migrate to urban areas, creating challenges for sustainable farming.

Anthropological factors

Investigating the anthropological aspects of SC in Nagaland involves examining the cultural norms, kinship ties, and community governance that influence agricultural practices. According to research conducted within different Naga tribes, SC plays a role beyond a simple agricultural practice, as cultural rituals are crucial for strengthening social bonds and community governance. The clan and kinship groups involved in farm decisions highlight an intricate system of rights and responsibilities fundamental to the community’s structure and function

Traditional ceremonies in which land use decisions and ceremonial practices are determined by a collective of elders and clan representatives showcase a rich socio-cultural tradition. These practices play a crucial role in ecological balance and preserving people’s spiritual and cultural heritage, often expressed through intricate rituals and festivals closely tied to the agricultural calendar.

The selection of land for SC and crop rotation is strongly influenced by traditional institutions, including the chairperson, Village Council, and Gaon Budhas (village elders, custodians of culture, customs, and tribal arbitrations). These entities are central to land use planning and the management of SC cycles. FGDs with key community figures and traditional leaders revealed that decision-making processes are profoundly rooted in cultural practices and rituals and significantly affect crop selection and land management strategies. These cultural norms, often anchored in ecological sustainability, dictate preferences for certain crops because of their cultural significance and role in local festivities.

For example, the Sumi Nagas of the Zunheboto and Mokokchung districts operate a communal land management system known as “Mithunmedem,” characterized by collective ownership and Village Council management. The council, comprising representatives from all clans and subclans, allocates land for housing, farming, and forest maintenance according to the unique needs of the villagers. Similarly, in Kohima, most Angami Nagas employ a communal system known as “Phesou,” akin to “Mithunmedem.” In contrast, Dimapur features a mixed method of land management, with some villages adopting similar communal systems, whereas others have clans and subclans managing designated tracts of land separately. Likewise, the Ao Nagas of the Mokokchung district use “Tseminyi,” which also mirrors the “Phesou” and “Mithunmedekm” systems. Thus, clan traditions significantly influence SC. Clans have distinct boundaries, and land allocation often follows traditional parameters (Tynsong et al. 2020). This practice maintains social order and ensures ecological balance through systematic land use.

The dynamic relationship between traditional knowledge and current agricultural practices is evident in the coexistence of SC with the emergence of commercial farming. The different festivals exemplify the enduring influence of traditional rituals and community governance on agricultural decision-making. These festivals enhance community cohesion and promote the integration of agricultural methods with ecological rhythms, thereby highlighting a sustainable agricultural approach firmly grounded in cultural traditions.

SC goes beyond mere farming and holds significant cultural and symbolic value. The process involves a range of customs and community events that strengthen social relationships and pass down conventional ecological wisdom from one generation to the next (Patel et al. 2020).

Associated festivals

Festivals in Nagaland are deeply intertwined with agricultural cycles, embodying a rich array of rituals that sustain community cohesion and spiritual well-being. These cultural events are critical for maintaining ecological balance and social harmony. These festivals, celebrated by various tribes, mark important agricultural cycles, emphasizing community cohesion, spiritual well-being, and integrating traditional knowledge into farming practices. They highlight how cultural norms and rituals are intertwined with agricultural sustainability in the region (Table 2).

Table 2 Festivals and practices in Nagaland: agricultural and cultural significance

Role of institutions, including Church

Traditional institutions and community dynamics are pivotal in governing SCs, particularly during the initial stages, such as patch selection. By engaging in cultural heritage and collective wisdom, these entities guide practices and ensure adherence to established norms and traditions. The religious practices of the Naga people are deeply rooted in their profound faith in different deities and spirits associated with the natural world. This spiritual governance is closely tied to agricultural practices, with rituals being conducted to appease land and water spirits, ensuring the fertility of crops. The introduction of Christianity to Nagaland significantly impacted the social and cultural landscape. Christianity’s impact on modernizing Naga society was crucial, as it introduced a new identity that embraced modern educational and health practices. The Church has played a pivotal role in shaping SC by advocating for individualism and modern educational paradigms.

Traditional rituals associated with SC, previously conducted by shamans, have been supplanted by Christian practices, which now encompass blessings for agricultural cycles. This transition signifies a broader cultural metamorphosis but frequently occurs at the expense of traditional ecological knowledge, and the communal decision-making processes integral to SC. Such a shift has led to significant changes in traditional rituals and community governance systems (Jamir 2014; Jessymol and Chupuo 2021; Furer-Haimendorf 1939).

Gender roles in SC

The SC system depends on gender dynamics. Men typically engage in plot selection and initiate cultivation rituals. After this initial phase, women oversee production and labor management. This equitable division of labor between genders reflects women’s integrated role in SC (Longkumer 2019).

Community dynamics and collective decision-making

The communal aspect of decision-making in SCs is crucial. Shaw and others emphasized the role of community leaders and traditional councils in land allocation and crop selection (Shaw et al. 2022). Therefore, balancing ecological sustainability with economic needs requires community decisions based on collective wisdom and experience.

3.1.2 Economic factors

Economic considerations reflect the evolving priorities of SC practitioners. Resource planning and land control by women are vital for ensuring the equitable distribution of land and labor resources. The transition to commercialization, evident in adopting cash crops like ginger and turmeric, highlights a shift from subsistence to market-oriented farming. However, this shift raises concerns about ecological balance and food security.

Economic determinants play a pivotal role in the evolution of sustainable agriculture, facilitating the transition from subsistence farming to the cultivation of cash crops to achieve financial stability. The introduction of specific crops during the 1970 s signified shifts in cultural and economic paradigms, reflecting an adaptive response to evolving circumstances. Farmers increasingly opt for cash crops to secure enhanced market returns, which raises critical concerns regarding sustainability and food security. Economic factors, such as labor availability and the generation of livelihoods, significantly influence the decision-making processes related to crop selection and land allocation. Staple crops, including rice and maize, provide essential sustenance, whereas cash crops, such as ginger and turmeric, contribute to income generation. This dual strategy not only addresses the immediate requirements of farmers but also empowers them to invest in advanced agricultural methodologies and technologies, ultimately cultivating long-term resilience within their agricultural systems.

The forces of modernization and globalization introduce novel agricultural technologies and facilitate market integration, thereby transforming traditional practices and presenting a mixture of opportunities and challenges (Thakur et al. 2022). Economic imperatives compel local communities to modify their cultivation strategies to balance food security and income generation. Despite reducing fallow periods and escalating deforestation, indigenous conservation methodologies remain essential for preserving ecological equilibrium. When integrated with sustainable land management strategies, these practices can effectively mitigate intensive agriculture’s adverse effects while promoting biodiversity and soil health. As farmers navigate these intricate dynamics, incorporating agroecological principles becomes critical, enabling them to enhance agricultural productivity while conserving natural resources and bolstering ecosystem services.

The escalation of population growth intensifies the demand for land resources, jeopardizing sustainable agriculture’s long-term sustainability and ecological integrity. In response to these pressing challenges, innovative agricultural methodologies and sustainable practices are being investigated to bolster productivity while safeguarding the environment, ensuring that agricultural systems remain adaptable to both present demands and future uncertainties. These strategies aspire to enhance crop yields and amalgamate traditional knowledge with contemporary technological advancements, fostering resilience within agricultural systems and promoting biodiversity conservation (National Academy of Agricultural Sciences 2016).

3.1.3 Ecological factor

Ecological variables, such as soil fertility and fallow period management, underscore the importance of maintaining environmental sustainability in SC. For example, reduced fallow periods, driven by population pressure, pose risks to forest regeneration and ecological health. Water conservation and border cropping are vital strategies for mitigating these risks.

One of the foremost ecological issues is the contraction of fallow intervals, which, in historical contexts, extended up to 30 years, thereby facilitating the regeneration of forests and the restoration of soil fertility. Influenced by demographic pressures and heightened demands for land, present-day agricultural methodologies have curtailed fallow periods to as little as four to five years. This alteration has significantly stressed natural ecosystems, resulting in complications such as soil erosion, diminishing land productivity, and disrupted forest regeneration cycles. Community participants engaged in FGDs articulated apprehensions regarding the long-term viability of this prevailing trend, underscoring the necessity for policy frameworks that advocate for prolonged fallow durations and sustainable land use practices.

Land selection in SC is informed by traditional ecological wisdom, which prioritizes the assessment of terrain appropriateness, soil composition, and precipitation dynamics. For example, agricultural practitioners conventionally refrain from cultivating immature forest areas, indicative of their cognizance regarding preserving nascent ecosystems. Techniques such as agroforestry and vegetation retention on elevated terrains alleviate soil erosion and promote water conservation. Moreover, strategies such as border cropping and the maintenance of firebreaks are integrated within SC to harmonize agricultural requirements with ecological conservation.

Water conservation represents another critical facet of ecological stewardship within SC. Implementing techniques such as contour planting and natural mulching diminishes water runoff and sustains soil moisture, thereby ensuring the viability of crop production. Additionally, the judicious rotation of crops—particularly legumes that augment soil nitrogen content—embodies an ecological methodology to preserve soil health.

Notwithstanding these endeavors, external pressures such as deforestation and infrastructure expansion have exacerbated environmental predicaments. For instance, the erection of transport routes and the proliferation of urban developments have intruded upon historically fallow lands, diminishing their availability for SC cycles. Furthermore, contemporary agricultural practices, including monoculture cultivation, threaten biodiversity and soil ecosystems’ resilience.

Confronting these ecological dilemmas necessitates a bifocal strategy amalgamating traditional knowledge with contemporary conservation methodologies. Community-driven initiatives, such as participatory forest management and ecological zoning, possess the potential to alleviate deforestation and advocate for sustainable agricultural practices. Policymakers are also urged to bolster SC practitioners by offering incentives for adopting environmentally friendly techniques and rehabilitating degraded landscapes.

Terrain characteristics, precipitation patterns, and soil composition are pivotal determinants in assessing land suitability for SC—the essential role of traditional ecological knowledge within the land selection paradigm. For instance, areas characterized by immature forests are typically eschewed, reflecting a profound comprehension of the imperative to safeguard nascent ecosystems. Approximately half of the land is consistently maintained as fallow, accentuating modifications within the SC cycle. This trend highlights the strategic framework of land management concerning SC.

The duration of fallow periods constitutes a significant ecological concern for SC. Traditionally, land has been allowed to remain fallow for approximately 30 years, affording ample opportunity for forest rejuvenation. Contemporary agricultural practices frequently abbreviate this duration, potentially obstructing forest recovery processes. FGDs with local stakeholders yielded valuable insights into their perceptions regarding the ecological ramifications of these evolving fallow periods.

Various strategies have been instituted to alleviate the ecological repercussions associated with SC. Cairns (2015) documented approaches such as preserving vegetation on hilltops, avoiding cultivation near aquatic systems, and using border cropping to mitigate soil erosion.

3.1.4 Other influences on SC

SC in Nagaland has experienced substantial transformations attributable to external variables such as migration patterns, governmental policies, and interventions by both religious and non-governmental organizations. While presenting avenues for modernization and economic advancement, these external influences have concurrently posed challenges to the traditional SC practices, disrupting communal customs and ecological equilibrium.

A particularly salient external factor is migration, especially the rural-to-urban migration trend, which has significantly modified the labor availability for SC practices. Events like the COVID-19 pandemic have accelerated this dynamic by instigating reverse migration. Those migrants who returned to their villages during the pandemic introduced novel perspectives and methodologies, reconfiguring landholding patterns and influencing the selection of cultivation patches. Nonetheless, this phenomenon has concurrently heightened the pressure on limited land resources, further diminishing fallow periods and exacerbating ecological strain.

Governmental policies have substantially influenced SC practices, manifesting beneficial and detrimental effects. Initiatives that advocate for terrace farming and cash crop cultivation, such as ginger and turmeric, have stimulated economic diversification; however, they frequently conflict with traditional practices. For instance, subsidies and financial incentives directed towards terrace cultivation have compelled specific communities to abandon SC while others grapple with integrating these innovative methods into their existing agricultural systems. Furthermore, land consolidation policies have favored individual land ownership, challenging the communal land governance frameworks essential to SC.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies have introduced various conservation initiatives and contemporary agricultural techniques to SC regions. Although these projects aspire to enhance sustainability, their execution frequently neglects the cultural and social dimensions inherent in SC practices. For instance, initiatives promoting monoculture cash crops for market integration have inadvertently diminished biodiversity and undermined the ecological foundations upon which SC relies.

Addressing these external influences necessitates a sophisticated approach honoring SC’s cultural and ecological origins while integrating modern advancements. Policies should prioritize participatory decision-making processes, ensuring that SC practitioners possess a voice in the formulation and execution of interventions. Moreover, amalgamating traditional knowledge with modern conservation strategies could mitigate the adverse effects of these external pressures while promoting sustainable development.

3.2 Correlations and emerging patterns

The study of SC in Nagaland indicates multivariate relationships among social, economic, and environmental variables, as well as how social, economic, and environmental conditions determine land selection, crops cultivated, and how SC fields are maintained. These correlations help to identify that SC practices, cultural traditions, market dynamics, and ecological sustainability are interdependent.

3.2.1 Land selection and socio-cultural variables

Social factors, including clan demarcation, kinship networks, and community institutions, substantially impact land selection processes. The traditional decision-making mechanisms on land distribution, including village councils and Gaon Budhas, make rules for land distribution per cultural norms and ecological concerns. This way, clans align with their ancestors while allocating agricultural resources equitably within their shared ecology. For instance, rituals and festivals like the Angami tribe’s “Sekrenyi” timing of land allocation, which needs to correlate with farming, attaches profound spiritual and cultural importance to land use.

3.2.2 Economic factors and crop choices

Crop selection is significantly guided by economic pressures, especially those arising from population pressures and market demand. Communities now focus solely on cash crops such as ginger, turmeric, and oranges to earn money. However, this change is often at odds with the traditional focus on staple crops like rice and millet, which are vital for food security. Government policies, such as subsidies for certain crops, facilitate such transition and contribute to finding the right balance between economic success and ecological and social stability. Thus, the question of whether native or exotic crops are beneficial from an agricultural standpoint must consider tradition.

3.2.3 Ecological concerns and fallow periods

Population dynamics and land use intensity are closely associated with environmental factors, especially fallow period management and forest regeneration. In response to increased land demand, historical fallow periods (which lasted as long as 30 years) are shortened to as few as four to five years. This decrease has interrupted the natural regeneration cycles of forests again, resulting in soil degradation and biodiversity loss. Communities address these challenges through practices such as agroforestry, border cropping, and water conservation. However, these efforts rarely provide enough to overcome the cumulative impact of short cycles.

3.2.4 Shifting cultural practices

Trends emerging in SC also reflect the changing cultural landscape. These modern education and faith systems (especially Christianity) have brought about some concern over aggregation on the communal side, as described above, due to their tendency to individualize practices. For example, there is frequent privatization of land (i.e., individual plots of land are no longer decided by clan leaders as in the past). This change is reflected by the gradual supplantation of traditional rituals, like those associated with shamans, with Church-led blessings, changing the socioecology of SC. They also reflect the larger forces at play in society and their impact on the spiritual and cultural makeup of the communities, with important consequences for resource management and conservation, where traditional practices have an important component in maintaining ecological integrity.

3.3 Underlying deciding factors

The interaction of these dimensions forms a complex cycle. Economic imperatives further magnify ecological problems by encouraging industrial monoculture farming that decreases biodiversity. On the other hand, traditional social systems buffer against these pressures by employing collective decision-making processes and resource-sharing mechanisms. Understanding these trends is important when considering SC to create integrative SC solutions that alleviate interdependencies. The shift towards more market-oriented agriculture raises important questions of food sovereignty and cultural identity for Naga farmers. With the rising economic needs, communities have turned to cash crops, feeling the strain of traditional subsistence farming and the pressures from modern agriculture. This uneasy balance threatens local food systems and contributes to dependence on external markets. This shift poses a significant threat to biodiversity and serves the risk of eroding the intricate fabric of indigenous knowledge that has nourished these communities for generations. Integrating pathways of sustainable practices, particularly agroecology, may offer an effective approach to building resilience while maintaining ecological integrity and aligning with economic goals, environmental stewardship, and cultural preservation (Kuotsuo 2014). Re-establishing a strong relationship between Naga farmers and their land and resources can facilitate reclaiming their agricultural identity and heritage to adapt to modern-day realities of food and agriculture, restoring and strengthening their food sovereignty and identity in the Naga economy. Supporting these efforts through reinforced local networks and community-based initiatives can supplement the autonomy and resilience of farmers, who, through a collaborative approach, share knowledge, resources, and best practices that foster their autonomous systems, less dependent on external markets. Not only does this improve agricultural productivity, but farmers also start doing things in a certain way that helps them navigate the complexities of modern agriculture together while aligning that with their traditions and values.

A complex interplay of social, economic, and environmental factors influences the adoption of SC in Nagaland. This study employed an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) on data collected through FGDs and thematic coding to uncover the underlying constructs driving these dynamics. The EFA aimed to identify latent variables explaining SC practices’ adoption and persistence across the studied communities. EFA reduces data and contributes to construct validity by identifying underlying structures. This paper emphasizes the importance of understanding these commonalities among concepts to avoid mismeasurement and confusion in research findings. Moreover, EFA flexibility can handle different data types—including continuous and categorical indicators—making it more usable over multiple domains, such as social and environmental sciences (Blunch 2008) (Table 3).

Table 3 Primary factors influencing SC

The Statistical analysis revealed a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) value of 0.53, indicating moderate adequacy for factor analysis. A significant Bartlett’s test supported the dataset’s suitability. Three primary factors were retained based on the scree plot and eigenvalues, collectively explaining 72.7% of the variance in SC practices. These factors align with the overarching social, economic, and environmental dimensions influencing SC.

3.3.1 Social factors

Social constructs emerged as the most prominent underlying factor, with high loadings for variables such as decision-making processes (0.65), traditional institutions (0.70), and community governance (0.55). These results underscore the centrality of clan-based systems, communal rituals, and cultural traditions in shaping SC practices. For example, village councils play a pivotal role in land allocation and the timing of agricultural activities, reinforcing SC’s integration with local cultural calendars.

3.3.2 Economic factors

Economic drivers were the second most significant factor, characterized by variables such as resource planning (0.75), land control by women (0.80), and income generation (0.60). These findings highlight the growing influence of market demands on SC practices as farmers increasingly prioritize cash crops to supplement household income. Resource allocation decisions, particularly regarding labor and land, reflect rural communities’ economic pressures.

3.3.3 Ecological factors

Ecological considerations constituted the third factor, with high loadings for land fertility (0.70), soil erosion (0.65), and forest regeneration (0.75). These variables reflect the community’s reliance on ecological knowledge to sustain SC. Traditional practices such as extended fallow periods and the strategic selection of crops based on soil nutrients are critical for maintaining ecological balance. However, reduced fallow periods driven by demographic pressures have disrupted these cycles, necessitating adaptive strategies to preserve environmental integrity.

3.4 Influence of factors on crop selection in SC

This analysis provides a nuanced understanding of the key dimensions influencing SC adoption. The strong correlations among social, economic, and ecological variables highlight the need for an integrated approach to policy and practice. By addressing these underlying factors holistically, future interventions can support SC’s sustainability while preserving its cultural and ecological foundations.

A dynamic interplay of social, economic, and environmental factors shapes the selection of crops in SC systems. This study employed a series of inferential Statistical tests, including Chi-Square, Analysis of variance (ANOVA), and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), to explore the relationships among these factors using the primary data from FGDs and field observations (Tables 4 and 5).

Table 4 Chi-square test: association among factors

Table 5 Influence of sub-factors on crops, patch selection, maintenance, and shifting cycles

The Chi-Square test results revealed statistically significant associations between crop selection and the three primary dimensions—social, economic, and environmental factors. For instance:

• i. Crops vs. Social Factors (χ² = 12.45, df = 3, p = 0.006): Social factors such as traditional institutions, festivals, and communal rituals strongly influence preferences for specific crops. For example, staple crops like rice and millet are prioritized for their cultural and ritual significance during festivals like “Moatsu” and “Tuluni.”

• ii. Crops vs. Economic Factors (χ² = 8.32, df = 2, p = 0.015): Economic pressures, including market demands and income generation, drive the shift toward cash crops like ginger, turmeric, and oranges, which offer higher returns compared to traditional subsistence crops.

• iii. Crops vs. Environmental Factors (χ² = 10.78, df = 3, p = 0.013): Environmental conditions, such as soil fertility and water availability, are critical in determining crop suitability. For instance, legumes are often cultivated to enhance soil nitrogen levels, while drought-resistant crops are selected in areas with limited rainfall. The ANOVA analysis further identified sub-factor variations that significantly influence SC practices. For example, population pressure and land redistribution emerged as critical social factors shaping crop choices, while food security and income generation were key economic drivers. Environmental considerations such as soil fertility and fallow period management significantly impacted crop decisions. The ANOVA analysis further identified sub-factor variations that significantly influence SC practices. For example, population pressure and land redistribution emerged as critical social factors shaping crop choices, while food security and income generation were key economic drivers. Environmental considerations such as soil fertility and fallow period management significantly impacted crop decisions. The MANOVA results (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.658, p = 0.004) demonstrated a combined influence of these factors across SC operations, including patch selection, crop diversity, and maintenance practices. The findings highlight that crop selection is not driven by isolated factors but by an interconnected framework of social norms, economic viability, and ecological considerations. These findings underscore the complexity of crop selection in SC, where traditional cultural practices must coexist with modern economic and environmental challenges. Policymakers and agricultural practitioners must recognize this interplay to develop strategies supporting cultural preservation and sustainable farming. For instance, integrating traditional knowledge with market-driven approaches can help balance ecological sustainability with economic growth, ensuring the long-term viability of SC systems.

4 Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the intricate dynamics influencing SC practices in Nagaland. The findings reveal that SC is not merely an agricultural system but a deeply embedded socio-cultural practice shaped by social, economic, and environmental factors. Traditional knowledge systems and cultural practices, including communal land management and rituals, remain central to SC, reinforcing its role in sustaining community cohesion and ecological balance. However, the increasing pressures of modernization, population growth, and market demands have introduced significant challenges to these traditional systems.

The analysis underscores the critical role of social factors, such as traditional institutions and cultural norms, in guiding land selection and crop choices. Similarly, economic pressures, including the transition to cash crops and market integration, reshape SC by prioritizing income generation over subsistence farming. Environmental concerns—such as shortened fallow periods and soil degradation—highlight the need for sustainable land management practices that preserve SC’s ecological foundation. Statistical analyses, including Chi-Square, ANOVA, and MANOVA, further illustrate the interconnected nature of these factors. For instance, cultural festivals influence staple crop cultivation, while market-driven crop choices create tensions between traditional practices and modern economic needs. The reduction of fallow periods, driven by population pressure and land scarcity, directly threatens forest regeneration and soil health, necessitating immediate policy and community-led interventions.

Integrating traditional ecological knowledge with modern agricultural technologies is essential to ensuring the sustainability of SC moving forward. Policymakers should adopt a holistic approach, prioritizing community-centric strategies and balancing cultural preservation with economic and ecological needs. Such efforts include incentivizing sustainable farming practices, enhancing market access, and supporting participatory land use planning.

By acknowledging the complex interplay of these factors, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on SC and its relevance in the face of evolving challenges. Future research should adopt multidisciplinary approaches to explore innovative solutions that respect cultural traditions while promoting resilience and adaptability in SC systems.

5 Future remarks

The following vital areas emerge for future research and policy development:

• a. Adaptive agricultural practices: There is a need for innovative agricultural strategies that adapt to changing environmental and economic conditions while preserving traditional knowledge.

• b. Community-centric policies: Policies should focus on enhancing community engagement and decision-making, recognizing the critical role of socio-cultural factors in SC.

• c. Sustainability and Conservation: Future research should explore sustainable land management practices that can mitigate the impacts of reduced fallow cycles and increased ecological stress.

• d. Gender dynamics: Further research on gender roles in SC could provide deeper insights into labor division and community leadership, contributing to more equitable and effective agricultural practices.

• e. Market and economic strategies: Exploring ways to improve market linkages and economic opportunities for SC cultivators could help balance traditional practices with modern economic realities.

In summary, this study on SC provides a foundation for understanding the complex interplay of factors influencing this traditional practice and sets the stage for future research to foster sustainable, adaptive, and community-led agricultural practices.